AP PsychologyAP Psychology

Intro To PsychologyIntro To Psychology

What is psychology all about?What is psychology all about?

MemoryMemory StressStress TherapyTherapy LoveLove PersuasionPersuasion HypnosisHypnosis PerceptionPerception DeathDeath ConformityConformity CreativityCreativity

LearningLearning PersonalityPersonality AgingAging IntelligenceIntelligence SexualitySexuality Emotion happinessEmotion happiness ……mental illnessmental illness SensationSensation Biological elementsBiological elements Treatment of disordersTreatment of disorders

Link to good info

PsychologyPsychology

Psych is a science and a profession-Psych is a science and a profession- Uses Scientific collection/observation of dataUses Scientific collection/observation of data In order to answer questions about behavior.In order to answer questions about behavior.

““Scientific Study of behavior and mental Scientific Study of behavior and mental processes.”processes.”

To answer questions about the mind and To answer questions about the mind and behavior.behavior.

Psychologists try to solve problems.Psychologists try to solve problems.

Psychologists Psychologists

Describe (observe)Describe (observe)

Understand Understand BehaviorBehavior• (Causes)(Causes)

PredictPredict• (Forecast)(Forecast)

Control Control

BehaviorBehavior

Is anything you do, eating, sleeping, Is anything you do, eating, sleeping, talking (Psychology endeavors to explain talking (Psychology endeavors to explain behavior, causes, motivations)behavior, causes, motivations)

Overt behavior-Overt behavior- Observable actions & responsesObservable actions & responses

Covert behavior-Covert behavior- Private internal activities (thinking Private internal activities (thinking

remembering)remembering)

Chapter 1 Chapter 1 History and ApproachesHistory and Approaches

Module 1 “Psychology’s History” Module 1 “Psychology’s History” Module 2 “Psychology’s Big Issues and Module 2 “Psychology’s Big Issues and

Approaches” Pages 9-19Approaches” Pages 9-19 Module 3 “Careers in Psychology” Pages 20-28Module 3 “Careers in Psychology” Pages 20-28 Module 5 The Scientific Method and Description Module 5 The Scientific Method and Description

Pages. 38-45Pages. 38-45 Module 6 Correlation and Experimentation Pages Module 6 Correlation and Experimentation Pages

46-5546-55 Module 7 Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life Module 7 Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life

Pages 56-63Pages 56-63 Module 8 Frequently Asked Questions About Module 8 Frequently Asked Questions About

Psychology Pages 64-69Psychology Pages 64-69

Approaches to Psychology Approaches to Psychology (AP Outline)(AP Outline)

BiologicalBiological BehavioralBehavioral CognitiveCognitive HumanisticHumanistic PsychodynamicPsychodynamic Socio-culturalSocio-cultural EvolutionaryEvolutionary

History of Psych: Family Album History of Psych: Family Album 1879- 1879- Wilhelm Wundt-Wilhelm Wundt-

““Father of Psychology”Father of Psychology” Identified Identified IntrospectionIntrospection

(looking inward) as a way to (looking inward) as a way to understand sensation, understand sensation, feelings, images, personal feelings, images, personal experiencesexperiences

Used Used experimentalexperimental self-self-observationobservation-- made made psychology a sciencepsychology a science

Web site

History of Psych: Family AlbumHistory of Psych: Family Album 1880’s 1880’s EdwardEdward TitchenerTitchener Followed up Wundt’s ideas and found Followed up Wundt’s ideas and found

Structuralism- “of the mind” “of the mind” A structure of mental life, “building blocks”A structure of mental life, “building blocks” Identified parts of the mind.Identified parts of the mind. Will later be discreditedWill later be discredited Used introspectionUsed introspection Asked participants to relate experiences with Asked participants to relate experiences with

sensationssensations Used Used science-science- stimulated the subjects- and stimulated the subjects- and

asked questionsasked questions

History of Psych: Family AlbumHistory of Psych: Family Album

1890- 1890- William James- founded founded Functionalism- “of the mind”Functionalism- “of the mind”

Questioned, how the mind helped us Questioned, how the mind helped us survive, adapt- habits, perceptions, survive, adapt- habits, perceptions, emotions, related to survival?emotions, related to survival?

Adapt, consciousness Adapt, consciousness

Gestalt PsychologyGestalt Psychology= = Max WertheimerMax Wertheimer

Said it was a “mistake to analyze psychological Said it was a “mistake to analyze psychological events into pieces.”events into pieces.”

““the whole pattern or form” – Germanthe whole pattern or form” – German Approach to psychology where the whole of Approach to psychology where the whole of

psychology is used to understand behavior.psychology is used to understand behavior.

Uses thinking, learning, problem solving, social Uses thinking, learning, problem solving, social behavior, and perception to understand behaviorbehavior, and perception to understand behavior

““The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.”The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.”

Psycho-Dynamic PsychologyPsycho-Dynamic Psychology

Psycho-AnalysisPsycho-Analysis FreudFreud Ice Berg Metaphor Ice Berg Metaphor ConsciousConscious UnconsciousUnconscious RepressionRepression Psycho TherapyPsycho Therapy Personality- Ego, Id, Personality- Ego, Id,

Super-EgoSuper-Ego

Freudian SlipFreudian Slip Psycho-Sexual Psycho-Sexual

Stages of Stages of DevelopmentDevelopment

Anal, Phallic, Latent, Anal, Phallic, Latent, Genital, Genital,

Oedipal ComplexOedipal Complex

Neo-FreudiansNeo-Freudians

Psychoanalytical- exploring the Psychoanalytical- exploring the unconscious causes of behaviorunconscious causes of behavior

Adler Adler web site HorneyHorney JungJung RankRank EriksonErikson

Humanistic PsychologyHumanistic Psychology

Tries to understand subjective human Tries to understand subjective human experienceexperience Problems, ideals and potentialsProblems, ideals and potentials

Carl Roger and Abraham MaslowCarl Roger and Abraham Maslow Stress free will= choiceStress free will= choice

Not deterministicNot deterministic Environment does impact behavior but people can Environment does impact behavior but people can

improveimprove Attainment of needs are the basis of healthy Attainment of needs are the basis of healthy

psychpsych

HumanisticHumanistic

Each of Each of us is us is motivated motivated by needs. by needs.

Needs for- Needs for- love, self love, self esteem, esteem, belonging, belonging,

BehaviorismBehaviorism

The study of observable behaviorThe study of observable behavior 1920’s- 1920’s- John B. Watson-John B. Watson- Rejected Rejected

introspectionintrospection Believed in observing behaviorBelieved in observing behavior StimuliStimuli: i.e., environmental aspects: i.e., environmental aspects ResponsesResponses: muscles, glands : muscles, glands

Believed in Believed in Pavlov’sPavlov’s experiments with experiments with dogs- concept of dogs- concept of Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning to to explain behavior (1849explain behavior (1849

Who Said This?Who Said This?

Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. I am going abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. I am going beyond my facts and I admit it, but so have the beyond my facts and I admit it, but so have the advocates of the contrary and they have been doing it for advocates of the contrary and they have been doing it for many thousands of years. many thousands of years.

Little Albert

BehaviorismBehaviorism

B. F. Skinner- 1950’s B. F. Skinner- 1950’s Ignored the role of thinking and mental Ignored the role of thinking and mental

processesprocesses Found environmental factorsFound environmental factors Reward = positive reinforcersReward = positive reinforcers Related to learningRelated to learning Found laws of behavior apply to animals Found laws of behavior apply to animals

and humansand humans

““Skinner Box” Skinner Box”

Used experiments to Used experiments to study behavior of ratsstudy behavior of rats

Operant Conditioning-Operant Conditioning- “A behavioral response “A behavioral response has an environmental has an environmental outcome”outcome”

Push a button -----Push a button -----get some food.get some food.

Behavior ModificationBehavior Modification

Uses conditioning principlesUses conditioning principles Concept says, problems are the product of Concept says, problems are the product of

learned habitslearned habits Learned habits can be un-learned byLearned habits can be un-learned by

behavioral methods.behavioral methods. Stimulus and responseStimulus and response

Cognitive PsychologyCognitive Psychology

Mental ProcessesMental Processes Problem SolvingProblem Solving Thinking processesThinking processes ConsciousnessConsciousness PerceptionPerception MemoryMemory LanguageLanguage AttentionAttention

JudgementJudgement Decision MakingDecision Making IntelligenceIntelligence

Cognitive BehaviorismCognitive Behaviorism

Includes thinkingIncludes thinking

Example:Example:

+ conditioning+ conditioning

ExpectationsExpectations pleasurepleasure

Nature/Nurture Nature/Nurture

““Nurture works on what nature endows”Nurture works on what nature endows” Big question Big question What is the seat of behavior, Genetics or What is the seat of behavior, Genetics or

Environment?Environment?

Evolutionary

Darwinian theory “Changes in life forms that occur over many generations” Natural selection (in psych)

Genes “Genes that result in characteristic and behaviors that are

adaptive and useful in a certain environment will enable the creatures that inherited than to survive and reproduce…”

• The behavior of animals and humans today is the resulted evolution through natural selection

Examples: Cooperation is an adaptive survival strategy Aggression as a form of territory protection Gender differences in male selection – preferences reflect

strategies that have been successful in previous generations

Eclectic PsychologyEclectic Psychology

PsychodynamicPsychodynamic BehavioristicBehavioristic HumanisticHumanistic CognitiveCognitive Bio-psychologicalBio-psychological

BiopsychosocialBiopsychosocial

The combination of The combination of

Developmental PsychologyDevelopmental Psychology

Age Related behavior Age Related behavior changeschanges

Researches:Researches: Bio/psycho/socialBio/psycho/social Cognitive changes Cognitive changes

over human lifespanover human lifespan

Eric Erikson Eric Erikson WEB

Neo-FreudianNeo-Freudian Theory of Psycho-Social Theory of Psycho-Social

Stages of DevelopmentStages of Development Erikson's stages of 

development, is a psychoanalytic theory which identifies eight stages through which a healthily developing human should pass from infancy to late adulthood.”

Cultural Issues in PsychologyCultural Issues in Psychology

Psychology is dependent on culturePsychology is dependent on culture Cultural Relativity:Cultural Relativity: Behavior that is Behavior that is

acceptable in one culture may be acceptable in one culture may be abnormal in another. abnormal in another.

Social Norms- impact the view of Social Norms- impact the view of behavior.behavior. Rules that define acceptable behaviorRules that define acceptable behavior

Psychologists/ResearchersPsychologists/Researchers

Use Use Scientific Method- Scientific Method- Process for evaluating ideas using observation and analysis. ObservationObservation HypothesesHypotheses Gather evidenceGather evidence Test hypothesesTest hypotheses Publish ResultsPublish Results

Look for cause and effect relationships in Look for cause and effect relationships in for behaviorfor behavior

Scientific MethodScientific Method

Making observationsMaking observations Defining a problemDefining a problem Proposing a Proposing a hypothesishypothesis

Is a testable prediction, based on a theory Is a testable prediction, based on a theory It is very specific about results that support and It is very specific about results that support and

oppose a theory.oppose a theory. Gathering evidence/testing the hypothesisGathering evidence/testing the hypothesis

Naturalistic Observation, Survey, ExperimentsNaturalistic Observation, Survey, Experiments Publishing resultsPublishing results

Research Methods in Psychology Research Methods in Psychology (AP Outline)(AP Outline) Descriptive, Descriptive,

Correlational and Correlational and Experimental MethodsExperimental Methods

Operational DefinitionOperational Definition Population/SamplePopulation/Sample Random SampleRandom Sample Representative Representative

SampleSample ReplicationReplication Reliability Reliability Case StudyCase Study

Descriptive MethodsDescriptive Methods Correlational MethodsCorrelational Methods Illusory CorrelationIllusory Correlation Correlation CoefficientCorrelation Coefficient Experiential MethodsExperiential Methods Naturalistic ObservationNaturalistic Observation Observer EffectObserver Effect SurveysSurveys Statistics Statistics Ethics in ResearchEthics in Research

Descriptive MethodsDescriptive Methods

Describes behaviorDescribes behavior

Case studiesCase studies

SurveysSurveys

Naturalistic observationNaturalistic observation

Correlational MethodsCorrelational Methods

Associate different factors or variablesAssociate different factors or variables

Anything that contributes to a resultAnything that contributes to a result

Experimental MethodsExperimental Methods• Manipulates variables to discover their Manipulates variables to discover their

effectseffects

Case StudiesCase Studies

Single Subject – personSingle Subject – person In-depth study of all aspects of a In-depth study of all aspects of a

single subject (not an single subject (not an experiment)experiment)

Example of Phineas Gage- Example of Phineas Gage- http://www.damninteresting.com/?p=231

When Dr. John Martyn Harlow arrived, Phineas was conscious and had a regular heartbeat, and both of his pupils When Dr. John Martyn Harlow arrived, Phineas was conscious and had a regular heartbeat, and both of his pupils reacted to light normally. He was reported to be "in full possession of his reason, and free from pain." He was reacted to light normally. He was reported to be "in full possession of his reason, and free from pain." He was under the care of Dr. Harlow for ten weeks, at which point he was sent home to Lebanon, New Hampshire. But under the care of Dr. Harlow for ten weeks, at which point he was sent home to Lebanon, New Hampshire. But while he was recovering, the doctor noted some changes in the man's demeanor and personality. People who while he was recovering, the doctor noted some changes in the man's demeanor and personality. People who had known him before the accident described him as hard-working, responsible, and popular with his workers, but had known him before the accident described him as hard-working, responsible, and popular with his workers, but after the traumatic injury, Phineas Gage was not the same man.after the traumatic injury, Phineas Gage was not the same man.

In regards to his patient, Dr. Harlow wrote:In regards to his patient, Dr. Harlow wrote:

Gage was fitful, irreverent, indulging at times in the Gage was fitful, irreverent, indulging at times in the grossest profanity (which was not previously his custom), grossest profanity (which was not previously his custom), manifesting but little deference for his fellows, impatient manifesting but little deference for his fellows, impatient of restraint or advice when it conflicts with his desires, at of restraint or advice when it conflicts with his desires, at times pertinaciously obstinate, yet capricious and times pertinaciously obstinate, yet capricious and vacillating, devising many plans of future operations, vacillating, devising many plans of future operations, which are no sooner arranged than they are abandoned which are no sooner arranged than they are abandoned in turn for others appearing more feasible. A child in his in turn for others appearing more feasible. A child in his intellectual capacity and manifestations, he has the intellectual capacity and manifestations, he has the animal passions of a strong man. Previous to his injury, animal passions of a strong man. Previous to his injury, although untrained in the schools, he possessed a well-although untrained in the schools, he possessed a well-balanced mind, and was looked upon by those who balanced mind, and was looked upon by those who knew him as a shrewd, smart businessman, very knew him as a shrewd, smart businessman, very energetic and persistent in executing all his plans of energetic and persistent in executing all his plans of operation. In this regard his mind was radically changedoperation. In this regard his mind was radically changed, , so decidedly that his friends and acquaintances said he was 'no longer so decidedly that his friends and acquaintances said he was 'no longer Gage'.Gage'.

Naturalistic ObservationNaturalistic Observation

Descriptive MethodDescriptive Method

Records behavior in Records behavior in natural environmentnatural environment

Only describes Only describes behavior behavior not not causationcausation

Example- chimpanzees Example- chimpanzees in the Junglein the Jungle

Observer EffectObserver Effect

Observer Effect: Problem when subjects Problem when subjects are aware of the observation, behavior are aware of the observation, behavior may be influenced.may be influenced.

Example: People being observed for People being observed for study habits when they know they are study habits when they know they are being observed will tend to do more (thus being observed will tend to do more (thus changing their behavior, which will skew changing their behavior, which will skew the study)the study)

Observation Bias

ProblemProblem when researchers consciously or when researchers consciously or inadvertently influence the collection of inadvertently influence the collection of data or observations.data or observations.

Example: Researcher is trying to prove Example: Researcher is trying to prove their theory by shaping the collection of their theory by shaping the collection of data.data.

SampleSample

PopulationPopulation The group the study The group the study

is examining is examining

SampleSample: are the : are the representation of the representation of the larger population larger population being studiedbeing studied

Random SampleRandom Sample Fairly represents a Fairly represents a

population population

Sample BiasSample Bias Unrepresentative Unrepresentative

samplesample

Anthropomorphic Error or fallacyError or fallacy

Error in identifying human attributes to Error in identifying human attributes to animalsanimals

Example: identifying thoughts, feelings to Example: identifying thoughts, feelings to behavior of animalsbehavior of animals

Experimental PsychologyExperimental Psychology

Used to answer the why questions in Used to answer the why questions in psychpsych

Experiments are formal trials to confirm or Experiments are formal trials to confirm or disconfirm hypothesisdisconfirm hypothesis

Correlational Studies

Studies that try to isolate behavior Studies that try to isolate behavior causation and the relationship between causation and the relationship between variablesvariables

Finds the degree of relationship between Finds the degree of relationship between two variables or traits.two variables or traits.

Results of data are expressed or reported Results of data are expressed or reported in a in a Coefficient of Correlation

Coefficient of Correlation

Data that determines association of at Data that determines association of at least two variablesleast two variables

Expressed:Expressed:If 0 = then association is nonexistent or weakIf 0 = then association is nonexistent or weak

If +1.00 = Perfect Positive Correlation= If +1.00 = Perfect Positive Correlation= Increase in one trait correlates to Increase in one trait correlates to increase in increase in other.other.

If -1.00 = Perfect Negative = increase in trait If -1.00 = Perfect Negative = increase in trait and decrease in the other traitand decrease in the other trait

ScatterplotsScatterplotsRepresents values of two variables

Slope:Direction of the relationship

Perfect PositiveHigh level of relationship Tend to rise together

Negative CorrelationIf two sets of scores relate inverselyOne set goes up the other goes down

Illusory CorrelationIllusory Correlation

Perception of a relationship where non-Perception of a relationship where non-existsexists

ExperimentsExperiments

Are needed to isolate cause and effectAre needed to isolate cause and effect

Manipulates variablesManipulates variables

Isolates the effects of one or more Isolates the effects of one or more variablesvariables

3 Types of Experiment Variables3 Types of Experiment Variables ““Manipulate the independent variable, measure the Manipulate the independent variable, measure the

dependent variable”dependent variable” Independent VariablesIndependent Variables

Suspected cause of behaviorSuspected cause of behavior Conditions altered by experimenterConditions altered by experimenter The experimental factor (variable) that is manipulated, it’s The experimental factor (variable) that is manipulated, it’s

effect is being measured.effect is being measured.

Dependent VariablesDependent Variables Measures the results of experimentMeasures the results of experiment Reveals the effects of Independent variable on behaviorReveals the effects of Independent variable on behavior

Extraneous VariableExtraneous Variable Outside variable Outside variable – the researchers try to exclude from – the researchers try to exclude from

considerationconsideration

Typical ExperimentTypical Experiment

2 groups of subjects2 groups of subjects Experimental Group- exposed to the exposed to the

independent variable*independent variable* that is being analyzed. that is being analyzed. AKA the cause of the behavior.AKA the cause of the behavior.

Control Group: exposed to all the conditions exposed to all the conditions except the except the independent variable. (the variable you independent variable. (the variable you are trying to measure… the medicine)are trying to measure… the medicine)• Provides a reference for comparison, isolates the Provides a reference for comparison, isolates the

impact of independent variable (the item being impact of independent variable (the item being investigated)investigated)

*Variable= is any condition that can change and might effect the outcome of the experiment.

Placebo EffectPlacebo Effect

Drug studies may be influenced by Drug studies may be influenced by suggestionsuggestion

The act of taking a pill or injection may The act of taking a pill or injection may influence behavior= influence behavior= psychosomatic psychosomatic reaction.reaction.

Expectation may be a factorExpectation may be a factor To control the Placebo effect-To control the Placebo effect- single blind single blind

and and double blind double blind experiments could be experiments could be used.used.

How can results of a study be How can results of a study be evaluated?evaluated?

Experiments that are labeled Experiments that are labeled “Statistically “Statistically significant” significant” are studies that are reliable, are studies that are reliable, because the independent variable will because the independent variable will rarely occur by chance.rarely occur by chance.

Replicating Results indicate reliability of Replicating Results indicate reliability of studies.studies.

Single Blind and Double Blind Single Blind and Double Blind

Single Blind- Single Blind- participants do not know if participants do not know if they are receiving a placebo or the drugthey are receiving a placebo or the drug

Double Blind- Double Blind- Neither the participant nor Neither the participant nor the researcher know which group recieves the researcher know which group recieves the treatment (independent variable)the treatment (independent variable)

Survey MethodsSurvey Methods

Polling Polling psychological questionspsychological questions Problem of wording- questions mus be clear and Problem of wording- questions mus be clear and

appropriateappropriate Pre-testing-Pre-testing- questions may help insure good questions may help insure good

questionsquestions Sampling- representative sample- Sampling- representative sample- a small group a small group

represents the larger populationrepresents the larger population Courtesy bias or Social desirability- Courtesy bias or Social desirability- people don’t people don’t

respond truthfully when talking about some respond truthfully when talking about some sensitive questions.sensitive questions.

Race and Gender bias- Race and Gender bias- can skew resultscan skew results

Statistical AnalysisStatistical Analysis Data provides the basis for conclusionsData provides the basis for conclusions Statistics Statistics summarizes and and analyzes datadata Helps interpret dataHelps interpret data Inferential statistics Inferential statistics help psychologist find more meaning help psychologist find more meaning

in the datain the data Measures of Measures of Central Tendency:Central Tendency:

Summarizes a set of data. A single score that represents a Summarizes a set of data. A single score that represents a whole set of scores.whole set of scores.

the typical score or value in a set of datathe typical score or value in a set of data Measures of VariabilityMeasures of Variability::

Describes the spread or dispersion among scores/dataDescribes the spread or dispersion among scores/data How similar or diverse are scores.How similar or diverse are scores.

Statistical AnalysisStatistical Analysis

Mean-Mean- average of the scores/data average of the scores/data

Median-Median- halfway point- shows ½ scores halfway point- shows ½ scores are above ½ are beloware above ½ are below

Mode-Mode- score that occurs most frequently score that occurs most frequently

Standard DeviationStandard Deviation

Creates insight into how much individual Creates insight into how much individual scores differ from the meanscores differ from the mean

Measures how much scores differ from each Measures how much scores differ from each other.other.

Ethics in Psych ResearchEthics in Psych Research

Animal Studies- are they Animal Studies- are they ethical?ethical?

Depends on your Depends on your interpretation-interpretation-

If you believe in human If you believe in human wellbeing over wellbeing over animal’s…animal’s…

There are regulations-There are regulations-

Ethics in PsychologyEthics in Psychology

American Psychological Association (APAAmerican Psychological Association (APA))Calls for guidelines for Animal ResearchCalls for guidelines for Animal Research

Consider the Consider the “Comfort, Health and humane “Comfort, Health and humane treatment of animals and minimize infection, illness treatment of animals and minimize infection, illness and pain.”and pain.”Laws govern Animals used in research. Laws govern Animals used in research. (WEB)

Human Guidelines Human Guidelines (APA)(APA)

Describe risks to Describe risks to subjectssubjects

Voluntary Voluntary participationparticipation

Minimize discomfortMinimize discomfort No invasion of No invasion of

privacyprivacy Use Use deception only deception only

when necessarywhen necessary Treat participants Treat participants

with dignity and with dignity and respectrespect

1.Obtain potential participants Informed Consent

2.Protect participants from physical or emotional harm and discomfort

3.Debrief: Explain the research afterward.

4.Confidentiality- keep participants info confidential