AP European History Review

Renaissance – French Revolution

Late Middle Ages

Black Death and Social Crisis

Famine and Population

Little Ice Age• Drop in temp and change in weather patterns

Resulted in crop failures and famine Killed approx. 10% of European Population Famine led to chronic malnutrition

People were more susceptible to disease

The Black Death

Bubonic plague• Spread by rats carrying infected fleas

• Pneumonic plague Deadlier version which spread to the lungs

Spread of the Plague

* The plague originated in Asia

* Mongol troops came in contact with European trade routes

* Flea infested rats came back to Italian port cities on merchant ships (1347)

European Population declined by 25-50% between 1347 and 1351

Life and Death: Reactions to the PlagueSurrounded with death, some people began living for the moment

Others thought the plague was punishment from God or the work of the Devil

Flagellants – whipped themselves to win forgiveness from and angry God

Blamed Jews for the spread of the disease• Pogroms – organized Jewish massacres

Noble Landlords and PeasantsThe Plague caused a severe labor shortage

Led to a rise in wages (basic supply and demand)

Population declined and so did demand for agriculture = drop in prices for agriculture

Standard of living for nobles decreased while peasants increased

English Parliament passed Statute of Laborers (1351)

Attempted to limit wages to pre-plague levelsWage restrictions and government taxes angered the peasants

To what extent were climate and disease key factors in producing economic and social changes in the Late Middle Ages?

Political Instability

Lord-serf relationship changed to wage earners

Lord-vassal relationship changed from military service (think of knights)

Paid scutage (money payments)Allowed monarchy to hire professional soldiersCreated factions amongst nobles

Heirs to the French, English and German thrones were not clear descendents

To gain support for their coronation, they had to offer favors, land and money to noble factions for their support

Paying for mercenary soldiers left the monarchies strapped for cash

To generate money, they had to tax which required the approval of parliament in most cases.

This opened the door for parliament to gain more power and prestige

Decline of the ChurchKing Phillip IV of France tried to tax the French clergy

Pope Boniface VIII said a secular ruler had no right to tax the clergy without the pope’s consent

Unam Sanctam (1302) papal bullStatement of supremacy of the church over the statePope Boniface VIII also excommunicated Phillip IV

Phillip IV sent troops and captured Pope BonifaceItalian nobles rescued the pope but he died shortly after

King Phillip IV of France influenced the college of cardinalsElected Clement V as pope

Clement V moved papal residence from Vatican City to Avignon

Papacy at Avignon

Remained there for 72 yearsCreated a specialized bureaucracy to obtain new revenue for the church

Elected 134 new cardinals, 113 were French

Avignon papacy became a symbol of church corruption

The Great SchismCatherine of Siena (a mystic) seemed to have convinced Pope Gregory XI to return to Rome

He died soon after his return

Italians pressured French cardinals to elect an Italian pope – Pope Urban VI

French cardinals got home Elected Clement VII as pope Pope Clement VII returned to Avignon

Great Schism 1378-1417 Period with two popesTwo popes split Europe along alliancesEngland and her allies – Rome Pope Urban VIFrance and her allies - Avignon Pope Clement VIIBoth factions increased taxation and corruption to raise revenue

What were the main causes of the Great Schism? What were the major results of this great political and religious conflict?

Vernacular Literature

Latin was the language of the clergy and educated nobility

Vernacular refers to the common regional language

Dante - Divine ComedyStory of the soul’s progression to salvation

3 act poem – hell, purgatory, and heaven

What was the significance of artists writing in the vernacular language?

Renaissance

Meaning and Characteristics of the Italian Renaissance

Renaissance = RebirthRebirth of antiquity – Greco-Roman civilization

Jacob Burkhardt Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860)Portrayed Italy as the birthplace of the modern world

Urban SocietyCity-states dominated political, economic, & social life

Age of RecoveryEffects of Black Death, political disorder, economic recession

Emphasis on individual abilityNew social ideal of a well rounded or universal personWealthy upper class, not a mass movement

Machiavelli and the New Statecraft

Niccolo Machiavelli (1469 – 1527)The Prince (1513)Realistic examination political ruleAcquisition, maintenance and expansion of political powerPrince should act on behalf of the state, not his conscienceCesare Borgia

• Pope Alexander VI son• Perfect model for the The Prince

How did Machiavelli deal with the issue of political power?

The Italian States in the Renaissance

Five Major PowersMilan

• Francesco Sforza takes control• Viscontis and Sforzas created a centralized state and collected large tax

revenuesVenice

• Ruled by an oligarchy of merchant aristocrats• Maritime power which looked to expand to mainland to secure food sources

Florence• Cosimo Medici (1434-1464) (made money in banking)• Lorenzo the Magnificent (1469-1492)• Republican form of Gov, but controlled by Medici family

The Papal States• Weakened by the Great Schism• Looked to regain control over Urbino, Bologna, & Ferrara

Kingdom of Naples• Controlled by monarchy and a population of poor peasants• Did not experience the Renaissance like the rest of Italy

What was the relation between art and politics in Renaissance Italy?

Italian Renaissance HumanismClassical Revival (Greco-Roman classics)

Individualism and Secularism were two characteristics of the Renaissance• Renaissance was a movement of the elite, not the masses

Petrarch (1304 – 1374)Characterized the Middle Ages as darkPromoted studying the classics

Humanism in Fifteenth-Century ItalyStudy of Ancient Greek and Roman writers

Leonardo Bruni (1370 – 1444)• New Cicero

Renaissance Ideal – duty of an intellectual to be active for one’s state

Civic Humanism – fusion of political action and literary creation

Lorenzo Valla (1407 – 1457)• Wrote Elegances of the Latin Language

Wanted to restore Latin as proper language over the vernacular

Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463 – 1494), Oration on the Dignity of Man – Human Potential (people could be whatever they chose or willed)

Education, History, and the Impact of Printing

Education in the RenaissanceLiberal Studies: history, moral philosophy, eloquence (rhetoric), letters (grammar and logic), poetry, mathematics, astronomy, music, physical education (martial arts)Purpose was to create individuals who followed a path of virtue and wisdom & could influence others to do the sameEducation of women

• Few women got an education• Ones who did got an education focusing on religion and morals

Aim of education was to create a complete citizenHumanism and History

Periodization of history (ancient world, dark ages, present time)

Secularization – took religious events out of historyGuicciardini (1483 – 1540), History of Italy, History of Florence

• Examined evidence supporting historical events

The Impact of Printing

Johannes Gutenberg • Movable type (1445 – 1450)• Gutenberg’s Bible (1455 or 1456)

The spread of printing• By 1500, more than 1000 printers in Europe• Became one of Europe’s largest industries• Printing of books encouraged development of

research• More laymen (regular people) became literate

How did the printing press change European society?

Art in the Early RenaissancePrimary goal of artists was imitation of natureMasaccio (1401 – 1428)

Took up where Giotto left offFrescoes are regarded as first masterpieces of the Early Renaissance

Perspective and Organization (use of math in art)Movement and Anatomical Structure (study of the human form)Paolo Uccelo (1397 – 1475)

The Martyrdom of Saint SebastianSandro Botticelli (1445 – 1510)

PrimaveraDonato di Donatello (1386 – 1466)

David• First free standing nude bronze sculpture since antiquity

Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 – 1446)The Cathedral of Florernce – finished the domeChurch of San Lorenzo

The Artistic High RenaissanceLeonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519)

Last Supper • Showed personality and relationship to Jesus through the apostles

reaction “one of you will betray me”

Raphael (1483 – 1520)Known for his madonnasSchool of Athens – imaginary gathering of ancient philosophers

Michelangelo (1475 – 1564)The Sistine Chapel

• Told the story of the fall of man

David – marble sculpture

The Northern Artistic Renaissance

Northern Renaissance artistsLess mastery of perspectiveEmphasis on illuminated manuscripts & wooden panel paintingDid not portray the human body like Italian counterparts

Jan van Eyck (c. 1380 – 1441)Most influential Northern Renaissance artistGiovanni Arnolfini and His Bride

Albrecht Dürer (1471 – 1528)Adoration of the Magi

Reformation

Prelude to ReformationChristian or Northern Renaissance Humanism

Christian Humanists• Northern Renaissance Goal-reform of Christianity• Focus on sources of Christianity

Holy Scriptures & writings of Church fathers Found early religion simpler

Desiderius Erasmus (1466 – 1536)• Handbook of the Christian Knight (1503)-showed his preoccupation

with religion• “The Philosophy of Christ”-stressed inner piety over external religion

such as sacraments, pilgrimages, fasts, veneration of saints, and relics• The Praise of Folly (1511) – criticism of the church• Wanted reform from within the church

Understand the philosophy of Jesus Enlightened education in early Christianity

• “Erasmus laid the egg that Luther hatched”• Erasmus would eventually disapprove of Luther and the Protestant

reformers• Erasmus wanted to reform the church from within rather than split it

up

What was Christian humanism and how did it help prepare the way for the Protestant Reformation?

Did Erasmus’ works pave the way for Luther’s break with Rome and Catholicism?

Thomas More (1478-1535)Well educated – worked for English government as Lord ChancellorFriends with English humanists including ErasmusWrote Utopia (1516)

Greek for Nowhere, set in an imaginary island near the new worldBased on communal ownership rather than private propertyCitizens enjoyed abundant leisure time

More saw corruption first hand serving King Henry VIIIOpposed Henry VIII’s divorce and break with the Catholic church

Thomas More was executed in 1535

Church and Religion on the Eve of the Reformation

Corruption in the clergyPluralism – high church officials took over more than one church office, which led to duties being ignored

Widespread desire for meaningful religious expression

The masses wanted to insure their salvationChurch used relics and indulgences to generate money and reduce a person’s time in purgatory

“Modern Devotion” popular mystical movementThomas à Kempis, The Imitation of Christ

• Downplayed religious dogma & stressed the teachings of Jesus

The Early LutherEarly Life

Education in law Joins Augustinian Hermits (becomes a monk)Struggled with assurances of salvationCatholic Doctrine stressed faith and good work for salvationJustification by faith & the Bible became pillars of the Protestant Reformation

The Indulgence ControversyJubilee indulgence (1517)

• Raised money to finish St. Peter’s Basilica• “As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory

springs”

Ninety-Five Theses• Luther’s indictment of church corruption• Pope Leo X did nothing• translated into German and thousands of copies were printed

Luther Cont’dThe Quickening Rebellion

1519: Leipzig Debate• Johann Eck forced Luther to deny the authority of popes and

councils

1520: Luther moves toward break with Rome• Wrote three pamphlets• Address to the Nobility of the German Nation

Called for German princes to overthrow the papacy in Germany

• The Babylonian Captivity of the Church Attacked the sacramental system Called for clergy to be able to marry

• On the Freedom of a Christian Man Salvation through faith alone rather than good works

1521: Diet of Worms

1521: Diet of Worms - Luther refuses to recant

Holy Roman Emperor Charles the V passes Edict of Worms

• Excommunicates Luther

• His works are burned

• Luther becomes an outlaw within the Holy Roman Empire

Church and StateDoctrinal Issues

Justification by faith• Luther downplayed good works as a passage to salvation

Transubstantiation • Luther denied the practice of the bread and wine consumed turning to

the blood and body of JesusAuthority of Scripture

• The word of God in the Bible was sufficient authority in religious affairs

“Priesthood of all believers”• All Christians who followed the word of God were their own priests

State Churches & New Religious Services• Luther replaced the mass with Bible readings and songs

What was Luther’s fundamental problem with the Catholic Church?

Germany and the Reformation: Religion and Politics

Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1519 – 1556)Faced four major problemsFrench, papacy, Turks and Germany’s internal situationProblems allowed Luther’s movement to grow and organize

Francis I of France (1515 – 1547)Chief concern during the reign of Charles V

Habsburg – Valois Wars (1521 – 1544) (wars between France & Spain)

Pope Clement VII (1523 – 1534) sides with Francis I• Charles V sacked Rome, took over Italy (1527)

Allowed time for the development of Lutheranism in Germany

Suleiman the Magnificent (1520 – 1566) (Turks)Killed King Louis of Hungary and moved into ViennaTurks were pushed back in 1529Charles V decided to deal with Luther

Germany’s fragmented political power had made German states independent

Diet of Augsburg (1530)Charles V demands that Lutherans return to the Catholic Church

Schmalkaldic League – alliance of German princes (8 princes & 11 imperial cities join)

New threats from the French and the Turks forced Charles to compromise with the Lutherans

Schmalkaldic WarFirst Phase 1546-1547

Luther died in 1546Charles invades German states and defeats the Lutherans at the Battle of Muhlberg

Second Phase German Princes allied with new French king Henry IIAlthough he was Catholic, he hated Charles more than the Lutherans

Charles V was forced to offer a truceCharles abdicated (stepped down) as Holy Roman Emperor

Peace of Augsburg (1555)Division of Christianity acknowledgedLutheranism granted equal rights with CatholicismGerman rulers could chose the religion of their subjects

The Spread of the Protestant Reformation

Lutheranism in ScandinaviaDisintegration of Denmark, Norway, Sweden unionDevelopment of Lutheran national churches

• By 1540, Scandinavia was a Lutheran stronghold

The Zwinglian ReformationSwiss Confederation

• Loose association of 13 self-governing states called cantonsUlrich Zwingli (1484 – 1531)

• Strongly influenced by Christian Humanism• Unrest in Zurich

Zwingli’s preaching vs. Catholic ideals in town hall debate• Seeks alliance with German reformers

For protection against imperial and conservative opposition

Marburg Colloquy – attempt to unite Swiss & German reformers • Stalled over interpretation of Lord’s Supper (Communion)• Zwingli believed it was symbolic• Luther believed it was literal• No alliance was formed

Swiss Civil War (Swiss Protestants vs. Catholic Cantons)• Zurich’s army defeated – Zwingli found wounded on the battlefield• Enemies cut up his body, burned pieces, and spread the ashes

The Reformation in EnglandHenry VIII (1509 – 1547)Catherine of Aragón (First Wife)Henry seeks to dissolve marriage

Charles the V was Catherine’s nephew, delayed process

Anne Boleyn (Second Wife)Elizabeth I

Act of Supremacy (1534)King was the head of the Church of England

Formal break with the church of RomeSeized church land and sold it

How did the English Reformation differ from the reformation in other countries?

John Calvin and the Development of Calvinism

John Calvin (1509 – 1564)Humanist educationInfluenced by Luther

Institutes of Christian Religion (1536)Synthesis of Protestant thought

Predestination Some people were destined to be saved (the elect) and others were destined to be damned (the reprobate)

Calvinism: militant form of ProtestantismTwo Sacraments

Baptism – sign of remission of sinThe Lord’s Supper – believed in presence of Jesus in the sacrament

GenevaConsistory – a special body for enforcing moral discipline

How was Calvinism similar and different to Lutheranism?

The Catholic ReformationOld and New

Emergence of new female mysticismRegeneration of religious orders

• Did good works and preached the Gospel (combating spread of Protestantism)

Creation of new religious orders• New orders founded orphanages, hospitals, schools and other acts of

charity

The Society of Jesus (Jesuits)Ignatius of Loyola (1491 – 1556)

• The Spiritual Exercises – training manual for spiritual developmentJesuits recognized as a religious order (1540)

• Absolute obedience to the papacy• Structured like the military

Three major objectives of Jesuits• Education crucial to combating Protestantism• Propagation of Catholic faith among non-Catholics (missionary work)• Fight Protestantism – restored Catholicism to parts of Germany,

Poland and Eastern Europe

A Revived PapacyPope Paul III (1534 – 1549)

Reform Commission (1535 – 1537)• Blamed the church’s problems on corrupt policies of popes

and cardinals

Recognized Jesuits & summoned the Council of TrentRoman Inquisition (1542)

• No compromises with Protestantism

Pope Paul IV (1555 – 1559) (Cardinal Caraffa)1st true pope of the Counter ReformationIndex of Forbidden Books – banned books

• Any Protestant others

The Council of Trent Met intermittently from 1545 – 1563 (3 sessions)Divisions between moderates and conservatives (conservatives won)Reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings

Scripture and Tradition• Reaffirmed as equal authorities• Only the church could interpret Scripture

Faith and Good Works were declared necessary for salvation7 Sacraments, transubstantiation and clerical celibacy were all upheldPurgatory & indulgences were affirmed

• (no more hawking indulgences)

Most important was the creation of theological seminaries for training priests

What were the contributions of the papacy, Council of Trent, and the Jesuits to the revival of Catholicism?

Politics and the Wars of Religion in the Sixteenth Century

The French Wars of Religion (1562 – 1598)Huguenots

• 10% of pop but 40 – 50% of French nobilityThe ultra-Catholics

• Led by the Guise family• Favored strict opposition to the Huguenots

Revolts against the monarchy• Nobility and townships became more loyal to religion than monarchy

The Politiques put government before religion

Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (August 24, 1572)• Killed 3 thousand Huguenots in three days in Paris• Huguenots rebuild – backfires against Valois dynasty

Henry IV of Navarre (1589 – 1610)• Converts to Catholicism• Edict of Nantes (1598) – acknowledges Catholicism as official religion of

France but guaranteed Huguenots certain rights to hold office and practice religion

The England of Elizabeth Queen Elizabeth I (1558 – 1603)Act of Supremacy (1559) restored Protestantism to England and made Elizabeth the supreme ruler

Elizabeth tried to make religion acceptable to Catholics

Puritans – wanted to eliminate all traces of Catholicism from Anglican church

Foreign Policy – tried to avoid alliances and warsEncouraged English seamen to raid foreign shipsSecretly sent aid to French Huguenots & Dutch Calvinists to weaken France & SpainAvoided alliances that would bring England into war

Conflict with SpainPhilip II grew tired of England’s involvement in the Netherlands

The Spanish Armada (1588)Set sail to invade EnglandArmada was routed

Exploration

MeansCentralization of political authority

Monarchies had the resources & authority to finance these expenditures

MapsPtolemy’s Geography (printed editions 1477)Written in 2nd Century A.D.Depicted a round earth, 3 continents, two oceansCircumference of Earth was dramatically undersizedColumbus and other explorers thought they could easily circumnavigate the globe

Ships and SailingPrevious sailors used the Pole Star for navigationBut it was useless south of the equatorNaval technology

• Axial rudder, lateen sails, compass, astrolabeKnowledge of wind patterns

The Development of a Portuguese Maritime Empire

Prince Henry the Navigator (1394 – 1460)Founded a school for navigatorsDuring his reign, Portuguese sailors explored the west coast of Africa

The Portuguese in IndiaBartholomeu Dias (c. 1450 – 1500)

• Rounded Cape of Good Hope

Vasco da Gama (c. 1460 – 1524)• Reaches India by rounding Cape of Good Hope• Returned with spices such as ginger and cinnamon

Alfonso d’Albuquerque (1462 – 1515)• Commercial – Military bases (Goa)

In Search of SpicesPortuguese expansion

• Set up trading posts in India & China, established spice trade

• Used military and naval advantage to seize control of spice trade from Muslim traders

Reasons for Portuguese success• Guns & Seamanship

Why were the Portuguese so well positioned for overseas exploration?

Voyages to the New WorldChristopher Columbus (1451 – 1506)

Knowledgeable Europeans knew the Earth was round but it was smaller than it actually isTried to reach Asia by sailing westReached the Bahamas (Oct. 12, 1492)Additional voyages (1493, 1498, and 1502)Carried with him a copy of Marco Polo’s Travels

Additional DiscoveriesJohn Cabot – explored New England coastline (Henry VII)Pedro Cabral – (Portuguese) discovered South American coastlineAmerigo Vespucci – accompanied several voyages

• wrote letters describing new world• Name “America” come from his name

Treaty of Tordesillas

1494 – divided up the newly discovered world between the Spanish and the Portuguese

Dividing line gave all of the New World to Spain except Brazil.

The Portuguese got Brazil and everything east

The Spanish Empire in the New World

Early Civilizations in Mesoamerica The Maya (300 A.D.-800 A.D.)The Aztecs (1200 A.D.-1500s A.D.)

The Spanish Conquest of the Aztec EmpireHernan Cortés (1485 – 1547)

• Marched to Tenochtitlan making alliances

Moctezuma (Montezuma)• Initially thought Cortes was a God

Aztec Empire overthrown• Small pox and allies

Administration of the Spanish EmpireEncomienda – system of tribute and labor for Spaniards

• Made the Indians basically slaves to the Spanish

Dominican friars began to voice their concern over the harsh treatment of the Indians

• Bartolome de Las Casas was the most vocal opponent of the encomienda system

Viceroys – King’s chief military & civil officer

The Church – mass conversions

Africa: The Slave TradeNew Rivals

European powers began establishing forts in Africa to dominate the trade in goldThe Dutch Republic began to take over the spice trade from Portugal

Origins of the Slave TradeSugar cane and slavery

• Indian population was decimated by disease African climate and soil weren’t suited to grow sugar cane

Growth of the Slave TradeUp to 10,000,000 African slaves taken to the Americas between the Sixteenth and Nineteenth CenturiesThe Middle Passage (trip across the Atlantic): high death rate during transit

• 300 to 450 slaves per ship (loose pack or tight pack)• Trip took a little over 3 months• Approx. 10% of slaves died on voyage

Prisoners of war (Slave trade increased wars between African tribes)Triangle Trade – Europe to Africa to Americas, then back to Europe

• Europeans traded goods for slaves, sold the slaves, kept some profit, bought more goods and started the cycle over again

What social and economic forces drove the Slave Trade?

MercantilismMercantilism is a set of economic principles that came to dominate economic practices in the 17th centuryBelief that the total volume of trade unchangeableEconomic activity = war through peaceful means

One nation could expand its trade at the expense of another nation

Importance of bullion (gold & silver) and favorable balance of trade

Export valuable goods to New WorldImport Bullion to European states

State Intervention in the economy was desirable for the sake of the national good.

What economic changes occurred in Europe as a result of Mercantilism and Capitalism?

The Columbian Exchange

Reciprocal importation and exportation (exchange) of plants and animals between the New World and Europe

Europe exported Wheat, grapevines, olive trees, horses, cattle, pigs, goats, and sheep to the New World

Europe imported tomatoes, peanuts, peppers, beans, squash, sweet potatoes, and manioc from the New World

European States

The Witchcraft CrazeWitchcraft existed for centuries as a traditional village culture

Medieval church connected witchcraft to the devil, making it an act of heresy

Establishment of the Inquisition in the 13th century, increased prosecutions and executions

Accusations against witches• Allegiance to the devil

• Attended sabbats

• Use of evil incantations or potions

Reasons for witchcraft prosecutions • Religious uncertainty (areas of strife between Protestants &

Catholics)

• Social conditions – old single women cut off from charity by the new emphasis on capitalism over communal interests became the scapegoats when problems arose

Women as primary victims• Most theologians, lawyers, & philosophers believed women

were inferior to men & more susceptible to witchcraft

Begins to subside by mid-seventeenth century• Fewer judges were willing to prosecute accused witches

• A more educated populous questioned the old view of a world haunted by spirits

What does the witchcraft craze tell us about European society and the place of women in that society in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries?

The Thirty Years War (1618 – 1648)

BackgroundReligious conflict (militant Catholicism & militant Calvinism)Secular, dynastic-nationalist considerations were more importantTensions in the Holy Roman Empire

• Most of the fighting took place in Germany, but it was a Europe wide struggle

• Conflict for European leadership• Between: Bourbon dynasty of France vs.

Habsburg dynasty of Spain & Holy Roman Empire

Posturing for war (think alliance system)• Frederick IV of Palatinate (Calvinist) formed the Protestant Union• Duke Maximilian of Bavaria (Catholic) formed the Catholic League

of German States• Germany divided into two armed alliances along religious lines• Holy Roman Emperors looked to relatives in Spain to help

consolidate their authority in the German States• German princes looked to Spain’s enemy France for support

The Bohemian Phase (1618-1625)

Bohemian estates accepted Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand as their king

Ferdinand set about re-catholicizing BohemiaProtestants rebelled in 1618, deposing Ferdinand & electing Protestant ruler Frederick V of Palatinate (head of Protestant Union)Ferdinand is elected Holy Roman Emperor & returned with the help of Maximilian of Bavaria & the Catholic LeagueImperial forces & Spanish retook Bohemia & captured Palatinate by 1622

The Danish Phase (1625 – 1629)•King Christian IV of Denmark intervened on the Protestant side

•Formed alliances with United Provinces & England

•Christian IV’s forces were defeated, ending Danish supremacy in the Baltic Sea

•Emperor Ferdinand II issued the Edict of Restitution (1629)

•Prohibited Calvinist worship

•Restored property to the Catholic church

The Swedish Phase (1630 – 1635)Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden enters the war

Gustavus’s army defeated imperial forces & moved into central Germany

Imperial forces defeat the Swedes at the battle of Nordlingen, ensuring that southern Germany would remain Catholic

The emperor tried to use this victory to make peace by annulling the Edict of Restitution of 1629

The peace failed because the Swedes wished to continue fighting & the French Catholics under Cardinal Richelieu were about to enter the war on the Protestant side

The Franco-Swedish Phase (1635 – 1648)

• Battle of Rocroi (1643) French defeat Spanish troops, ending Spain’s military greatness

• French defeat Bavarian & Imperialist armies in Southern Germany

• War in Germany ends in 1648 but continues between the French & Spanish until 1659

Outcomes of the 30 year warPeace of Westphalia (1648)

• All German states were free to determine their own religion

• France & Sweden gained territory

• Holy Roman emperor reduced to a figurehead

• Made clear that religion & politics were now separate

Social and economic effects• Decline in German Population

• Some areas of Germany were devastated, others were untouched & experienced economic growth

• Most destructive European war to date

Outcomes continued

Peace of Pyrenees (1659)Ends the conflict between France & Spain

Spain becomes a 2nd class power

France emerges as the dominant European nation

Some historians feel the 30 years (1618-1648) should actually be called the 50 years war (1609-1659) stretching from the formation of the Protestant Union & Catholic League to the Peace of Pyrenees

A Military Revolution?War and Politics in Seventeenth-Century Europe made it essential that a ruler had a powerful militaryNew Tactics

Battalions of infantry armed with pikes became superior to cavalryGustavus Adolphus employed a standing army (conscripts) instead of mercenariesMixed musketeers with pikemen effectively (volley of shots followed by a rush)Adolphus used a similar strategy with cavalry

New TechnologiesFirearms, cannons, standing armies, mobile tactics

The Cost of a Modern MilitaryHeavier taxes making war an economic burdenState bureaucracy grew and so did the power of state government

What was the “military revolution” and what effect did it have on warfare in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries?

Absolute Monarchy in FranceAbsolutism – sovereign power or ultimate authority in the state rested in the hands of a king who claimed to rule by divine right

Foundations of French AbsolutismPolitical Theorist Jean Bodin defined sovereign power as authority to:

• Make laws, tax, administer justice, control the state & determine foreign policy

Bishop Jacques Bossuet wrote:Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scripture – God established kings so their rule was divine

Cardinal Richelieu (1624 – 1642)Cardinal Richelieu (1624 – 1642)

• Louis XIII’s chief advisor

• Initiated policies that strengthened the monarchy

• Eliminated political & military rights of Huguenots (French Calvinists) but preserved their religious ones

• Transformed the Huguenots into more reliable subjects

• Eliminated noble threats to the crown

• Sent out royal officials (intendants) to reform & strengthen the central government

• Richelieu ran the crown into debt Mismanagement of funds & 30 Years’ War expenditures

The Reign of Louis XIV (1643 – 1715)Louis XIV took control of France at the age of 23Administration of the Government

Domination and bribery• Dominated the actions of ministers and secretaries• Stacked the royal council with loyal followers from new

aristocratic families• Issued bribes to control provinces and the people who ran

them

Religious Policy “One King, one law, one faith”Edict of Fontainebleau (1685)

• Revoked the Edict of Nantes (1598)• Destruction of Huguenot churches & closing of Protestant

schools• Over 200k Huguenots left France, weakening the economy &

strengthening Protestant opposition to Louis in other countries

Palace at VersaillesDaily Life at Versailles

Purposes of Versailles• Intended to overawe subjects & impress foreign dignitaries

• Housed royal officials & princes

Court life and etiquette • Set the standard for European monarchies

• Princes & nobles were arranged according to seniority Real purpose was to exclude them from power by including

them in the life of the king at Versailles

The Wars of Louis XIVThe Wars of Louis XIV

Professional army: 100,000 men in peacetime; 400,000 in wartime

Louis XIV waged war to insure French dominance in Europe and preserve the Bourbon dynasty

Four wars between 1667 – 1713

• Invasion of Spanish Netherlands (1667-1668) Triple Alliance (English, Dutch & Swedes) forced Louis to sue

for peace (received a few towns in the Spanish Netherlands)

• Dutch War (1672-1678) Louis invaded the United Provinces leading Brandenburg, Spain,

& the Holy Roman Empire to form a coalition to stop him Received Franche-Comte from Spain

• Annexation of Alsace and Lorraine, occupation of Strasbourg (1679) led to new opposition.

Louis’s Wars• War of the League of Augsburg (1689 – 1697)

Spain, The Holy Roman Empire, the United Provinces, Sweden, & England formed the League of Augsburg

Caused economic depression and famine in France

Treaty of Ryswick ended the war causing Louis to give up most of the territory he had previously gained

Louis’s Wars• War of the Spanish Succession (1702 – 1713)

Louis’s grandson was set to inherit the Spanish throne, (Phillip V) scaring neighboring countries about a united Spain & France

Coalition of England, United Provinces, Habsburg Austria, & the German states opposed France & Spain

Peace of Utrecht (1713) Confirmed Phillip V as ruler of Spain Affirmed thrones would remain separate Coalition gained French & Spanish territory England emerges as a strong naval force, gaining

territory in America from France Louis XIV died 2 years later, leaving France broke

and surrounded by enemies.

Define absolutism and determine to what extent France’s government in the seventeenth century can be labeled an absolute monarchy.

Absolutism in Central and Eastern Europe

The German StatesThe Rise of Brandenburg-Prussia

• The Hohenzollern Dynasty• Frederick William the Great Elector (1640 – 1688)

Army (standing army of 40K men) General War Commissariat to levy taxes

Evolved into an agency for civil government Reinforced serfdom through concessions to the nobles Used Mercantilist Policies

High tariffs, subsidies, & monopolies

• Frederick III (1688 – 1713) Aided Holy Roman Empire in the War of Spanish Succession In return, he was granted the title King of Prussia (1701)

The Reign of Peter the Great (1689 – 1725)

Visits the West (1697 – 1698)Seeks to modernize Russia

Mostly technical

Reorganizes armed forcesModernized military – standing army of 210,000Created a navy

Reorganizes central governmentDivides Russia into provinces

Seeks control of the Russian Church Introduces Western Customs

No spitting on floor or scratching oneself at dinnerCutting off beards and coats

The Reign of Peter the GreatPositive Impact of Reforms on Women

Upper class women were encouraged to mingle with menWomen could choose who they wanted to marry

“Open a window to the West”A port easily accessible to Europe

Attacks Sweden Battle of Narva (1700)

• 8,000 Swedes defeat 40,000 RussiansGreat Northern War (1701 – 1721)Battle of Poltava (1709)

• Russian army defeats Swedish armyPeace of Nystadt (1721)

• Russia gains control of Estonia, Livonia and Karelia

St. Petersburg “Window to the West” (port in the Baltic Sea)New Russian capital

England & Constitutional MonarchyJames I (1603 – 1625) and the House of Stuart

Took over after Elizabeth’s deathClaimed he ruled by Divine Right of KingsParliament and the power of the purseReligious policies

• The Puritans controlled most of the lower House of Commons

Charles I (1625 – 1649)Petition of Right

• Prevented any taxation without Parliament’s consent“Personal Rule” (1629 – 1640): Parliament does not meet

• Charles I tries to collect taxes without Parliament• Forced to call Parliament to raise tax money to fight Scottish

rebellionReligious policy angers Puritans

• Charles I married a Catholic (Louis XIII’s sister Henrietta)• Charles I calls Parliament and the members make changes to limit

royal authority• Charles I arrests radical members of Parliament and Parliament rebels

starting the English Civil War

Civil War (1642 – 1648)Oliver CromwellNew Model Army – effective against Royalists

Extreme Puritans who believed they were fighting for God

1st phaseCharles I is captured after 1st Phase of Civil War (1646)Charles I escaped and got the Scotts to help invade EnglandCharles I is captured, tried, & executed (Jan. 30, 1649)

Parliament abolishes the monarchyCromwell dissolves Parliament (April 1653)Cromwell divides country into 11 regions ruled by militaryCromwell dies (1658)Army reestablishes the monarchy, Charles II

Restoration & a Glorious RevolutionCharles II (1660 – 1685)

Reestablished Anglican church Parliament suspected he was Catholic because his brother James was

Charles II passed Declaration of Indulgence (1672)Suspended laws passed by Parliament against Catholics and Puritans

Parliament passed Test Act (1673) – Only Anglicans could hold military and civil officesJames II (1685 – 1688)

Devout CatholicIssued new Declaration of Indulgence (1687)Protestant daughters: Mary and AnneCatholic son born in 1688Parliament invites Mary and her husband, William of Orange, to invade EnglandJames II, wife and son flee to France

Mary and William of Orange offered throne (1689)

Bill of Rights Affirmed Parliament’s right to make laws & tax

laid the foundation for a constitutional monarchy

The Toleration Act of 1689Granted Puritans right to free public worship

Ironically the Toleration Act still didn’t tolerate Catholics

Responses to the RevolutionThomas Hobbes (1588 – 1679)

Leviathan (1651)

People form a commonwealth for protection

People have no right to rebel

Believed in strong government to maintain social order

John Locke (1632 – 1704)Two Treatises of Government

Inalienable Rights: Life, Liberty and Property

People form a government to protect their rights

If government does not fulfill their social contract with the people, the people have the right to revolt

Scientific Revolution

Toward a New Heaven: A Revolution in Astronomy

Greatest Achievements in the Scientific Revolution of the 16th & 17th centuries came in the fields dominated by the ideas of the Greeks

Astronomy, mechanics, & medicine

Aristotle, Claudius Ptolemy and Christian Theology

Ptolemaic view – Geocentric model

Geocentric Universe Motionless Earth was the center of the universe

Ten Spheres surrounded the Earth – Mercury, Venus, the sun, Mars Jupiter, Saturn and the fixed stars

According to Aristotle, spheres moved in a circle around Earth

Christianized Ptolemaic Universe• Beyond the spheres was Empyrean Heaven – location of God

and all of the saved souls

• Christian Ptolemaic universe had a fixed outer boundary

What were the roots of the Scientific Revolution?

CopernicusCopernicus (1473-1543)

Studied mathematics & astronomy in his native Poland & later ItalyTried to create a simpler explanation but develops a theory nearly as complicated as PtolemyOn The Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres

• Didn’t publish it until right before his death for fear of ridicule

Heliocentric Universe – sun centered universe• Based on observations of earlier astronomers and his own

observations• Everything seemed to rotate around Earth because Earth was

rotating• Creates doubt about the Ptolemaic system & Aristotle’s

astronomy• Copernicus and his theory were denounced by Protestant

leaders (Luther)• Catholics did not denounce them until Galileo

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)Danish nobleman who built an observatory at Uraniborg castleRecorded astronomical data on positions & movements of planets & starsRejected Aristelian-Ptolemaic system but was unable to accept Copernicus’ modelBrahe thought the planets orbited the sun and the sun orbited the earthTook on an assistant in Prague, named Johannes Kepler

A Revolution in Astronomy, Continued

Johannes Kepler (1571 – 1630)Originally a student of theologyInterest in Hermetic thought and Mathematical magic

• Believed mathematical relationships were the basis for all nature not just on earth but the universe

• “Music of the Spheres” Harmony or mathematical concept of movement of

heavenly spheres

• Convinced that celestial bodies effected things on earth

• The moon’s orbit effected the tides on earth

Laws of Planetary Motion• Orbits of planets were not circular, but elliptical• Speed of a planet differs depending on proximity to

the sun• Planets with larger orbits revolve at a slower

average velocity

Discredits Aristotelian-Ptolemaic System• Kepler’s laws of planetary motion gained

acceptance in the scientific community

Confirmed Copernicus’ heliocentric theory

Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642)Galileo

Mathematics professor1st European to observe the heavens with a Telescope

• Discovered 4 moons of Jupiter, mountains & craters on moon, sunspots

Observed that celestial bodies were made up of the same natural properties as EarthThe Starry Messenger – published his findings

• Did more to further the new picture of the universe than Copernicus and Kepler’s mathematical theories

• Supported the heliocentric system

Galileo and the Church

Condemned by the Church• Roman Inquisition condemned Copernicanism &

ordered Galileo to reject the Copernican thesis

• The church would allow Galileo to discuss Copernicanism as long as he maintained it was a mathematical supposition not a fact

• The Church attacked Copernican System The heavens were no longer a spiritual world but a world

of matter Humans were no longer the center of the universe God was no longer in a specific place The Copernican System raised so many uncertainties that

it was easier to condemn it than sort it out.

Galileo and the Church

Galileo does not accept the church’s condemnation of his findings

In 1632, he publishes Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems: Ptolemaic and Copernican

Written in Italian rather than Latin

Book supports Copernican system & Galileo was called before the Inquisition again in 1633

• Found guilty & forced to recant his errors and placed on house arrest for the remaining 8 years of his life while he studied mechanics

• Discovered the principle of inertia

Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727)Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge UniversityMathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1684 – 1686): The Principia

Three Laws of Motions

Universal Law of Gravity – mathematical proof that could explain all motion in the universeWorld seen in mechanistic terms (world-machine) – the universe was one giant machine that operated according to natural lawsGod – Newton believed God was everywhere and served as the force that moved the bodiesNewton’s ideas were accepted in Great Britain immediately, but not for another century in continental Europe

What was the Newtonian world-machine theory?

Toward a New Earth: Descartes, Rationalism, and a New View of Humankind

Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650)Discourse on Method (1637)“I think, therefore I am.”

• Justified his own existence

Separation of mind and matter• “mind cannot be doubted, but the body and material world can, the

two must be radically different”

Cartesian Dualism – absolute duality between body and mind• Using human reason (mathematics) humans can understand the

material world and its mechanisms

Father of modern rationalism (logic)• Matter was dead or inert

Books will be banned by Catholics and Protestants

The Spread of Scientific Knowledge

The Scientific MethodFrancis Bacon (1561 – 1626)

• Rejects Copernicus and Kepler; Misunderstands Galileo• The Great Instauration (The Great Restoration)• Correct Scientific Method built on inductive principles• Proceed from the particular to the general• Experimentation & Observation to support hypothesis

Descartes• Deduction and mathematical logic (empiricism)

Newton• Unites Bacon’s empiricism and Descartes rationalism• Became the key figure in the Scientific Revolution • Inspired search for natural laws in other fields

Compare the methods used by Bacon and Descartes.

Science and Society

People recognized Science’s rational superiority

Science offered new ways to make profit and maintain social order.

Science became part of elite culture and carried status in society

Science and ReligionConflict between Science and Religion

Religion rejects scientific discoveries that contradict the Christian view of the worldScientific beliefs triumph and religious beliefs sufferLeads to a growing secularization in European intellectual life

Enlightenment

The EnlightenmentEnlightenment thinkers used the scientific method to analyze & understand all aspects of human life

• German philosopher Immanuel Kant came up with a motto for the Englightenment

“Dare to know! Have the courage to use your own intelligence!”

Popularization of Science• Bernard de Fontenelle (1657 – 1757), Plurality of

Worlds He was a skeptic who portrayed the church as an enemy

of scientific progress Provided a link between scientists of the 17th century &

philosophes of the 18th century

The Legacy of Locke & NewtonNewton

Using Newtown’s Natural Reason to discover natural laws that govern politics, economics justice, religion, and the arts

Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding Knowledge derived from the environment

Denied Descartes’ belief in innate ideas• Instead believed people were born with a tabula rasa (a blank

mind)

Both Thinkers provided inspiration for the Enlightenment to use rational reasoning to discover natural laws of society

What was the significance of John Locke and Isaac Newton on the Enlightenment?

Montesquieu & Political ThoughtCharles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)

Persian Letters, 1721

Attacks traditional religion, advocacy of religious toleration, denunciation of slavery, French monarchy

The Spirit of the Laws, 1748; comparative study of government

• Montesquieu attempted to apply the scientific method to the social & political arena to develop natural laws governing social relationships

• Advocated a separation of powers between branches of the government (based on English model)

Voltaire and the EnlightenmentFrancois-Marie Arouet, Voltaire (1694-1778)Best known for his criticism of religious intolerancePublished a translation of Newton’s Principia with the Marquise du Chatelet (his mistress)Philosophic Letters on the English, 1733

Spoke of England’s freedoms (press, political, & religious)

Treatise on Toleration, 1763Argued for religious toleration

Candide – (Optimism) satire on the philosophy of LeibnizDeism – Religious outlook based on the Newtonian world machine model

Viewed God as the master mechanic who built the universe but allows it to operate under its own natural laws

Diderot and the Encyclopedia

Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

Encyclopedia, 28 volumesMany of the contributors were philosophes

Attacked religious superstition and advocated toleration

Lowered price helped to spread the ideas of the Enlightenment

What specific contributions did Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot make to the age of the Enlightenment?

Adam Smith & Laissez-Faire Economics

Adam Smith (1723-1790)The Wealth of Nations, 1776

• Best statement on Laissez-Faire

Attack on mercantilism • Condemned tariffs• It is better to purchase a cheap product than produce an

expensive one

Advocate of free tradeA nations true wealth came from its laborGovernment has only three basic functions

• Protect society from invasion (army)• Defend individuals from injustice and oppression (police)• Keep up public works (roads, canals etc.)• Smith & Physiocrats laid the foundation for economic

liberalism

Rousseau and the Social ContractJean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind; preservation of private property had enslaved the mass of society

• Government was a necessary evil

Social Contract, 1762; Tried to harmonize individual liberty with governmental authorityConcept of General Will – social contract was an agreement by an entire society to let someone govern themEmile, 1762; important work on education raising kids

• Education should foster children’s natural instincts rather than restrict them

Major influence on the development of Romanticism • Rousseau sought a balance between the heart & the mind

(sentiment & reason)

What were the major ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau?

The High Culture of the Eighteenth CenturyHigh Culture vs Popular Culture

High Culture – literary & artistic world of educated & wealthy

Popular Culture – written & unwritten (oral) lore of the masses

Expansion of Publishing and Reading PublicDevelopment of magazines & newspapers for the general public

• Enormous impact on European high culture Newspapers were distributed free at coffeehousesEngland was at the forefront of publishing and coffeehouse culture aimed at the newly emerging literate middle class

Education and UniversitiesSecondary schoolsAttended mostly by the elite of societyDid not promote social mobility

• Curriculum focused mainly on the classics • Math, science, foreign language & accounting start to be included in

the late 18th century

What were the differences between “high culture” and “popular culture?”

18th Century European States

The European States18th Century EuropePeriod between 1715-1789

End of the Reign of Louis XIV & start of French RevolutionRise of centralized governments, efficient taxation & standing armies

Enlightened Absolutism?Utilitarianism – ethical theory that actions should look to attain the greatest happiness for the greatest number of peopleNatural Rights

• Equality before the law, freedom of religious worship, freedom of speech and press and the to right to assemble, hold property & seek happiness

• Influenced writers of the Declaration of Independence

Enlightened Absolutism How they were to rule? Religious Toleration Freedom of speech and press Right to hold private Property Must obey the laws and enforce them fairly Foster the arts, science & education Reforms should come from the rulers rather than the

masses

Rulers such as Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, and Joseph II of Austria are examples of rulers influenced by Enlightenment Ideas

Idea of Divine Right was gradually replaced by enlightened absolutism

What does the phrase “enlightened politics” mean?

The Atlantic Seaboard StatesFrance: Problems of the French monarchs

• 18th Century France lost an empire & acquired debt• Louis XIV left France with a huge debt, unhappy

people and an empire to large to run• Louis XV (1715 – 1774)

5 years old when he became king Duke of Orleans ruled for him until Cardinal Fleury

took over Fleury expanded trade, industry and balanced the

budget briefly until he died in 1743 Louis XV decided he was ready to rule Louis XV was weak and easily influenced He lost territory in the Seven Years’ War, taxed to

much and spent to much

• Louis XVI (1774 – 1792) 20 year old grandson of Louis XV and husband of Marie

Antoinette France’s financial burden worsened leading towards

revolution Concerned primarily with life in the court at Versailles People began to resent the royal attitude of Louis XVI and

his Austrian wife

Great Britain: King & ParliamentUnited Kingdom of Great Britain, 1707 (England & Scotland unite)18th Century British Politics

Shared power between king and Parliament• Parliament slowly gaining the upper hand

The King’s MinistersSet policy and guided Parliament

ParliamentMakeup - Peers who sat for life in the House of Lords and landed gentry who sat in the House of Commons and served as justices of the peace in the countiesPower to make laws, levy taxes, pass the budget Parliamentary elections

• Deputies to the House of Commons were chosen from boroughs & counties, not by popular vote

• “Pocket Boroughs” controlled by a single person

Hanoverians – George I (r. 1714 – 1727) and George II (r. 1727 – 1760) German kings took over after the Stuart line failed to produce a male heir

Robert Walpole (prime minister, 1721 – 1742)• More or less ran the country for the Hanoverian Kings• Pursued a peaceful foreign policy to avoid new land taxes

William Pitt, the Elder (prime minister, 1757 – 1761)• Advocated expansion of trade and world empire• Acquired Canada & India in the Seven Years’ War• Replaced by King George III

King George III Increased power of king’s ministers to issue patronage

Absolutism in Central and Eastern Europe

Prussia: The Army and The Bureaucracy

Frederick William I, 1713-1740General Directory (central government)

Highly efficient bureaucracy

Army• Junkers (nobles)

Monopoly over officer corps Nobles had a sense of service to the king

Junkers dominated social and military affairs in Prussia during the 18th Century

Frederick II, the Great, 1740-1786Well educated

• Enlightenment thought• One of the most cultured European monarchs

Reforms: Law code, Civil libertiesSocially and politically conservative

• Did not interfere with serfdom, since he was to dependent on the nobles

• Made Prussian society more aristocratic

Use of the army• Expansion of Prussian territory

Gained the Austrian province of Silesia

The Austrian Empire of the HapsburgsEmpress Maria Theresa, 1740-1780

Austria culturally dividedPractical but conservative reforms to strengthen the Hapsburg stateAustrian empire became more centralized

Joseph II, 1780-1790Reforms (influenced by the Enlightenment)

• Abolishes serfdom• New penal code (no more death penalty)• Religious toleration• Radical reforms overwhelming for Austria

6,000 decrees & 11,000 laws Alienated the nobles & the church

Russia Under Catherine the Great, 1762-1796

Reform (influenced by philosophes)Instruction, 1767

• Questioned serfdom, torture, capital punishment & advocated equal justice

• Accomplished little due to heavy opposition and were soon forgotten.

Strengthens landholders at expense of serfsDivided Russia into 50 provinces, which were subdivided into districts controlled by nobles

Gentry had the right to trial by peers, & exemption from personal taxation & corporal punishment

Rebellion of Emelyan Pugachev, 1773-1775Conditions for peasants worsened leading to a revoltEncouraged peasants to seize their landlords’ estatesRussian Cossack who launched a revoltEncouraged peasants to rise up and overthrow their landlords (1500 estate owners were killed)Pugachev was betrayed, captured, tortured & killedPeasants were repressed even more

Territorial ExpansionWestward into Poland and Southern expansion into the Ottoman EmpireExpanded Russian territory at the expense of the Turks

Enlightened Absolutism RevisitedOnly Joseph II sought radical changes based on Enlightenment ideas

Catherine the Great & Frederick II liked the ideas of the Enlightenment, but their reforms were limited

Political and Social Limits on ReformReforms were usually limited to changes in administrative & judicial systems

Enlightened absolutism could not overcome the political and social realities of the time.

Wars and DiplomacyEuropean Rivalries The War of the Austrian Succession (1740 – 1748)

A world war? • Balance of Power• Pragmatic Sanction

Charles VI had European powers agree to recognize his daughter Maria Theresa as his legal heir

Frederick II of Prussia took advantage of the Maria Theresa by invading & taking Silesia

Thought the fundamental rule of government was to expand territory

Maria Theresa made an alliance with Great Britain who feared French domination of Europe

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle promised the return of all territories except Silesia

Prussia’s refusal to return Silesia guaranteed another war with Austria

Seven Years’ War (1756 – 1763)Diplomatic revolution

• Russia, France & Austria vs. Great Britain & Prussia

• Maria Theresa refuses to recognize the loss of Silesia

• Habsburgs (Austria) and Bourbons (France) making an alliance

European war• Frederick II (The Great) of Prussia held off armies of France,

Russia, & Austria, but they gradually wore his troops down

• Peter III comes to power in Russia & withdraws his troops from Prussia

• War ends in a stalemate

• Peace of Hubertusberg in 1763 – occupied territories returned & Prussia officially gets Silesia

Economic Expansion & Social Conditions (cont)

An Agricultural RevolutionStarted in Great BritainIncreased food productionMore farmland

• Stopped leaving fields fallow • Planted crops to feed livestock & replenish nitrogen in the soil

Increased yield per acre• Use of hoe to bring air & moisture to the soil

more livestock• Extra crops kept them feed through the winter• Provided manure to fertilize crops

better climate • Little ice age was over

New methods and new crops• Corn and potatoes brought from New World (Columbian Exchange)

Enclosure• Fencing off farmland

New Methods of FinanceNational debt

• Issued government bonds which yielded interest• National debt was different than a monarchy’s debt

National Banks• Circulation of paper bank notes that replaced gold

and silver as currencyEuropean Industry

Cottage industrySpinners and weavers worked in their own cottages

• Entrepreneurs bought raw materials and sent them out to cottage industries to be sewed into garments

• Then the finished good was sold for a profit

New methods and new machines• Flying shuttle• Water frame

French Revolution

The American Revolution French support

Aided colonists with money and troopsFrench army and navy helped the colonists defeat British General Cornwallis at Yorktown

Forming a New NationArticles of Confederation, 1781-1789Constitution, 1789

• Bill of Rights, 1791• Checks and Balances

Impact of the American Revolution on EuropeConcept of freedomConcept of rightsFrench army and navy officers brought American political and moral ideas back to Europe

What impact did the American Revolution have on Europe?

Background to the French RevSocial Structure of the Old Regime

• First and Second Estates dominated society First Estate = clergy (130,000)

Owned 10% of land Exempt from France’s chief tax

Second Estate = nobility (350,000) Owned 25-30% of the land Exempt from taille or tax

French economy was growing in the 18th century, but money was not distributed to equal segments of society.

The Third Estate• Commoners

Peasants = 75-80% of the population Peasants own 35-40% of the land Serfdom was over, but peasants still paid to use village

facilities such as flour mill, community oven, Paid taxes

• Skilled artisans, shopkeepers, and wage earners

• Bourgeoisie (middle class) (8% or 2.3 million) Own 20-25% of the land Merchants, industrialists, bankers, lawyers, doctors,

writers Similarities between wealthier bourgeoisie and nobility

Other Problems Facing the French Monarchy

Bad Harvests (1787 and 1788)Food shortages & rising price of food (bread)

PovertyOne-third of the population was poor

Ideas of the PhilosophesCriticism of privileges of the clergy and nobilityEnlightenment writers (especially Rouseau) were influential

Failure to ReformObstruction of reform by the French Parlements

Financial Crisis (immediate cause of French Revolution)Mounting debtCalonne’s “assembly of notables” (1787) (nobles, prelates, magistrates)

• Refused to cooperate with the kingSummoning of the Estates General (1789)

• Virtually consenting that public approval was necessary to raise taxes

From Estates-General to a National Assembly

300 delegates each to the First and Second EstateApprox. 90 of the nobles were liberal minded (Enlightenment)

600 delegates to the Third EstateStrong legal and urban presence

Cahiers de doléances (statements of local grievances)Advocated a regular constitutional government that would abolish fiscal privileges of the church and nobility

Estates General meets May 5, 1789

Question of voting by order or head• Third Estate wanted to vote by head (double the

representatives)

• Third Estate wanted to make a single chamber legislature

Abbé Sieyès “What is the Third Estate? Everything. What has it been thus far in the political order? Nothing. What does it demand? To become something.”

• Sieyes desired the Third Estate to have a voice in the Estates General

Third EstateJune 17, 1789 – Declares itself a National Assembly and decides to draw up a constitution

Doors were locked to the meeting place so they met at an indoor Tennis CourtTennis Court Oath, June 20

• Would continue to meet until they had a French Constitution

Intervention of the Common PeopleAttack on the Bastille, July 14 (arsenal & prison)Peasant rebellions, July 19-August 3Collapse of Royal Authority – saved the National AssemblyGreat Fear - fear of invasion by foreign troops aided by an aristocratic plot

• Led to formation of more citizen militiasFrench Revolutionary slogan “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity!”

How was France changed by the revolutionary events of 1789-1792?

Foreign CrisisForeign Crisis

Informal coalition of Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Britain, & the Dutch Republic were against FranceCommittee of Public Safety

• Given power to curb anarchy & counterrevolution at home• Led by Danton and Robespierre

Military losses Mounted

A Nation in ArmsUniversal mobilization of the nationRise of NationalismRaised the largest army in European historyThe main accomplishment of the National Convention was preserving the Revolution from being destroyed by foreign enemies

The Reign of Terror & Its Aftermath

Committee of Public Safety and Reign of TerrorJuly 1793-July 1794Vendée – areas of rebellion had the highest death rate Terror demonstrated no class prejudice

• Majority of the victims were from the peasant and laboring classes• Went after Royalists, Girondins, Vendee

“Republic of Virtue”Price controls

• Used goods requisitioned from the country for the cities

Women• Although women contributed to the revolution, they were still limited

politically

Dechristianization and a New CalendarNew calendar

• Word saint was removed from streets• Renamed months & Days (10 Day week)• Removed Christian holidays• Dechristianization failed because France was still a Catholic country

Created more enemies than friends

Equality and SlaveryRevolt in Saint Dominigue (Haiti)

• Slave revolt was put down but started up again forming the first independent state in Latin America – Haiti

• Inspired by the ideals of the Revolution

Decline of the Committee of Public SafetyExecution of Maximilien Robespierre, July 28, 1794

• Opposition grew out of fear that they were not safe while Robespierre was free to act

• His death brought an end to the radical stage of the French Revolution

What role did the Reign of Terror play in the Revolution?

Reaction and the DirectoryThermidorian Reaction and the DirectoryCurtails much of the Terror’s policies

Shut down the Jacobin club and limits the power of the Committee of Public Safety

Conservative turn of the RevolutionChurches reopened Laissez-faire policies adopted

Constitution of 1795Council of Elders (upper house) elects 5 members to act as executive authority or DirectoryArmy was used to disperse an insurrection

• Showed that the Directory needed to rely on the military for survival

Rise of NapoleonBorn as both a child of Enlightenment thought and of the French Revolution

Initially disliked by fellow officers and soldiers because he was short and had an Italian accent

Well read in Enlightenment thought and military history

Married Josephine, the wife of a guillotined general

Rose quickly in the military ranks by defeating the armies of France’s enemies

The Republic and the EmpireRepublic of France proclaimed, 1799

First Consul – controlled the executive branchFirst Consul for life, 1802Crowned Emperor Napoleon I, 1804

Domestic Policies of Emperor NapoleonNapoleon and the Catholic Church

• Concordat of 1801 ended tension with the church• Stabilized Napoleon’s regime• Church land was not returned• Catholicism was not reinstated as the state religion

A New Code of Laws• Code Napoleon (Civil Code)

Equality of all citizens before the law Right of individuals to choose their professions Religious toleration Abolition of serfdom and feudalism Property rights protected Outlawed trade unions Restored fathers control over their families

Divorce was more difficult to obtain Husbands controlled property rights

• Civil Code reaffirmed the ideals of the Revolution while creating a uniform legal system

Napoleon’s Empire and the European Response

Peace of Amiens, 1802 (temporary peace)Renewal of war, 1803Military victories, 1805-1807Napoleon’s Grand Empire

Composed of 3 different parts and united under Napoleon (French Empire, dependent states, allied states)Failure of the Grand Empire

• Problems: Great Britain and Nationalism Survival of Britain Seapower Continental System, 1806-1807 – block British good from

Europe Nationalism – spread nationalism to conquered territory,

resulting in uprisings

The Fall of NapoleonInvasion of Russia, 1812

Invaded over their refusal to follow the Continental System600,000 soldiers attacked, 40,000 made it out alive

Defeat of Napoleon, April 1814Exiled to island of Elba

Island off the coast of Italy

Escape from Elba, 1815Raised an army

Battle of Waterloo, June 18, 1815Exiled to St. Helena

Small island in the South Atlantic (between South America and Africa)Napoleon died 6 years later