“We never know the value of water till the well is dry” - Nosara · 2016-11-11 · While Costa...
Transcript of “We never know the value of water till the well is dry” - Nosara · 2016-11-11 · While Costa...
“We never know the value of water till the well is dry”
A research to investigate solutions for water shortages in the district of Nosara, Costa Rica.
Research Report
Name: Remona van der Zon
E-mail: [email protected]
Date: 15/07/2016
Supervisor: Dr. Femke van Noorloos
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The impressive growth in tourism and real estate in Guanacaste has consequences for natural
resources. The tourism industry is known as a substantial contributor to local water demand and this
additional demand may lead to water stress. In addition to that, the province of Guanacaste has
more dry summer seasons with little or no rain. This resulted in the situation that Guanacaste is
facing increasing water scarcity. In order to expand the knowledge about the relation between
governing water and tourism, this research aims to identify different solutions for water shortages in
the district Nosara to sustain water supply in times of water scarcity and in the future. The case of
Nosara is interesting because it traditionally has a community that is committed to protect the
environment. However, they have been unable to sustain the water resources. This case is
interesting because of the specific water governance structure of Costa Rica in which the community
controls the water supply. The outcomes of this research could be relevant for institutions that are
involved in the governance of water in the district of Nosara. The aim of identifying different
solutions for water shortages leads to the following research question: “What could be, in times of
water scarcity and in the future, solutions for the water shortages in the district of Nosara,
Guanacaste?” To address on this question, a stakeholder analysis is conducted by using a mixed-
method design of surveys and interviews with different actors involved in the water problem.
Relevant theories to explain the circumstances in Nosara are those of the common pool resources
theory, social-ecological systems theory and the approach of political ecology.
The current research shows that the ASADAs, residents, tourism-sector, NCA and AyA are the
most important stakeholders in the water problem. The majority of the residents indicated that there
was no or slightly a water problem in the past and that the situation got worse in the last couple of
years. Natural circumstances, deforestation, over usage, poor infrastructure and lack of collaboration
are main causes of the water shortages that have underlying causes as climate change, community
growth, land use change, lack of investments and mismanagement. According to the most residents
of the district of Nosara, the ASADAs and residents themselves are responsible for fixing the water
problems. Effects of tourism are not specifically included in local policies of the district Nosara. It was
found that additional wells, improving infrastructure and “smart homes” are the best technical
solutions. More collaboration, education and increase or differentiate water rates are the best policy
solutions. Besides, residents should contribute themselves to improve the water situation. To
conclude: short term solutions done by residents themselves are currently the most realistic ones,
but policy solutions are important as well, although these depend on the cooperation of several
institutions.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Slightly more than half a year ago I started preparations for my first field research abroad. This
policy-oriented report presents the research on water shortages in the district of Nosara, Costa Rica.
Here, I would like to thank all of those taking their time to contribute to this process.
First of all, I am very grateful to all the residents that were willing to participate in the survey.
Unfortunately it is not possible to name everyone here, but I would like to thank all the people who
gave their time and opinions during the interviews. I had never expected that people were so helpful
to bring me in contact with other people who could be relevant for the research. In addition, I would
like to thank those people who gave me a ride to locations for interviews and surveys where I was
not able to go to by bike. Moreover, I have really appreciated the advice, support and visits from my
family and friends while staying in Nosara for over three months. Additionally, I would like to give
thanks to my supervisor Dr. Femke van Noorloos for her guidance and feedback throughout the
process.
Remona van der Zon
Hoofddorp, The Netherlands
July, 2016
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................. 3
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................. 5
Table of contents ..................................................................................................................................... 7
Table of figures ........................................................................................................................................ 9
List of boxes ............................................................................................................................................. 9
List of tables ............................................................................................................................................ 9
List of abbreviations .............................................................................................................................. 10
1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 11
2 Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................................. 13
Major theories ....................................................................................................................... 13
Literature review ................................................................................................................... 17
3 Regional Thematic Framework ...................................................................................................... 21
Background ............................................................................................................................ 21
Water problems..................................................................................................................... 22
Policies on water ................................................................................................................... 24
4 Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 26
Research questions................................................................................................................ 26
Operationalization ................................................................................................................. 26
Research instruments ............................................................................................................ 28
Limitations and ethical issues ................................................................................................ 30
Empirical Chapters (5, 6, 7) ................................................................................................................... 31
5 Mapping the situation ................................................................................................................... 32
Who’s in? ............................................................................................................................... 32
Does everybody know? ......................................................................................................... 33
Situation in the past and in the future .................................................................................. 34
Experiences with water shortages ........................................................................................ 36
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The cause of the water shortages ......................................................................................... 37
Lack of knowledge ................................................................................................................. 42
6 The “Who” question ...................................................................................................................... 43
Who is responsible for fixing of the problem? ...................................................................... 43
Who can make a difference? ................................................................................................. 44
Who should implement solutions? ....................................................................................... 44
Which scale? .......................................................................................................................... 45
Changes in water governance ............................................................................................... 45
Who is going to pay? ............................................................................................................. 46
7 Finding solutions............................................................................................................................ 48
Technical solutions ................................................................................................................ 48
Policy solutions ...................................................................................................................... 48
Contribute on personal level ................................................................................................. 51
Constraints on solutions ........................................................................................................ 52
Explaining viewpoints ............................................................................................................ 53
8 Discussion ...................................................................................................................................... 55
9 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 59
10 Policy recommendations ........................................................................................................... 62
Specific recommendations for ASADAs in the district of Nosara .......................................... 62
Specific recommendations for tourism and real-estate development ................................. 63
Recommendations residents ................................................................................................. 63
References ............................................................................................................................................. 64
Appendices ............................................................................................................................................ 68
1. List of respondents .................................................................................................................... 68
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TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Map of Costa Rica .................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 2 Hydrogeological map on the potential of aquifers ................................................................. 23
Figure 3 Source of water of foreign residents and local residents ........................................................ 34
Figure 4 Total annual rainfall in Nosara (mm). ...................................................................................... 37
Figure 5 Lots and houses for sale or sold in the Nosara District ........................................................... 38
Figure 6 Map of Nosara District............................................................................................................. 41
Figure 7 Causes of the water shortages ................................................................................................ 42
Figure 8 Percentages of actors responsible for fixing the water problem ............................................ 43
Figure 9 Percentages of actors who should implement solutions. ....................................................... 44
Figure 10 Percentages of on which scale solutions should be implemented ....................................... 45
Figure 11 Grey-water recycling at the Harmony Hotel and rainwater harvesting ................................ 51
LIST OF BOXES
Box 1 Population growth of Nosara ...................................................................................................... 35
Box 2 Land use change .......................................................................................................................... 39
Box 3 The gap between local and foreign residents ............................................................................. 53
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Main governance agencies responsible for water in Costa Rica. ............................................. 25
Table 2 Stakeholders involved in this research ..................................................................................... 29
Table 3 Amount of people who indicated currently facing water problems ........................................ 36
Table 4 Amount of people using different sources of water ................................................................ 36
Table 5 Number of Users of Nosara’s ASADAs ...................................................................................... 40
Table 6 Solutions for the water shortages ............................................................................................ 61
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ARESEP La Autoridad Reguladora de los Servicios Públicos
ASADAS Asociaciones Administradoras de Sistemas de Acueductos y Alcantarillados Sanitarios
AYA Instituto Costarricense de Acueductos y Alcantarillados
GWP Global Water Partnership
ICE Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad
IMN Instituto Meteorológico Nacional
INDER Instituto de Desarrollo Rural
MINAET El Ministerio del Ambiente, Energía y Telecomunicaciones
NCA Nosara Civic Association
SENARA Servicio Nacional de Aguas Subterráneas Riego y Avenamiento
UN United Nations
UNEP United Nations Enviromental Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
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1 INTRODUCTION
“Despite New Well, Guiones Rings in New Year with Little Water and Lots of Tourists” (La Voz de
Guanacaste, 31/12/2015). The region of Playa Guiones, Playa Pelada and Playas de Nosara that is
located in the north of the pacific coast of Costa Rica, is facing pressures on water resources due to
the large number of tourists visiting the region for the holiday season. The water supplier ASADA had
even to perform night-time water shutoffs to reduce the water consumption. The ASADA expect that
they also might have water shortage problems during the driest months of the year, March and April,
because Guanacaste received 40% less rainfall in 2015. Remarkable is that water consumption in
Playas de Nosara triples during the high-season for tourism, while the consumption in the town of
Nosara remains stable throughout the year (La Voz de Guanacaste, 2015).
Increasing intensity of agricultural production, urbanisation and general rapid development
are recent trends which have led to increased pressure on freshwater resources with leads to
growing risks of water stress. In the last sixty years, domestic water use alone has grown on average
by 2.2% every year globally (Becken, 2014). The United Nations highlights the importance of
freshwater and the need to manage water resources sustainably. All social and economic activities
and ecosystem functions depend on water which requires appropriate governance arrangements. In
the World Water Development Report is mentioned that “robust governance mechanisms are
required to protect water resources and ensure sustainable development and equitable distribution
of water-derived benefits”. It also refers to the need to involve industry and its unsustainable use of
freshwater resources (United Nations, 2012). The tourism industry is known as a substantial
contributor to local water demand and this additional demand may lead to water stress. Because
tourism related water use and that of the local population primarily draw both on municipal water
supply, it is most likely that they compete (Becken, 2014). Besides, governments worldwide are
advocating the privatisation of water while privatised water is delivered to those who can pay for it.
This could lead to inequalities in water access and availability (Barlow, 2002).
While Costa Rica is classified as a tropical country, the province of Guanacaste experiences
the driest summer seasons with little or no rain. Besides, the impressive growth in tourism and real
estate has consequences for natural resources. Together, this resulted in the situation that
Guanacaste is facing increasing water scarcity which is reinforced by the overexploitation of limited
groundwater resources in the province. There are several articles written about governance
scenarios relating to water conflicts and water governance regimes in the Guanacaste province.
Kuzdas, Wiek, Warner, Vignola & Morataya (2015) analysed the water policy in Guanacaste and
recommended that further research is needed to implement and test alternative ways of governing
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water. The integration of different types of research could help support sustainable water
governance in Guanacaste. However, the literature does not deepen the relation with the expanding
tourism in the Guanacaste province. Bower (2014) did mention specifically the relation between
water problems and private water supply pipelines for tourism and real estate projects. According to
that article, more research should be done in the field of developing comprehensive water resource,
supply and sanitation plans, outlining goals and responsibilities for sustainable water use. Recently
conducted research did not make a relation between water policies and tourism. Concluded can be
that there is need for developing a plan for sustainable water use in the tourism sector of
Guanacaste, which should start by indicating who the stakeholders are and what solutions could
improve the situation.
In order to expand the knowledge about the relation between governing water and tourism,
this research aims to identify different solutions for water shortages in the district Nosara to sustain
water supply in times of water scarcity and in the future. Climate scientists predict that the
Guanacaste province will experience less rainfall and more intense dry seasons in the future (Kusdaz
et. al., 2015). Specifically, this case is interesting because Nosara traditionally has a community that is
committed to protect the environment. Despite that, they have been unable to sustain the water
resources. The outcomes of this research could therefore be relevant for institutions who are
involved in the governance of water in the district of Nosara. They could use the proposed solutions
for reaching a sustainable use of water and less water shortages by integrating them in policies and
actions related to water and tourism. In turn, this can lead to the reduction of water shortages and a
more sustainable use of water in regions of Costa Rica which are facing water scarcity as a result of
expanding tourism. Besides, this case is interesting because of the specific water governance
structure of Costa Rica in which the community controls the water supply while there is rapid
tourism growth. The aim of identifying different solutions for water shortages leads to the following
research question:
RQ: What could be, in times of water scarcity and in the future, solutions for the water shortages in
the district of Nosara, Guanacaste?
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2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
MAJOR THEORIES
Political Ecology
The interdisciplinary approach of political ecology has emerged for analysing human-environmental
interactions, particularly when they are associated with economic development in the “third world”.
Political ecology tries to understand how political and environmental forces interact to have an
influence on social and environmental changes that are caused by actions of various social actors at
different scales (Stonich, 1998). This interest in scale concepts focuses on socio-natural scaling which
takes place by merging of biogeophysical processes with broadly social ones. The interface between
human activities and the environment such as irrigation or groundwater extraction are emerged by
human-shaped biogeophysical factors and flows (Zimmerer, 2000). Political ecology analysis contains
which social actors benefit and which are disadvantaged by direct resource use and who has
influence, it includes international interests and the function of the global economy and the role of
the state in implementing policies that favour interests of certain social actors. Furthermore political
ecology contains the relationship of class and ethnic structures to conflicts over access to resources,
interrelations among local resource users and diversity in the decisions of local resource managers
(Stonich, 1998).
One major thrust of research that uses a political ecology approach has given priority to
human impoverishment and environmental destruction due to development models operating in
collaboration with the state. Impoverishment in this case is often related to diminished access to
land or natural resources as water. As a consequence of vulnerability and lack of power of local
people, smallholder producers often have received an unequal part of environmental decline.
Furthermore, a large part of natural resources are being degraded by the activities of more powerful
private, public and corporate interests. The political ecology approach applied to development in the
Third World has indicated that the main issue underlying environmental destruction and human
poverty is inequality in access to resources within a socially institutionalized context (Stonich, 1998).
Issues regarding water is an illustration of how nature and society became one in a socio-
geographical structure that privileges some and excludes others. Nature and society are therefore
merged to form a political ecology that combines the power of socially mobilized and ecologically
transformed nature with the power of money (Swyngedouw, 1997). For example in the case of
ground water, problems arise because widespread over pumping that exceeds the natural recharge
capacities of aquifers contributed to decreasing quality of aquifer waters. The limits of the national
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hydrological capacity have been reached in some cases which resulted in international solutions
being sought. For example urban development is associated with an expanding water frontier and
growing impact of the water cycle, which leads often to unsustainable practices of expanding
resource extraction and intensified conflict (Swyngedouw, Kaïka & Castro, 2002). Especially
associated with the expanding of tourism, elements such as interconnections among excessive
foreign ownership, the linkages among various social actors at various levels of analysis and the
growing social conflicts between stakeholders over control of local resources is part of the political
ecology analysis as well (Stonich, 1998).
Systems View of the Environment
All humanly used resources are embedded in complicated social-ecological systems. Subsystems such
as a resource system, resource units, users, and governance systems can be separated but interact to
produce outcomes at the social-ecological systems level. In turn this affects the subsystems and their
components. In very large, open-access systems predicted is that a resource would collapse when the
resource harvesters are diverse, do not communicate and are unsuccessful in developing rules and
norms for managing the resource. However, some social-ecological systems are sustainable while
others collapse. Therefore identification and analysis of relationships should be done among multiple
levels of these complex systems at different spatial and temporal scales (Ostrom, 2009).
Because of the characteristics as uncertainty, scale and non-linearity, complex systems have
a few important implications for conservation and environmental management. The older command-
and-control resource management is based on linear cause-effect thinking and aims to reduce
natural variation to make the ecosystem more productive, controllable and predictable. This
reduction could actually lead to a loss of resilience in a system, which makes it more susceptible to
crises. Despite the fact that the natural variation of water is not being reduced, characteristics as
productive, controllable and predictable are important for water as well. Scale has implications for
the relation between institutions and ecosystems. Can a certain conservation problem be managed
by a centralized agency or are there more appropriate structures of governance in which the scale of
the ecosystem is considered? Mismatches of scale may be one of the key arguments for failure of
environmental management, also in case of water (Berkes, 2004).
A framework could be used for analyzing outcomes achieved in social-ecological systems. It
includes the relationships among four-first level core subsystems that affect each other as well as
linked social, economic, political settings and related ecosystems. In the case of water, the first
subsystem is the resource system which is the water system. The second subsystem is the resource
units, which is the amount and flow of water. The third subsystem is the governance system which
refers to the government and other organizations that manage the specific rules related to the use of
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water and how these rules are made. The fourth subsystem is the users of the resource, the ones
who consume water for different purposes. Each core subsystem is created out of multiple second-
level variables as the size of a resource system, the level of governance or the user’s knowledge of
the resource system. Such a framework as described above is useful in providing a set of relevant
variables to use in the analysis of findings about the sustainability of complex social-ecological
systems (Ostrom, 2009).
The incorporation of the dynamic interactions between societies and natural systems has
become increasingly important, but there is little agreement on how this can be accomplished.
Social-ecological systems thinking refers to the idea that humans are part of ecosystems. By putting
humans back into the ecosystem, using all sources of ecological knowledge is required. Knowledge
and perspectives of the community can help expanding the information base that is available from
scientific studies. But communities are complex in how they are changing constantly, so images of
long-standing sources of authority need to be attended with caution. It is more productive to focus
on institutions, which is defined as the set of rules actually used in incorporate interactions between
societies and natural systems (Berkes, 2004). However, research in multiple disciplines has assumed
that resource users could self-organize to maintain their resources sustainable because some
institutions as government policies accelerate resource destruction (Ostrom, 2009). If expected
benefits of managing a resource surpass the perceived costs of investing in better norms and rules
for the majority of the users and their leaders, the chance that users will organize themselves is high.
However, users need to observe some scarcity before they invest in self-organization (Ostrom, 2009).
Community-Based Natural Resource Management
In environmental problems, there is too much uncertainty to use conventional approaches of
research. Those problems cannot be separated from issues of values, social justice and equity and
should be addressed by for example participatory conservation and management. Therefore, a kind
of approach to science and management should be used in which researchers and stakeholders
interact to define objectives of study, important questions, relevance of evidence and convincing
forms of arguments. It requires case studies situated in particular places to understand the dynamic
interaction between nature and society. Working partnerships can be developed between managers
and resource users to deal with the implications of complex systems. This approach of involving the
community actively into the management process is basically different from the command-and-
control style. If equity and empowerment issues can be addressed in community-based natural
resource managment, livelihoods can drive conservation by themselves (Berkes, 2004).
The emphasis in community-based resource management is on more inclusive, people-
oriented and community-based approaches to conservation and management in which both
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interests of conservation and development could be served. The results of community-based
conservation experiments have been mixed which led to a debate in the literature about the merits
of it. This type of conservation can be seen in the context of larger historical conceptual shifts that
have been appearing in ecology. Community-based conservation has developed when the conceptual
shift from reductionism to a systems view of the world took place, a shift to include humans in the
ecosystem appeared, and the shift from an expert-based approach to participatory conservation and
management emerged (Berkes, 2004). In community-based conservation, the experience of
communities with the environment, along with access to and control over the use of natural
resources is central to the explanations of conservation (Campbell & Vainio-Mattila, 2003). People’s
actions and practices, carried out within certain institutional contexts, may help to conserve or
reproduce existing ecological processes. In the case of water, this is for example protecting the
existing state of a watershed and its hydrological functions. Besides, people may act as agents who
transform environments by for example plant trees in a watershed (Leach, Mearns & Scoones, 1999).
One of the natural resources that is protected most in community based conservation projects is
water. The focus on such projects is often on the formation of user committees to manage repairs to
water points and to administer established user fees. Furthermore, control over the water source is
in this case maintained by individuals which implies a jurisdiction over how much water is drawn
during the dry season and by whom (Campbell & Vainio-Mattila, 2003). Nevertheless, conservation
cannot be implemented only at one level, because community institutions are only one layer in a
multilevel, increasingly globalized world. This means that resources need to be managed at multiple
levels from local level to various higher levels of social and political organization. However, multilevel
management requires costs as research, monitoring and decision making and needs to include the
question of how to deal with differences in power (Berkes, 2007).
Community-based water management is fundamentally a social process which causes that
scientist and technical experts must develop an understanding of the place-based social world of the
local community. Local people often ignore scientific information if they perceive the messenger as
an outsider who is insensitive to the practices of their cultural identity. Therefore, community-based
water management with assistance from scientists and experts is more effective if they invest time
and energy to establish a relationship and mutual cooperation with members of a local community
(Rhoads, Wilson, Urban & Herricks, 1999).
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LITERATURE REVIEW
Tourism and water
The arrivals of international tourists have been growing almost consistently for the last half century
and reached over one billion. Remarkable is that almost all of the Least Developed Countries
(countries that, according to the United Nations, have the lowest indicators of socioeconomic
development, with the lowest Human Development Index ratings) now rely on tourism as their
primary source of foreign earnings. They are actually the countries where tourism is growing most
rapidly (Becken, 2014). It is well documented in the literature that the tourism industry over-uses
water resources by at least twice as much as permanent residents (UNEP, 2009). Besides, research
highlights the causal relationship between the tourism industry and a variety of negative impacts as
water shortages, the degradation of water supplies and the local environment, and an increased
production of waste water (De Stefano, 2004). In some tourism areas it has actually led to positive
inputs as increased interest in water recycling, desalination and improved water storage capabilities.
The tourism industry puts mainly pressure on water resources in relatively small communities on a
seasonal basis (Lehmann, 2009). This poses existential challenges for local communities, but water
scarcity also becomes an important strategic consideration in planning of tourism companies.
Questions as “How could tourism operators contribute to responsible water use?” and “To what
extent should the tourism industry be engaged in water management planning?” are actually absent
from the academic literature. Furthermore, changes in the distribution of water supply in favour of
tourism and reduced water quality raise questions about water equity (Becken, 2014).
The impact of tourism on fresh water availability and quality is dependent on a wide range of
factors. The relative abundance and quality of water in the tourism region as well as current and
anticipated future water abstraction rates play a role. Furthermore, the share of non-consumptive
versus consumptive uses, the seasonal and spatial character of water extraction, competing uses ad
the treatment of sewage and waste water are factors that contribute to the impact of tourism on
fresh water availability (Gössling, Peeters, Hall, Ceron, Dubois, Lehmann & Scott, 2012). To identify
suitable strategies to deal with water stress in the future, water use inventories as well as modelled
effects of climate change have to be integrated in water use scenarios. Tourism stakeholders can
depending on the outcomes of such models reconsider their business plans (Gössling et. al., 2012).
Tourism is a mayor user of the world’s increasingly scarce water resources and often competes with
the local populations for the supply, especially in places where freshwater tends to be sparse in
tropical and sub-tropical areas. Moreover, in these areas this happens most during the dry season
which usually is at the same time as the tourism season. In some coastal regions extracting
freshwater from the aquifer has led to a lowering of the groundwater tables, the destruction of
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coastal wetlands and to the replacement of freshwater by saltwater (Stonich, 1998).
One of the examples of tourism development and water challenges is Benidorm, a tourism
destination located on the Spanish Mediterranean coast. After the drought of 1978, a crisis emerged
in the tourist sector as result of prospects of insufficient and polluted water and emergency
measures such as the transportation of water by tankers had to be taken. Tourist settlement patterns
influence and are influenced by the type of tourists. Where tourists prefer dense tourist areas with
high concentration of services, residential tourists and permanent residents may prefer less
congested low density areas. These areas are usually larger than the traditional tourist centres. Low
density growth requires much larger networks where the probability of leakage may be very high.
Therefore, high-rise tourist settlements tend to me more efficient in the consumption of
environmental resources than disperse, low density settlements. The presence of large tourist
centres with high hotels does not cause the largest problems, but the creation of golf resorts, small
apartment complexes with all green gardens and private swimming pools. They do not only consume
water in areas where this resource is scarce, but also require public investment in services such as
water supply and wastewater networks (Rico-Amoros, Olcina-Cantos & Sauri, 2009).
Solutions for water shortages
Solutions for problems related to water shortages and tourism can be found in water management
strategies. Water management can be based on two general strategies, demand side management
which aims to reduce water use and supply side management which tries to increase water
provisions. All tourist facilities could save substantial amounts of water by using demand side
management. Technical measures should be taken within gardens, pools, the guest rooms, kitchens,
activities (for instance golf courses) and management. Supply side management refers to various
technical options to increase available water capacities as extracting groundwater and desalination.
However, groundwater is vulnerable to water pollution as a result of poor sewage and water
treatment infrastructure and many coastal aquifers are vulnerable to salinification because of sea-
level rise (Gössling et. al., 2012). Desalination and wastewater reuse are actually advocated as the
best technological alternatives for arid region destinations. Desalination might enhance water
resources, but it requires also energy consumption and is very costly. Therefore this solution is not
always economical, because small-scale installations will have more emissions and higher costs than
large-scale installations (Gössling et. al., 2012). Solar desalination is a more sustainable solution
because it uses a renewable energy source. In regions where is freshwater scarcity, solar resource
abundance and saline water availability, solar desalination is an obvious applicability. Actually, overall
feasibility of solar desalination requires a consideration of factors as economics and environmental
impacts as well as the availability of mature technologies (Pugsley, Zacharopoulos, Mondol, Smyth,
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2016). Another solution for water shortages is the collection of rainwater. This water can be easily
collected and consumed in domestic, commercial and industrial applications. However, the
possibility of the use of rainwater as a resource is dependent on the local precipitation regimes,
especially on the volumes and their temporal variability. Furthermore, storage capacity and the
availability of surfaces for an effective collection of rainwater is also important (Sanches Fernandes,
Terencio, Pacheco, 2015).
To what extent are people willing to pay for solutions? The willingness-to-pay approach
explains the true costs of unfavourable impacts are the total amount that people would be willing to
pay to avoid them (Knetsch, 1990). To estimate the willingness to pay for improvements of
environmental services, the contingent valuation method can be used. This method uses survey and
questioning techniques to estimate values that people place on increments or decrements in a
natural resource. It can include current personal use values, possible future use values and values for
future generation use. The amount of willingness-to-pay tend to increase with the level of income
and education which implies the importance of education in raising people’s awareness about
environmental problems (Jordan & Elnagheeb, 1993).
Water governance
One of the most urgent pressing challenges of this century is the sustainable management of water
resources in times of global change. Explicitly, the unequal distribution at different scales among
regions or different social groups can provide various sources of tension. Technological or
institutional remedies as centralized waste-water treatment plants of privatisation were applied to
all kinds of water issues, but have never been reflected on their effect. Many problems in water
management are associated with governance failures instead of the resource base (Pahl-Wostl,
Holtz, Kastens & Knieper, 2010).
Water governance can be defined as the range of political, social, economic and
administrative systems that are in place to develop and manage water resources, and the delivery of
water services, at different scales of society (The Global Water Partnership, 2003). Governance of
water includes public policies and institutional frameworks that are accepted on social level and
mobilise social resources in support of them. While governance overlaps with technical and
economic aspects of water, governance is responsible for the political and administrative elements of
solving a problem. Besides, this water governance should aim the sustainable development of water
resources in which all the key actors must be involved in the process (Rogers & Hall, 2003).
Traditionally, the governance of resources has been seen as a local-level issue because since
water problems are local, they should be handled at the lowest appropriate governance level.
However, another view is that water governance should be regulated at national level, because
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water is a national resource that should be managed for the benefit of the national society. Thirdly,
another approach to governance of water states that water should be governed on the basin-level
because water-related problems are best dealt with within the natural sphere of the system such as
the watershed. This makes comprehensive problem analysis possible from up- and downstream
relations. However, all of these approaches are not mutually exclusive and different water issues are
dealt with at different levels (Pahl-Wostl, Gupta & Petry, 2008).
The importance of learning and adaptive governance are seen as essential for governing
social-ecological systems when abrupt changes occur. Adaptive governance systems are often self-
organized as social networks with actors that rely on multiple knowledge systems and experiences
for the development of a common understanding and policies. An increase of the adaptive capacity
of governance regimes is required to be able to deal with uncertainty. Adaptive governance can be
described as the ability of a resource governance system to change processes and if required
transform structural elements in order to better deal with experienced and expected changes in the
social or natural environment (Pahl-Wostl et. al., 2010). Executing good governance is characterized
as participatory, transparent, accountable, responsive, efficient, and inclusive and it follows the rule
of the law. However, because of the complexity of specific water governance issues, general patterns
to explain success or failure of governance regimes are hard to define (Rogers & Hall, 2003).
In the case of Costa Rica, Bower (2014) states that there are six inadequacies of the water
supply system. Laws regarding the environment and water exist, but they are not always
implemented because it is often more economical to not comply with those regulations. Motivation
for customers to conserve water lacks, because fees for agricultural use are for example based on
land area owned instead of volume of water used. The national government agencies that have
duties with regard to water appear fragmented and local agencies do not always cooperate with
each other. There is uncertainty about the availability of water; it is hard to tell what uses exist and
what is the actual water budget. Furthermore, financial support for the water supply system is
lacking in Costa Rica and there is a deficiency of trained personnel and insufficient budget at the
Ministerio de Salud (Ministry of Health) to lead in the promotion of water quality. Besides, there is
not enough budget allocated to support existing infrastructure of invest in future infrastructure,
which makes the situation getting worse. Finally, the current water law is outdated and needs to be
revised. There is currently a new proposed Water Law, but it needs to be discussed more before it
will be implemented (see: section 3.3) (Bower, 2014).
21
3 REGIONAL THEMATIC FRAMEWORK
BACKGROUND
The Republic of Costa Rica is located in Central America bordered on the north by Nicaragua and on
the south by Panama (Fig 1). It is situated between the Pacific Ocean on the west and the Caribbean
Sea on the east. It is the third most densely populated country in South and Central America with a
population of 4.8 million (The World Bank, 2014). Most people live in the Central Valley in which the
capital San José is located. The inhabitants are generally well educated and have a life expectancy of
78 years (Bower, 2014). Guanacaste is a province of Costa Rica which is located in the north western
region of the country, along the coast of the Pacific Ocean, and borders Nicaragua to the north. It is
the most sparsely populated province of Costa Rica with a surface area of 10.141 km² and a
population of around 360.000. The province is politically divided into eleven cantons in which Nosara
is located in Nicoya (Wikipedia, 2016). There has been an enormous increase in tourism and real
estate development in Guanacaste. Which results in that tourism has become the main source of
income for the province (van Noorloos, 2012). On peak days, more than 3000 tourists arrive at the
International Airport in Liberia (Villalobos, 2016). While the economy increased, the tourism growth
had consequences for natural resources in Costa Rica (see subsection 3.2).
Figure 1 Map of Costa Rica (source: http://subway.mapdictionary.com/mapa-de-costa-rica-2/)
22
Nosara is a village located on the Pacific coast, slightly below the middle of Guanacaste, and has
around 5800 inhabitants. The beaches of Nosara host one of the oldest expat communities in Costa
Rica. While the traditional village of Nosara is six kilometres inland, the majority of hotels and expats
in Nosara are located on the beaches of Playa Guiones and Playa Pelada. People come to Nosara
mainly for surfing and yoga, but it also attracts many eco-tourists. This is because a large portion of
the land in Nosara is protected forest and the community has always strived to harmonize
development with nature conservation. How was the expat community formed? A US citizen bought
in 1962 the entire expanse of land along the coastline of Nosara and developed “The Nosara Project”
which had room for 500 residential plots, commercial sites, a golf course and green zones. Besides,
he built roads and water systems and developed an electricity network. Because of financial
problems, the project was not finished and individual investors took over portions of the land. The
property owners organised themselves in the Nosara Civic Association (NCA) and continued the
project. The association is unique in Costa Rica and its members are committed to balance the
development in Nosara by protecting the environment and keep Nosara free from large-scale
developments and pollution (Ticopages, 2016). With the arrival of foreigners who purchased land to
build their homes, the main type of work among the population changed from traditional farming to
jobs in tourism and construction. The inhabitants who don’t have jobs related to the tourism sector
do for instance fishing and have livestock (Guanacaste Travel Guide, 2016).
WATER PROBLEMS
While Costa Rica is classified as a tropical country, the Guanacaste province experience little rain and
consistent heat from November to April which is called the dry season. Guanacaste is characterised
by many tropical dry forests, volcanoes and an extensive coastline. Climate scientists predict that the
Guanacaste province will experience less rainfall and more intense dry seasons in the future. In
addition to impacts from climate change that will presumably reduce available supplies of water,
many areas in the dry tropics of Central America face increasing water demands due to tourism,
expanding agriculture, rural development programs and population growth (Kuzdaz et. al., 2015).
The impressive growth in tourism and real estate has consequences for natural resources in
Costa Rica. Nowadays, Guanacaste is facing increasing water scarcity which is reinforced by the
overexploitation of limited groundwater resources in the province. The overexploitation is caused by
rapid urbanization and the development of tourism (Van Noorloos, 2012). The water situation of the
coastal area of Guanacaste is critical. It has only small limited-capacity aquifers that are vulnerable to
salt intrusion (Ramírez Cover, 2008). As showed in Figure 2, the district of Nosara consists of two
conditions regarding to the state of the aquifer. In the largest part, aquifers are practically absent
23
and in the coastal area, the aquifer is of a very low potential with limited possibilities of extension
(Plan de Abastecimiento de Agua para Guanacaste, 2008). Although in large parts of the country
ground water is regularly tested to determine rates of recharge and discharge, the aquifer beneath
Nosara is not frequently tested. In general, there is no good knowledge on the aquifers and further
research is necessary in this area (Bower, 2014).
Figure 2 Hydrogeological map on the potential of aquifers (Plan de Abastecimiento de Agua para Guanacaste, 2008).
Furthermore, between 1997 and 2006, almost 70% of the water conflicts in Guanacaste had to do
with coastal tourism and real estate activities (Ramírez Cover, 2008). Developers and individuals are
digging their own wells, with and without permits. This results in a situation in which communities
and policymakers are have no control of the water availability in the region. The problematic high
number of illegal wells which leads to overexploitation are frequently created by tourism developers.
24
The problems of illegal wells, overexploitation and water conflicts have to do with many regulatory
deficiencies of government institutions. Cohesion between responsible institutions, financial and
personnel capacity in these institutions and an inadequate judicial framework is lacking (van
Noorloos, 2012).
POLICIES ON WATER
Tourism is a major part of the economy of Costa Rica which expanded also due to the global increase
in popularity of ecotourism. This expansion did actually led to water supply conflicts in some areas
and water shortages in others. Rapidly developing tourist areas in the province of Guanacaste have
even problems with sewage contamination of coastal water. Private water supply pipelines were
constructed for tourism and real estate projects which results in protests of local residents because it
interfered with their sustainable community planning (Bower, 2014). For more than three decades
Nosara has an expat community which has always tried to balance development with the protection
of the environment. They fought many battles to keep Nosara free from large-scale tourism
development and prevent pollution. How is it possible that Nosara is facing water shortages?
Complex water problems are often assigned to deficiencies in how governance regimes are
designed and implemented. Water supply depends not only on the availability of natural resources
but also on the legal, social, economic and political circumstances (Kuzdas & Wiek, 2014). There are
more than 20 government agencies of Costa Rica that are dealing with water resources; the main
ones for this research are listed in Table 1. It is remarkable that their tasks have the tendency to
overlap, while they often operate without coordination between agencies. Those overlapping duties
create confusion to the implementation of projects which leads to project delays (Bower, 2014).
Costa Rica has not yet created a comprehensive strategy for sustainable management and use of
water resources, and adequate water and sanitation policies are lacking. Some inadequacies of the
water supply system are: laws exist but are not always implemented, little stimulation for customers
to save water, the duties of national government agencies with regard to water overlap, the system
of water concessions (contracts with a grant of water rights) has gaps that results in uncertainty
about water availability, financial support for the water supply system is lacking and there are
problems with the current water law which is recognized by the government (Bower, 2014).
The current Water Law is made in 1942, long before the tremendously growth of the
population, economy and development of Costa Rica (Constitutional Law No. 276, El Congreso
Constitucional De La República De Costa Rica). Under the law, a priority list is used to handle with
water conflicts but this list and most of the document is outdated and need to be reformed. The
Water Law describes water as a public domain. According to the Law, MINAET and ICE (provider of
25
electricity and telecommunications) have the authority for administration and management of water
resources and allocation and should cooperate with ARESEP which is responsible for regulating public
services. However, the present Water Law is not fitting the current social reality of Costa Rica while it
still is the basis for regulation and management of the resource. The current law states for example
that the standard for any permit of water is that it should not affect any existing legally acquired use
and public waters for public services. However, no description or definition exists of the terms used
in that statement. Furthermore, protection of the water resources is not part of the current Water
Law. The fees are charged based on the amount of water used. There exists a new draft of a water
law which is a popular initiative addressing issues as water conflicts (Expediente 14585, Ley De
Recurso Hídrico). Fees will be charged based on the type of activity for which the water is being used
and the quantity of pollution discharged. Besides, the popular initiative includes protection of water
resources by allowing MINAET to regulate or restrict use of water for water bodies that can be
categorized as vulnerable. In the new proposed situation, MINAET will be the administrative sector of
water that is responsible for managing water resources, administrating and investing, processing
application on water harvesting marketing channels and preparing technical studies for development
and planning of the water (Cover-Ruiz, Reilly-Brown & Saavedra, 2009).
Table 1 Main governance agencies responsible for water in Costa Rica (Bower, 2014).
Agency Acronym Purpose
Ministerio del Ambiente,
Energía y Telecomunicaciones
MINAET Responsible overall for water resources, supply,
management, use and protection
Instituto Costarricense de
Acueductos y Alcantarillados
AyA Develops laws and policies regarding water supply,
wastewater and sewage management
National Water Council Coordination of water legislation, research, usage,
development and conservation of water
Servio Nacional de Aguas
Subterráneas Riego y
Avenamiento
SENARA Protects use of surface water and ground water,
permits use of ground water resources by volume,
permits new well construction etc.
Administrative Associations
for Water Supply and Sewage
Systems
ASADAs Local management and maintenance of water
supply and sanitary services.
26
4 METHODOLOGY
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
This research is aiming to identify different solutions for water shortages in Nosara to sustain water
supply in times of water scarcity and in the future which leads to the following research question:
RQ: What could be, in times of water scarcity and in the future, solutions for the water
shortages in the district of Nosara, Guanacaste?
There are various sub-questions which help to answer the main question. To understand the
importance of problem and to know how local people think about the situation, the ASADA,
inhabitants of Nosara, (residential) tourists and owners of tourism facilities will be questioned first.
After that, other concerned institutions will be questioned to understand the relation between water
scarcity and tourism on governance level. All actors will finally be asked about possible solutions to
figure out useful solutions for the specific case of Nosara.
I. How does the local community, (residential) tourists, owners of tourism facilities and the
water supplier (ASADA) perceive the historical, current and future water shortages and how
do they deal with it?
II. What (policy) solutions do the actors see for the problem and how do their views differ?
III. To what extent are the effects of (residential) tourism included in the water policy and
management of Nosara and were there changes in water governance?
IV. What are useful (policy) solutions for water shortages and on which scale should solutions be
implemented?
OPERATIONALIZATION
Concepts
According to the UNESCO (2015), an area is experiencing water stress when annual water supplies
are lower than 1700 m³ per person. If annual water supplies come below 1000 m³ per person, the
population is facing water scarcity, and if it comes below 500 m³ per person there is an “absolute
scarcity”. In Costa Rica, the renewable internal freshwater resources is 24000 m³ per capita, which
implies that the country is not facing water stress (The World Bank, 2013). UN-Water defines water
scarcity as “the point at which the aggregate impact of all users impinges on the supply or quality of
water under prevailing institutional arrangements to the extent that the demand by all sectors
cannot be satisfied fully”. This is actually going on in Guanacaste and in particular the district of
27
Nosara. Therefore we operationalize water scarcity as the point at which the demand exceeds the
availability of water.
The “future” is mentioned in the main research question because recent water shortages are
likely to occur more frequently in the future when no sustainable measures are being taken. Climate
scientists expect that the region will experience less rainfall and more intense dry seasons due to
climate change. Particularly the region of Playa Guiones, Playa Pelada and Playas de Nosara are
facing pressures on water resources.
The “local communities” (referred to in sub-question 1) are native Costa Rican residents of
the district Nosara who live there permanently or on a long-term basis (at least 2 years). In the
results section, they are called “local residents”. Residential tourists will be considered as a separate
group. Residential tourism can be defined as “the mobility of relatively well-to-do citizens from
mostly western countries to a variety of tourist destinations, where they buy (or sometimes rent)
property” (van Noorloos, 2012). Those residential tourists have actually formed their own community
in Nosara. In the results section, respondents in this group are called “foreign resident”. The “tourism
industry” includes hotels, bed and breakfasts and similar accommodations plus real-estate projects
for (residential) tourists in the district Nosara. The “concerned institutions” are those who are related
to or have influence in the water problem of the Nosara area:
1. ASADAs: Aqueduct and Sewer Systems Management Associations
2. AyA: Costa Rican Institute of Aqueducts and Sewage Systems
3. INDER: Institution for Rural Development
4. IMN: Meteorological Institute
5. MINAET: Ministry for the environment, energy and telecommunications
6. Nosara Civic Association (NCA) (residential tourists)
7. SENARA: National Service for Groundwater Irrigation and Drainage
8. ARESEP: The Regulating Authority for Public Services
The scale levels on which solutions have to be implemented are: local level (the district of Nosara),
regional level (the kanton Nicoya), provincial level (the province Guanacaste) or national level (the
country). Possible solutions for Nosara are defined in the next sub-paragraph.
Possible solutions
For the specific situation of Nosara, different possible solutions could be implemented for ensuring
water availability. First of all, new inclusive water management strategies are an option to reduce
water use or increase water availability. By implementing a demand side strategy, owners of
28
accommodations for tourists are perhaps not willing to reduce their water use of facilities for tourists
because of their own interests. Supply side management solutions are on the other hand quite
expensive options which could generate contradiction in governmental organisations. Those large-
scale solutions are solutions who have impact on many people, communities or districts. An example
for large-scale solutions within the water problems in the district of Nosara is the development of a
sewage plant that could save water by removing contaminants from wastewater. The water can
therefore be used multiple times. Such a large project will be expensive, for which it could be hard to
develop. Another solution which could be implemented in Nosara is rainwater collection which
provides an independent water supply during water shutoffs and shortages. Mainly in the rain season
from May till November, rain water could be harvested. In the dry season from December till April,
the collected rain water could be used. People might be in favour because only the technique to
harvest rainwater has to be paid for, and not the water itself. The last solution for now, which is also
perhaps an appropriate one for Nosara, is solar desalination. Because of the location of Nosara, near
to the coast, seawater desalination is logical. Besides, the sun is abundant the major part of the year.
However, to implement all those technical solutions, willingness to pay is an important part of an
appropriate solution for the region (see section 2.2.2.). Other solutions in the field of governance,
institutions and scale have also to be addressed and considered. Those non-technical solutions could
perhaps better fit in the situation of Nosara.
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
The methodology of this research is mixed method based on qualitative and quantitative analyses.
Qualitative research can be defined as analysing subjective opinions of social constructions of issues,
experiences or usages by collecting non-standardized data (Flick, 2009). Quantitative analyses can be
defined as explaining situations by collecting numerical data that are analysed using mathematically
based methods (Aliaga & Gunderson, 2000). The first steps of this research are actually be based on
literature review of academic peer-reviewed articles and policy reports from NGO’s and companies.
The remaining part of data collection is derived from primary data through conducting surveys and
interviews in the field. Because of time constraints is decided to combine interviews with surveys.
The overall design of this research is a stakeholder analysis in which stakeholders are
identified by conducting interviews and surveys. The stakeholder analysis approach has been
developed as an answer on the challenge of multiple interests and objectives for the analysis and
formulation of development policy and practice. The purpose of a stakeholder analysis is gaining an
understanding of a system, and assessing the impact of changes to that system by identifying key
actors or stakeholders and determine their interests in the system. Stakeholders are groups of
29
people, organized or unorganized, who share a common interest in a particular issue or system
(Grimble & Wellard, 1997). The most fundamental separation between stakeholders is between
those who affect a decision, and those affected by this decision. Furthermore they can be
categorized according to their relative influence and importance. Stakeholder analysis is most
relevant in complex situation where there are problems with compatibility between objectives and
stakeholders, which fits perfectly to natural resource management situations. It is particularly
relevant to natural resource issues that are characterized by for example cross-cutting systems and
stakeholder interests as aquifers and watersheds, multiple uses and users of the resource and
subtractability (one person’s use of a resource diminishes others’ use) and temporal trade-offs which
refers to use of resources that may adversely affect future availability or production (Grimble &
Wellard, 1997). Therefore, a stakeholder analysis fits to the case of water problems in Nosara.
First of all, a few exploratory interviews are derived with several stakeholders to identify
everyone with a concern or interest in water in Nosara. Secondly, a larger amount of interviews and
surveys are conducted with all the actors. In total, 12 semi-structural interviews were conducted with
different stakeholders and 35 surveys of which 19 respondents were local residents and 16
respondents were foreign residents (see: Appedix 1 and Table 2). By doing this, the problem is
defined and described from different perspectives to get a comprehensive overview of the situation.
Furthermore, some possible solutions for the problem resulted from the interviews derived form
their own viewpoint. If it was hard for the respondent to come up with solutions, a short list with
suggestions for solutions was discussed. To make sure that respondents had enough room to give
answers on open questions in the survey, each question has sufficient space. When people lacked
writing skills, the survey was conducted as an interview in which the interviewer noted the answers.
Table 2 Stakeholders involved in this research
METHOD TYPE OF STAKEHOLDER QUANTITY
SURVEY Local Residents 19
Foreign Residents 16
INTERVIEW Board member of ASADA 4
Real-estate sector 2
Tourism sector 2
Nosara Civic Association 3
Nation Union of ASADAs 1
The first sampling method used in this research was a cluster sampling of inhabitants of the different
communities in the district of Nosara. Because of the difference in lifestyle and location of the local
30
residents and residential tourists, those two groups are separated. Within the different communities,
two different areas in the Nosara district were randomly chosen to avoid bias. The second sampling
method used in this research is convenience sampling for stakeholders of organisations. Because of
time constraints, it worked best to do interviews with respondents who were available and willing to
participate on that moment. Furthermore, snowball sampling had been a useful method to reach
other actors involved in the water problem.
LIMITATIONS AND ETHICAL ISSUES
There are some limitations and risks of this research that could have consequences for the results.
First of all the language barrier is a limitation of this research because the researcher is not a native
Spanish speaker. Despite the fact that most of the respondents were able to speak English, from
some interviews the researcher would probably have got more information if she was more fluent in
the local language, Spanish. Furthermore, a limitation of this research is that there was a delay in the
schedule which resulted in less conducted surveys and interviews with respondents than was aimed
beforehand. Therefore, some stakeholders in the field are not interviewed. Besides, the researcher
had no technical background in water science which made it difficult to understand complex
technical solutions when those were brought forward. The sample cannot be considered as
characteristic for all towns with tourism development, because of its specific composition of
residents and history that aimed sustainable residential tourism. The snowball-sampling method may
have caused bias, although it was always tried to as much as possible different perspectives. Another
constraint of this research is that during the surveys, time and willingness of each respondent to
answer all the questions variated from extensive to limited. This resulted in some cases in missing or
very compact answers.
By conducting field research in Nosara, the research process must ensure the participants’
dignity and privacy. Although the topic of the research is not specifically about personal experiences,
feelings or believes, respondents could bring forward opinions that could include sensitive
information. Participate to the research must not have negative implications for the participants.
Furthermore local needs or concerns have to be considered and knowledge and traditions of the
communities have to be respected during the research. As far as the researcher knows, none of the
respondents experienced negative consequences as result of participating in this research.
Furthermore, the findings of this research are shared with the stakeholders that participated.
31
EMPIRICAL CHAPTERS (5, 6, 7)
In this research is the main question: “What could be, in times of water scarcity and in the future,
solutions for the water shortages in the district of Nosara, Guanacaste?” Based on the four different
sub-questions will be discussed how different stakeholders think about the water situation. The
answers on the four different sub-questions will provide an answer to the central question.
The following three chapters will present findings on this research project about solutions for
water shortages in the district of Nosara. The findings are all based on results from interviews as well
as surveys with different actors in the field. The first chapter “Mapping the situation” contains an
explanation of the most important stakeholders in the debate, perspectives on the cause of the
water shortages, perspectives on the situation in the past and in the future and experiences with
living in this situation. Therefore it will give an answer on the first sub-question (“How does the local
community, (residential) tourists, owners of tourism facilities and the water supplier (ASADA) perceive
the historical, current and future water shortages and how do they deal with it?”). The second
chapter “The “Who” question” will give insight in perspectives on who the ones are that have to take
action in order to solve the water problem. Besides the third sub-question will be answered (“To
what extent are the effects of (residential) tourism included in the water policy and management of
Nosara and were there changes in water governance?”), and the fourth sub-question will be partly
answered in this chapter. The third chapter “Finding the solution” will show the different views on
possible solutions for the water shortage. Therefore it will give an answer on the second question
(“What (policy) solutions do the actors see for the problem and how do their views differ?”) and it will
complete the answer on the fourth research question (“What are useful (policy) solutions for water
shortages and on which scale should solutions be implemented?”).
32
5 MAPPING THE SITUATION
In this chapter is explained who the most important stakeholders are in the debate, if the
respondents know about the water shortages, what the situation in the past was like and how they
think it will be in the future, what in their opinion the cause of the water shortage is and if they think
knowledge about the problem is lacking. Furthermore is studied if the respondents experience
problems themselves, how they deal with it and if they actually take actions to improve the situation.
WHO’S IN?
Even though predicted is that more institutions were involved in the water problem of Nosara (as the
INDER, IMN, SENARA and ARESEP, those were not visible in the district and almost no-one of the
respondents mentioned one of these directly), found is that the following actors are the most
important:
ASADAs: An ASADA is a small-scale democratic community water association that independently
manage their own small water system in rural areas The ASADAs in Costa Rica serve 30% of the
national population with potable water. Members of communities that are interested in participating
apply to be associates of the ASADA (Babson Dobbin & Sarathy, 2015). The first responsibility of the
ASADA is to find, produce and deliver potable water. The second one is to manage wastewater, but
there is no sceptic system in Nosara for that at this moment. The ASADA works together with the
AyA, the NCA, Bandera Azul and ARESEP, but all the regulations are coming from the AyA and the
ministry above that, MINAET. As the respondent at the ASADA said: “The authority is in San Jose, the
AyA leads us”. There are seven different ASADAs in the district of Nosara, formed out of the
traditional communities (Fig 5).
Residents: There are two groups of residents that could be differentiated in Nosara. On the one hand
“local residents” that are born in Costa Rica and live there permanently or on a long-term basis (at
least 2 years). On the other hand “foreign residents” that came as residential tourists or emigrated to
Nosara. Generally, local residents live in simple typical Costa Rican houses while the majority of
foreign residents own relatively large and luxurious villas.
Real-estate developers: Although the “Nosara Project” started by one developer, nowadays multiple
real estate companies (mainly owned by foreign residents) sell lots and villas primarily situated in the
Guiones and Pelada sections. The real estate sector want to continue developing and usually doesn’t
see water as a problem because they think there is sufficient water in the ground.
33
Tourism sector: In only a few years, the tourism sector has grown tremendously in Nosara. The public
varies from surfers and people doing yoga to people mainly enjoying beach life and good food. In
only two years, the district got 20 new restaurants and even more hotels or other places to stay for
tourists. The popularity of the destination has grown also because of articles in leading magazines as
the New York Times (March 2, 2016, The New York Times). However, these articles and brochures of
real-estate obviously do not mention Nosara’s water problems.
Nosara Civic Association: Traditionally, the Nosara Civic Association (NCA) is organised by the first
foreign property owners in Nosara. The association calls itself an environmental institution that
promotes a sustainable future and collaboration between stakeholders in Nosara. The position of the
NCA is all about connecting different actors and their strategy focuses nowadays on zoning areas in
the district of Nosara. Secondly they focus on protecting their own land and solid waste
management. One of the current projects is about mapping the watersheds and make sure that they
are protected and reforested. Actually, until twelve years ago the NCA ruled the water before the
AyA decided that they didn’t permit anymore that the water was led by a private organization. After
that, the different ASADAs in Nosara were formed.
AyA: The AyA is the leading institution for the provision of water for human consumption in Costa
Rica. It manages the water legislation and execution. The AyA has outsourced their supply activities
to locally leaded ASADAs of small communities. If an ASADA does not have the capacity anymore, the
AyA should step in.
DOES EVERYBODY KNOW?
One of the reasons to conduct this research was because of the newspaper article of the end of
December which stated that Nosara was facing pressures on water resources due to the large
number of tourists visiting the region for the holiday season. To make sure that the water problem as
told in the article is well known among the residents, they were asked as first if they knew about the
situation. From the 47 different respondents of the surveys as well as the interviews, only two
residents (one foreign resident and one Costa Rican resident) stated that they didn’t know about the
situation. This is in line with the prediction that the majority should know that something is going on
with the water resources. Even more, in multiple sections of the district Nosara the water was shut
off by the ASADA during at least the evenings and nights. Actually, there have been days that the
water in the section of Playas de Nosara was off from 13.00 till 08.00. Furthermore, 77% of the
respondents from the surveys stated that they received water from the ASADA which shows that the
larger part is dependent from their water supply (Fig 4). Others indicated that they had access to a
private well. Because almost every ASADA had problems with supplying water 24 hours a day and the
34
majority has water from the ASADA, it can be concluded that people who use water from one of the
ASADAs should know about the situation.
Figure 3 Source of water of foreign residents and local residents
SITUATION IN THE PAST AND IN THE FUTURE
At the ASADA-board meeting (February, 2016) it is said that in the last two years around sixty new
construction projects have been executed in Playas de Nosara. These construction projects vary from
houses to hotels and restaurants or stores, but the most new buildings are quite luxurious. This has
led to an increase in water use of 35% every year from 23.000 m³ to 40.000 m³. Furthermore, in
Costa Rica water by law stated as public domain which means in practice that you may use as much
as you need (see: section 3.3) Actually in the Playas de Nosara-section (Fig 5) people use much more
water in their households than the local inhabitants do.
When asking what the water situation was like in the past, the majority of the residents
indicated that there was no or slightly a problem in the past and that the situation got worse in
mainly the last couple of years. The majority of the local residents mention in addition that it is since
the enormous growth of the population (Box 1).
35
According to a member of the ASADA board, only in March or April they lost the water for a few days
in the past. In his view, it was furthermore a type of lifestyle change: the houses changed to villas
with swimming pools requesting large amounts of water. Some residents mention that there was
always a little water problem, but that these concerns were periodic shortages, due to the seasons:
Water used to be turned off in April, now it’s being regulated from December on. If nothing is done,
we will have less water more people and poorer quality of water (Respondent 13, foreign resident). As
already mentioned by the above respondent, the majority of the residents is really concerned about
the future situation related to water. According to the larger part it will be a critical problem, in
which the situation will be worse unless people take action as changing their habits, regulating the
growth of development, improving infrastructure or do more conservation and resource planning.
One of the local residents is particularly concerned about proposals for getting more water from the
aquifer beneath the ground in Nosara. During the ASADA board-meeting of February 2016, one of
the board-members of Playas de Nosara announced their plans of digging more wells in the area.
They were starting a research in the near future to find the best location to construct one. However,
the latest new constructed well gives a disappointing amount of water, less than the old ones
produce. One of the local respondent predicts furthermore that the aquifer would most likely be
exploited which results in drier forests and therefore less rainfall while the demand for especially
tourism will continue to grow (Resident 18, local resident). Someone from the Nation Union of
ASADAs predicts that if they go on without having a national policy for the protection of the
watersheds, forest and water sources, the future will be very worrying. Another local resident points
out the probability of health problems in the future. A few of the residents is not that concerned
because they see more similarities: If it rains enough this year, there will be no shortage basing my
opinion in past experience of the years I’ve lived here. (Respondent 9, foreign resident).
Box 1 Population growth of Nosara
Population growth of Nosara
Everybody I spoke to in informal settings as well as in interviews mentioned the incredible fast
development of Nosara. The one after the other construction project is started, and new
restaurants opened their doors almost every single month of the past two years. While these new
constructions are mainly in the Playas de Nosara area, which is called by the locals as Proyecto
Americano, the surrounding local communities in the district are growing too. This is because the
construction projects, hotels and restaurants bring work which attracts people from all over Costa
Rica to live in Nosara. Actual numbers of growth are hard to find, a decent data recording system
is not available. The only source of information is the number of water meters, but this is not
reliable data because one new water meter could be used by one family or a hotel with 25 rooms.
36
EXPERIENCES WITH WATER SHORTAGES
The results of the survey amongst residents show that there are more people having problems with
water shortages than people without problems. There is slightly a difference between the foreign
and local community, because 62.5% of the foreign people face problems and 57.9% of the local
people indicate that they have problems (Table 5).
Table 3 Amount of people who indicated currently facing water problems
PROBLEMS FOREIGN RESIDENT LOCAL RESIDENT TOTAL
YES 10 (62.5%) 11 (57.9%) 21
NO 6 (37.5%) 8 (42.1%) 14
TOTAL 16 19 35
When controlling for a relationship between having problems with the water shortage and the
source of water it was found that there is a reasonably strong relationship between the type of water
source and perceiving problems, Cramers V = 0,45 (Table 6).
Table 4 Amount of people using different sources of water
WATER SOURCE FOREIGN RESIDENT LOCAL RESIDENT TOTAL
ASADA 12 (75.0%) 15 (78.9%) 27
PRIVATE WELL 2 (12.5%) 3 (15.8%) 5
ASADA AND PRIVATE
WELL
2 (12.5%) 1 (5.3%) 3
TOTAL 16 19 35
Almost all of the questioned residents (91.2%) indicated that they use less water than in the past
because they know the district of Nosara is currently facing water shortages. Only three people (one
foreign resident and two local people) stated that they do not. Residents use different methods to
deal with the water shortages, but the majority of the foreign residents say they storage water
through fill up tanks when water is available. Some even fill barrels for in the kitchen and shower.
The majority of local residents that have problems with water indicate that they fill buckets or
covered bins for when the water is cut off during the nights. No one of them noted that they make
use of tanks. Others buy bottled water to drink and accept that they don’t have water to cover other
needs. One of the local residents even mentioned that she deals with it by saving water:
37
“Yes, if I try to save as much as you can, wash once a week, almost not watering the plants and I try
to use only what is necessary. We shower with a bucket to save water” (Respondent 35, local
resident).1
THE CAUSE OF THE WATER SHORTAGES
There are a few different main causes that are frequently mentioned by the residents of the Nosara
district. First of all, indicated by all of the actors in this research are the changing natural
circumstances as El Niño, climate change, extended droughts and the limited amount of rain in the
rainy season of Costa Rica. As one of the respondents stated: “I believe that the main problem is the
drought. I think that there is not sufficient water out of rain to meet the actual demands of water”
(Respondent 18, local resident).2 These views are confirmed by decreasing numbers of total annual
rainfall the last years and the remarkably low amount of rain in 2015 (Table 3). The summer season
without rainfall that lasts from December to April is also the peak period for tourist coming to the
area which asks a higher amount of water than in the rainy season. But to prove climate change
more data on rainfall of the past is required. Unfortunately there is no other historical data from
Nosara since this numbers are collected by foreign resident who settled in Nosara twenty years ago.
Figure 4 Total annual rainfall in Nosara (mm) (Source: NCA, Bobbi Johnson).
Secondly the massive growth of the community is indicated by almost all the residents as one of the
main causes of the water shortages. Terms as “over development” in mainly the tourism and real-
estate sector are used to describe the expansion of Nosara and specifically the Playas de Nosara-
1 Original quote; “Si, trato de ahorrar lo más que pueda lavando una vez por semana, no riego casi las plantas y trado de usar solo lo necesario. Nos bañamos con un balde para ahorrar.” 2 Original quote: “Yo creo que el principal problema es la sequía. Creo que no hay suficiente agua de lluvias para satisfacen la actual demanda de agua.”
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
19
95
19
96
19
97
19
98
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
20
04
20
05
20
06
20
07
20
08
20
09
20
10
20
11
20
12
20
13
20
14
20
15
Total annual rainfall Nosara (mm)
38
section. Figure 4 shows the high concentration and enormous amount of lots and houses for sale in
one specific area, the section of Playas de Nosara, while there are spread over the rest of the district
only several lots or houses for sale. Furthermore, it is remarkable that only a few local residents
indicate specifically that the high amount of cutting trees for development is one of the main causes.
Also someone of the Nation Union of ASADAs stated that for many years the community of Nosara
has dedicated to the destruction of the forest and therefore the water is less every day (Box 2).
Figure 5 Lots and houses for sale or sold in the Nosara District (source: http://www.surfingnosara.com/nosara-real-estate)
Besides, “over usage” or “desperdicio de agua” through swimming pools, watering plants, watering
the streets to moisten the dust and high water use of tourists and hotels is mentioned to explain the
cause of the water shortage. In an interview, a foreign resident mentioned that: “The supply-demand
of water is out of balance, this type of travellers do not care about water issues”. The respondent
refers to tourists that have much to spend and they care about a luxurious lifestyle that requests a
high amount of water use. Thirdly, the poor infrastructure of the water system is stated by the
majority of all the respondents of this research. Also one of the real-estate developers in Nosara
indicates that there was no investment in the system which is the cause for the water shortages. The
water system is old and not suitable anymore for the high demand of water these days. Therefore
pipelines are frequently broken which results in leakages of water. Some local residents blame the
small number of wells for the water shortages. As one of them stated: “There are little wells and that
39
is not enough for the whole community” (Resident 20, local resident)3. One of the board members of
the ASADA of Playas de Nosara says that because of the phenomena El Niño, current wells are not
capable to produce the requested amount of water. In contradiction, he also mentioned that there is
a need for new wells and extra voluntary financing to pay for digging new wells. However, there is no
knowledge about the amount of water in the aquifer. Is there enough groundwater available to dig
more wells? It makes no sense to construct extra wells if there is simply not enough water in the
aquifer. This is besides a conflict of opinions in the community of Nosara because some say that they
are worried about the quantity of water in the ground, while mainly real estate developers think that
there is lots of water in the aquifer beneath Nosara. However, there is no information of studies to
the real state of the aquifer, everybody heard it somewhere from someone.
The fourth and fifth reason were raised in the interviews with different stakeholders and
stated as lack of collaboration and problems with funding solutions. At this moment there is no
collaboration between the ASADAs in Nosara (see section 7.2). The AyA does not allow ASADAs to
see opportunities of collaboration. According to someone from one of the ASADA boards, this is
because the AyA is afraid that such a large ASADA would have too much power in comparison to the
AyA. Besides, there is a lack of knowledge regarding the administration of these water systems. The
seven different ASADAs are formed traditionally out of seven little towns or neighbourhoods in
Nosara, situated close to the main road (Fig 5). They have no direct relation, except for the fact that
they use water out of the same aquifer. They have a very simple administrative structure in which 42
people in total work for free. Those people are residents of the community and do not need a
3 Original quote: “Hay pocos posos de agua y eso no alcanza para todo la comunidad.”
Land use change
When changing the way of how land is used, direct effect occur on hydrologic processes. This is
because of its link with the evapotranspiration regime and its enormous impact on the initiation
of the surface runoff. Evapotranspiration is the sum of evaporation and plant transpiration from
the Earth's land and ocean surface to the atmosphere. Evaporation is described as the process of
a substance in a liquid state that changes to a gaseous state because of an increase in
temperature. Precipitation is the primary source of groundwater and the conversion of forests to
agricultural lands or urban development’s leads to reduce the evapotranspiration. This means
that the ground takes up less water which in turn results in less evapotranspiration that in the end
leads to less rain. This vicious cycle therefore strengthens itself. Even more, when the soil has a
low infiltration rate, a considerable amount of precipitation flows directly in to the rivers without
contributing to the recharge of the aquifer (Ranjan, Priyantha, Kazama, So & Sawamoto,2006).
Box 2 Land use change
40
background in the field of water or management. Therefore everybody can apply for a seat in the
water board of an ASADA. Although in the smallest ASADAs people stay in the water board for a
couple of years, there should be a new board every two years (Table 4). Except for the water board
of Playas de Nosara that is formed by almost all foreign residents; they are more professionally
organized, but even don’t have specifically educated or trained board members. Every water board
comes together occasionally depending on the size of the ASADA. The ASADA of Playas de Nosara
even has a number of permanent employees that work full-time in the office, while the smallest
ASADAS only meet once in a while. The water boards are chosen by a voting system in which the
most popular people get a seat in the new water board. Every water meter is one vote, so someone
who owns twenty buildings with twenty different water meters has twenty votes. In this way, not
particularly the people with the most knowledge or experience in the field are chosen, but the
people who are most popular or have strategic interest for the voter. However, in smaller ASADAs
that are led by local residents, the voting system is less competitive and imaginably is that there are
less people willing to take place in the water board because of diverse reasons as lack of interest,
time or importance of the topic. The different actors using water from the Playas de Nosara ASADA
have stronger contrasting interests than in the other ASADAs, where users are mainly households.
Table 5 Number of Users of Nosara’s ASADAs
According to the someone of the Nation Union of ASADAs there is also little collaboration between
the AyA and the ASADAs. Besides he indicated the fact that:
“About 12.000 men and women work without a salary to provide water to 26% of the population of
Costa Rica, which saves the country about 50 billion colones every year “.
As also indicated by a Dutch resident of Nosara is that funding, guidance, organization and a proper
network lacks to regulate a functioning water system. Furthermore, the ASADA is losing money by
every single m³ water that is used, even though 86% of the users of water from ASADA Playas de
LOCATION NUMBER OF USERS
1 NOSARA AND ARENALES 650
2 LAS DELICIAS 90
3 SANTA MARTA 83
4 ESPERANZA 125
5 SANTA TERESITA 120
6 GUIONES AND PELADA 550
7 GARZA 85
41
Nosara pay voluntary commitment. This is because the water rate is very low and the maintenance
costs are very high because of the old infrastructure of the water system. Overall, frequently
mentioned by local residents is that mismanagement of the resource is one of the causes of the
water shortages in Nosara. One of the examples of this has to do with illegal wells. The Dutch
embassy mentioned that illegal wells are a nation-wide problem because there is no view on the
quantity of water that is used. There is supposed to be a control on that, but there is insufficient
capacity. A respondent of the NCA also brought up that problem: “Lots of people have illegal wells, so
numbers are underestimated of non-registered wells.”
Figure 6 Map of Nosara District (source: Ministerio de Hacienda Direccíon General de Tributación)
Figure 6 shows that the different stated causes have various underlying causes which in turn are
result of other elements. Changing natural circumstances is caused by climate change and El Niño.
The extensive use of water is a result of community growth and deforestation is caused by land use
change, while these both could be derived of the increasing tourism sector in Nosara. Poor
infrastructure of the water system is a result of lack of investments and mismanagement, and no
collaboration has as underlying cause mismanagement as well. Both of these underlying causes do in
42
turn result of lack of knowledge and experience of the managers of the water system. This means
that there is a connection between all the given causes during the interviews and surveys.
Figure 7 Causes of the water shortages
LACK OF KNOWLEDGE
According to a respondent of the ASADA of Playas de Nosara, knowledge is lacking about water
resources and salt water intrusion of which in the near future studies have to be done. Furthermore
several respondents indicate that an engineer should come to Nosara for conducting a study to the
water resources in the area, because lack of knowledge is seen as a big part of the problem. Also the
NCA sees the lack of knowledge as a part of the problem: “The ASADA and AyA must made decisions
on base of studies of how much water there is. There must be clear knowledge of the status of the
watershed. The first step is researching and data. If the ASADA has data, they could start talking with
the AyA.” However, someone from the real-estate sector actually thinks different about the lack of
knowledge and states that there is no knowledge lacking but the communication is about the water
situation. As explained in the last paragraph as well, there are different stories about the quantity of
water in the aquifer beneath Nosara, but no one is able to tell which one is true. This respondent
means that communication about practices of how to save water is missing, while you could reach a
lot with sufficient communication about the water situation. When asking people about who is
providing them knowledge about the water situation as for example information about how to deal
with the problem and what prospects are, the majority answered the ASADA. The ASADA of Playas
43
de Nosara provides information through Facebook, which reaches a big part of the community. Other
sources of information that are mentioned are via the community, local newspaper articles, common
sense or “Mother Nature”.
6 THE “WHO” QUESTION
In this chapter will be explained how the respondents think about responsibility, who should
implement the solutions and on which scale. Furthermore will be discussed if there were changes in
water governance since the development of the “American Project” and the tourism sector in
Nosara.
WHO IS RESPONSIBLE FOR FIXING OF THE PROBLEM?
The opinions about who is responsible for fixing the problems are divided. When looking at the
actors responsible according to the answers in the surveys, 71% of the respondents state that the
ASADA is responsible, before the AyA (57%) and the residents (60%). It was possible to choose more
options than one, remarkable is that 24% of the respondents choose “All actors”.
Figure 8 Percentages of actors responsible for fixing the water problem
As an explanation for choosing all actors as responsible is given that the residents spill the water and
should be more careful, but that the government organizations should have more control over the
situation and rating of water. Moreover, the ASADA is first in line because they distribute the water.
Also during the interviews all of the respondents mention at first the ASADA as the coordinator of
initiatives and secondly the community, as one of the ASADA board members stated: “ASADA is
responsible for organizing the fixing, but people in this town have to pay for their own infrastructure”.
Some local residents choose AyA above the ASADA because they think that the volunteers working in
an ASADA are not trained to supply as many people as there are now. Others say that every person
should be aware and pass on information and all should collaborate in the situation for preventing
that water shortages will continue.
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
ASADA AyA Residents MINAET Other
N=33
Who is responsible?
44
WHO CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE?
No less than 60% of the questioned residents indicate that they think they are not able to make a
difference in the debate about the water situation, against 40% of the residents that think they can
use their position. When controlling for the origin of the respondents, is found that there are no
remarkable differences. Foreign residents who answered “No” were not able to explain why, while
some who answered “Yes” indicated that everyone can participate in the debate by for example
raising awareness and communicate about the problem. Local residents who answered “No” stated
that they had no sufficient information or influence to make a difference and that it must be
addressed by political leaders and members of the ASADAs. Local residents who answered “Yes”
indicated that they could give their opinions in meetings or teaching younger generations to take
care of natural resources. Someone from the real-estate sector indicated that in his position he could
contribute with financial resources: “I could make a difference by giving support and doing
donations”. The actor that should make the difference according to her duties is the AyA. While
ASADAs feel the pressure to find solutions for the water problem themselves, the AyA should
intervene in case of problems (see section 5.1 and 6.3).
WHO SHOULD IMPLEMENT SOLUTIONS?
The opinions about who should implement possible solutions (see chapter: 7) are not highly divided.
When looking at the combinations of actors according to the answers in the surveys, 84% of the
respondents chose for the ASADA, 74% selected the AyA and 65% chose for residents. Remarkable is
that 29% of the respondents selected “All actors” as the ones who should implement solutions.
Figure 9 Percentages of actors who should implement solutions.
As an explanation for choosing all the actors, one of the foreign residents indicates that: “These
issues needs to be addressed dynamically with all. It’s a local community, country and global issue.”
Despite that this statement is broad, this is also stated by local residents who frequently give the
reason that it is necessary to work together for implementing solutions. If all actors exert pressure,
there might be achieved something (Resident 24, local resident). Another explanation is that the
0%
50%
100%
ASADA AyA Residents MINAET
N=31
Who should implement solutions?
45
whole province Guanacaste faces water problems, which means that the best solutions should be
implemented by provincial wide operating actors. Others that choose the ASADA and AyA give
explanations like: “The ASADA needs to ensure adequate wells, tanks, pipes and the AyA & Costa Rica
need to authority the necessary fee structure.” One of the local residents indicated that better
management of the aquifers should be done by the ASADAS while another mentioned that the AyA
should implement solutions because of their experience. The next question is who is going to pay,
this is examined in section 6.6.
WHICH SCALE?
According to the most respondents of the survey (51.4%) solutions should be implemented on
national level. After that implementing solutions on provincial level (42.9%) and on the district of
Nosara (34.3%) are the most chosen options (Fig 5). This is probably due to the fact that the water
problem is not only in the district of Nosara but in the whole province of Guanacaste. Furthermore,
decision-making is highly concentrated in the central government of Costa Rica, which could have
resulted in that respondents chose for the national level (more in chapter: 8).
Figure 10 Percentages of on which scale solutions should be implemented
CHANGES IN WATER GOVERNANCE
To what extend are the effects of (residential) tourism included in the water policy and management
of Nosara and were there changes in water governance? With the enormous growth of (residential)
tourism in Nosara, it would be logical that new policies are implemented to protect the environment.
However, according to the ASADA of Playas de Nosara, effects of tourism are not included in the
water policy or in the local policies of the district Nosara. This is because Nosara doesn’t have their
own municipality with local regulations. As a resident from Nosara said about the policy: “All the
taxes are going to Nicoya… Nosara is as “the goose that laid the golden eggs”, there is a lot of money
circulating.” As stated before, human consumption of water is regulated by law and even hotels
0,00%
10,00%
20,00%
30,00%
40,00%
50,00%
60,00%
Costa Rica Province Guanacaste Kanton Nicoya District Nosara
N=35
Scale
46
don’t have a limit of water use in Costa Rica. There were no changes in water governance yet, but the
AyA has sent a consultant who is trying to get the seven ASADAs in the district of Nosara to
collaborate on water issues. However, some people from the ASADAs itself are sceptical about the
intentions from the AyA. They think that the AyA wants to prevent that the ASADAs in Nosara
collaborate because of competition issues. One of the local implemented policies by the ASADAs that
exists related to effects of tourism is the impact fee that people who build new houses have to pay.
For new connections to the existing water system should be paid an additional fee that is used to
improve and enlarge the system. Normally the ARESEP, the government institution that determines
the water rates, does not change rates, but this impact fee is approved. The problem with this impact
fee is according to a member of the ASADA that: “former low impact houses are having now high
impacts because they turned into rental houses, while the impact fee is only on new constructions”.
Furthermore, this fee is not mandatory which results in that some new residents simply do not pay
this fee to the ASADA. A solution could be to introduce impacts fees for houses that change their
land use plan, but there is no zoning in Nosara. This makes it hard to define when someone changes
their way to use the land. According to the NCA, their strategy is to focus on zoning the area of
Nosara. Each part has to create a zoning plan: “Plan regulador” which contains for example the type
of soil and footprints. But also the NCA has as an environmental institution no power itself,
conforming to them, only the government has the ability to set the rules. As a member of the ASADA
stated: “We should find a super creative way within the law because the laws on this area are the
problem in Costa Rica.” Because of the absence of strong regional zoning and legislation to control
the massive development of tourism and real-estate areas, roads, houses and hotels are being
constructed on marginal lands that were earlier abandoned. Therefore it is important that legislation
and zoning plans are established for non-agricultural land as tourism and real-estate investments in
rural areas as Nosara (Calvo-Alvarado, McLennan, Sánchez-Azofeifa & Garvin, 2008).
WHO IS GOING TO PAY?
Several years ago, a slogan has been used in Costa Rica that said “the polluter pays”. However, until
now that was never the case according to someone of the Nation Union of ASADAs. A few of the local
residents mentioned investments by the government as one of the solutions. They think there should
be put more pressure on the government for new wells. One of the board members of the Playas de
Nosara ASADA is sceptical about it and stated that the government doesn’t have the resources. As a
solution for the fact that there is no funding from the government, some people indicate that
fundraising event for water projects could be an option. Remarkable is that a respondent from the
ASADA in Garza first mentions that foreign organizations should pay because the government
47
wouldn’t do it. According to one of the board members of Playas de Nosara, the water users should
invest in the future or rates should be differentiated. This solution in mentioned several times by
other actors during the interviews. However, the ASADAs of the district of Nosara are not allowed to
differentiate the rates themselves. The ARESEP is the only institution that makes decisions on water
rates. On national scale a number of financing agreements are made with water users in the business
sector as bottlers, large irrigation water users and hotels in order to let them pay for the
conservation of watersheds. Besides, the country revised its water tariff in 2005 and introduced a
conservation fee (Pagiola, 2008). In fact, differentiated rates of water already exist. The different
categories of users are: domestic consumption, industrial use, commercial use, tourism, agro-
industrial, agriculture, aquaculture and hydropower. When receiving water from aquifers, the rate is
higher than from surface water. Industrial, commercial and tourism use are higher than for domestic,
agro-industrial or agriculture use (GWP, 2005). However, the different ASADAs in Nosara have only
one determined rate for every use because it is seen as rural community.
48
7 FINDING SOLUTIONS
In this chapter will be analysed which solutions the different respondents gave for the water
shortages in Nosara. Both technical as well as policy solutions will be considered. Furthermore this
chapter gives an insight in why different solutions are not implemented yet and what explains the
opinion of people.
TECHNICAL SOLUTIONS
The majority of the interviewed respondents and the ones that filled in the survey indicated that on
the short term you could think of solutions as new wells and improving the old infrastructure of
pipelines. As a foreign resident mentioned: “The pipelines are 30 years old, they lose water from the
well to the tank, to pipe, to house.” One of the local residents came up with lower the water pressure
at certain times of the day, which is already carried out by the ASADA of Garza. Other frequently
given solutions of interviewed actors are small-scale waste water treatment plants or desalinization
plants. By new development of houses could the concept of building “smart homes” make a
difference in the water situation. By switching to more efficient appliances and maintaining
household water-using devices you could achieve water savings. Examples are irrigation systems and
indoor water efficiency tools for the bathroom or kitchen, but also especially relevant for Nosara are
tools for saving water through pool management. Hotels could take actions themselves to contribute
to solutions for the water shortage, as explained by the sustainability manager from the Harmony
Hotel: “In our garden we make use of drip irrigation with recycled grey water from our showers (Fig
4), furthermore our gardeners get education about for example using native trees, we use harvested
rainwater for rooms of the staff and our sanitary services are equipped with water saving toilets and
showers.” There is actually more considered about solutions regarding policies and changing habits
of residents which will be discussed in the next two sub-sections.
POLICY SOLUTIONS
A range of solutions on policy level is mentioned by as well residents in the surveys as other actors
during interviews. First of all, collaboration is according to most of the respondents a key to a
solution for the water problem. Some local residents stated that also on community level people
should work together or with the ASADA and AyA on what is possible. Although there is no
connection of pipelines, water wastage in the area of one ASADA could affect the situation in the
area of another ASADA. At this moment the ASADAs do not work together because there was no
need for collaboration considering there were almost no water problems in the past. This affects the
49
efficiency of the system now, because on a surface of only 135 km², combine forces could be one of
the first steps forward. One of the respondents of the ASADA of Playa de Nosara mentioned for
example that there are benefits in collaborate more with other ASADAs to jointly purchase new
tubes or to share information. According to him, more collaboration in the form of assistance by
engineers from the AyA would also be very helpful. By all means there is need for a more political
and technical assistance by for example professionals who did studies in that specific field. One of
the local residents indicated that Emergencia Nacional declared to have funds and projects to realize
studies to see what happens with the aquifers. Furthermore MINAET, AyA and ASADA proposed that
they are going to carry out a project after having the results of another investigation about
possibilities to collaborate on water (Resident 33, local resident). According to someone of the
Nation Union of ASADAs, the ASADAs should collaborate more if they had the economic resources.
There are actually also doubts concerning collaboration of specifically the seven ASADAs in Nosara.
As a foreign resident stated: “When connecting this ASADA (Playas de Nosara) to others in the region,
you accept also their issues.” There are for example large differences between the ASADAs in Nosara
in terms of administration. While for example residents of the one of Playas de Nosara could pay via
online banking, is it only possible to pay in Esperanza when someone is there to collect the money.
One of the other frequently mentioned solutions is education about water use and saving water for
(younger) residents as well as tourists and house owners to preserve the water resources. Even for
this, collaboration between institutions is necessary.
One of the respondents indicated that there first have to be a proper record system for
measuring the water use. After that the respondent stated: “The second step is to solve issues by
taking the boards together and talk about how to reach sustainable community planning. Step three
is to have strategic planning for issues and a conflict of interest policy.”
Another given solution by some of the respondents is to slow down or temporarily stop
providing building permits and limit development until something is done about the water shortage.
This kind of protection for the aquifer is already applied in some parts of San José. However, this
solution is directly opposed to the opinion of real-estate developers. A related solution is that if you
start building on properties you have to pay a certain amount for repairing the system. There already
exists an impact fee, but there are some disadvantages such as its non-mandatory status (see section
6.5). In this field real-estate developers agree, as one of them said: “Only new ones have to pay for
the infrastructure, old ones not. And then you still have the option to ask existing residents to pay.”
Some of the local residents mentioned more regulations on water use as regulating the size
of water tanks of hotels and houses, reforestation and more protected areas as solutions for the
water shortages. These solutions were not mentioned by the foreign residents. In line with this,
someone of the Nation Union of ASADAs states that officials of institutions have to implement the
50
laws that protect the forests and the water sources. However, then first corruption should be
eliminated because those officials are frequently being bribed by developers and big investors. These
last mentioned statements are quite wide and not easily solvable. Political corruption is one of the
barriers that could be collectively overcome by recognizing and locating them (Kuzdas & Wiek, 2014).
For the district of Nosara are more realistic solutions needed that are suitable to implement quickly.
A last given solution is for some residents to increase rates of water because according to
many respondents the water is very low priced. Before the ASASA regulated the water, the NCA
charged $50 per month. After that, the priced dropped to Costa Rican rates of $5 per month.
Therefore the ASADA of Playas de Nosara asks their residents to pay a voluntary fee. The mainly
foreign users of this ASADA could afford it, but in other ASADAs there is not such an extra fee. Not
everybody is willing to pay a higher rate for the water. Actually, expected was that the majority of
the local Costa Ricans wouldn’t pay more for water, but the survey results show that 83,3% of them
are willing to pay more for water in order to solve water problems. This is comparable with the
amount of foreign people that are willing to pay more which is 81.3%. Foreign respondents who
answered no gave reasons as: “Only the ones who abuse need to pay more” (Respondent 4, foreign
resident) or “No, this must be solved by the government” (Respondent 9, foreign resident). When
local residents answered that they were not willing to pay more, they said that water is a free
resource that belongs to everyone and should be especially affordable for lower income people.
Multiple local residents who answered “yes” are actually only willing to pay more if it is guaranteed
that it is the best solution with a good service or under the condition that it is really necessary and
fair. However, rates for water are nation-wide determined by the ARESEP. The municipality, AyA or
ASADA is not allowed to change those rates by themselves.
Rising voluntary fees could be a solution for this disagreement, because additional fees for
people who go above their limit of water use is technically not possible on local level due to
regulated prices by the government. The ARESEP could introduce differentiated rates which could be
applied in Nosara. Higher fees when people use more is actually a frequently mentioned solution by
all the different respondents questioned. As someone stated: “AyA needs to rethink its pricing
structure to allow the ASADAs to charge varied rates depending on usage to discourage over use.”
(Respondent 16, foreign resident).
51
CONTRIBUTE ON PERSONAL LEVEL
“The whole community has to commit to making changes” (Respondent 15, foreign resident).
Because the respondents indicated that the community itself is responsible too, they gave some
options what they could do themselves. Using less water is obviously the first most mentioned
solution by the respondents. After that a frequently mentioned action is teaching gardeners and
customers or guests to be careful with using water. Furthermore, multiple respondents highlight the
importance of education and information for new comers in the community and tourists about the
water problems. The majority of the local people mention more water saving methods on household
level as taking shorter showers, washing clothes less frequently, collect water from the rain in
buckets and change pipes that are in poor condition. Explain to others that people should act
responsible with water is also one of the multiple times stated actions that people themselves can
do. Besides, “Utiliza solamente lo necesario”, using only the necessary amount is an often highlighted
option. Although these solutions are feasible for everyone, the next solutions on household level will
likely be more applicable for foreign residents. Technical options as creating water recycling systems,
rainwater harvesting (Fig 5) and water saving systems for swimming pools were raised in the
interviews but are quite expensive and more complicated. One of the respondents who already does
a lot of rainwater harvesting mentioned more technical solutions: “Storage, land management
issues, storm management...Now water flows directly into the ocean. If people have a rainwater
system, there will be less impact on the ASADA.”
Figure 11 Grey-water recycling at the Harmony Hotel (left) and rainwater harvesting (right)
52
CONSTRAINTS ON SOLUTIONS
The majority of the respondents say that it is hard to work with the AyA because of their stubborn
attitude and inflexibility which causes difficulties when inducing movements: “People should work
together, mainly in the case of waste and water… The AyA is inflexible, they worsen the situation and
the rates are not sufficient.” Furthermore one of the respondents raised that there should be a
better coordination. According to a respondent of the ASADA, large scale-solutions should be done
by the AyA. When speaking about solutions as small-scale waste water treatment plants respondents
think that this kind of solutions will fit not in the budget of the ASADA or is affordable. This is the
same case on household level. Where foreign residents could possibly afford rainwater systems, local
residents cannot afford that. Furthermore, when charging the true cost of services for water to users,
it would increase around 50% in cost of potable water for rural areas (Bower, 2014).
While some residents indicate that the government should take action in order to solve the
water problem, someone of the Nation Union of ASADAs thinks that it would be hard to implement
solutions with support from the government. He mentioned that in there is no institution of the state
in Costa Rica that is really interested in protection because “the extraction of water is the only thing
that is done”. He indicated that there exist individual initiatives, but they are little productive and the
driving force is always the civil society or some NGOs. This opinion is quite strong, because there are
a lot of governmental institutions that have the duty to protect the environment, but in practice that
responsibility is not always carried out.
Another constraint is that some people who work for the government are possibly corrupt,
and the authorities that are responsible for the water theme are mostly in that part according to one
of the actors. Solutions are not implemented yet because there is no political will in the country. In
the opinion of someone of the Union of ASADAs, the politics will not allow to find solutions until the
ASADAs are being united and can collaborate. Furthermore collaboration between the AyA and the
ASADAs is difficult because the AyA does not have enough financial, technical and human resources
to carry out required activities. There are for example only three geologists and one hydrologist to
monitor national well drilling in the country (Bower, 2014). However, another reason is according to
one of the actors that through the years some corrupt officials have been responsible for creating a
bad relationship together. This is in line with a respondent from the ASADA in Playas de Nosara who
stated the AyA is not supporting any collaboration. The ASADAs in Nosara have not collaborated yet
as well, but there is a willingness amongst the seven different ones. A respondent from the ASADA in
Nosara highlights that the problem is that there exists a gap between the local and foreign
community. According to him there is no political or social understanding or relation between them,
which results in the question how solutions for water problems can be connected (Box 3).
53
Furthermore, a regularly mentioned phenomenon is that several residents are afraid that
when the drought is over and the rainy season starts again, the problem and awareness is gone until
the next dry season. The problem does nog exist (yet) in the rainy season, because the rain raises the
level of the aquifer again and less tourists come to the area which means a lower water consumption
than in the dry season.
Box 3 The gap between local and foreign residents
EXPLAINING VIEWPOINTS
As someone from the real-estate sector said: “Simple and affordable solutions are the best”.
Remarkable is that local residents point out more causes and solutions related to the natural
environment than foreign residents do. This is possibly due to that the Costa Rican nature is
traditionally part of their living environment and they are raised with knowledge of the nature. It
could be that foreign residents who are raised in the city therefore do not think of causes and
solutions related to the natural environment. Many foreign residents mentioned in informal
conversations that they came from cities as New York or major cities in the West-Coast. Another
reason could be that local residents saw the changes in their environment themselves, as
deforestation, while the new foreign residents only know the place as it is now.
Also local residents mentioned that there should be more regulations on water use as
regulating the size of water tanks of hotels and houses. In the dry season, hotels and houses fill up
enormous tanks every morning when the water is available again. The consequence is that
sometimes the water is already cut off after a few hours, while the majority of local residents don’t
have large tanks. As one of the local residents explains:
The gap between local and foreign residents
The general tendency in the district of Nosara is that local residents blame the water problems
on the foreign residents. All local residents mention that since the enormous growth of the
(foreign) population, water shortages occur. The difference in lifestyle and income between
those two groups of residents is large. While most of the foreign residents own luxurious houses
with swimming pools and green lawns that requires a large amount of water, do local residents
live in more simple houses and use only water for subsistence. Therefore, frequently is told in
informal conversations that “gringos” should solve the problems they caused. Besides, the most
foreign residents could afford it to purchase measures to storage water, while local residents do
not have these resources. Furthermore, because of these differences and the general feeling that
“they” are the problem, collaboration could be quite hard.
54
“There must be education campaigns on the use and regulations that do not allow the
disproportional use of water. There are houses with reserve tanks and pools that receive absurd
amounts of water compared to families that cannot collect. Water is running out because it is a
limited amount per day for the whole community” (Respondent 18, local resident).4
4 Original quote: Deben de haber campañas de educación sobre el uso y normativas que no permitan el des uso o la desproporcion. Hay casas con tanques de reserve y piscinas que reciben cantidades absurdas de agua en comparación con familias que no pueden recoger. El agua se acuba porque es una cantidad limitada por dia para toda la comunidad.
55
8 DISCUSSION
Bower (2014) describes six inadequacies of the water supply system of Costa Rica. In this research
specified on Nosara are found the same shortages of the system. First of all, that laws exist but are
not always implemented is seen in the absence of protecting of the watershed. The second
shortcoming, that there is little incentive for customers to conserve water was clearly visible when
you know that fees remain the same by using inacceptable amounts of water. Thirdly, Bower (2014)
states that there is overlap of duties between different government agencies and local agencies do
not always cooperate. Cooperation between the ASADAs in Nosara is not implemented yet, and
institutions point at each other with regard to duties. As fourth is mentioned the uncertainty about
water availability because of the knowledge gap about water use and quantities. In the situation of
Nosara, this gap exists as well because there were no researches conducted to the levels of the
aquifer in the recent past. The fifth shortcoming is the lack of financial support for the water supply
system. There is not enough money for supporting existing infrastructure or investing in
improvements or future infrastructure. Several respondents mentioned the lack of financial
resources in Nosara as one of the causes of the water problem. Finally, Costa Rica knows that the
current water law is outdated. There is a proposal for a new Water Law, but it is not adopted yet. In
this research, one other additional inadequacies were found. The land use plan should be revised,
because every user pays the same rate in Nosara because it is typified as rural area, while there are
large differences in quantity used for various purposes.
The data from the surveys bring forward that most residents believe that solutions for the
water problems in Nosara should be implemented on national level, possibly because there is a
general tendency that “the government” should solve all problems of the country as a result of the
highly centralized political system of Costa Rica. However, found is in another study that there was a
widespread decline of people’s trust in public institutions. Mainly the system of justice and those
entities that provide public services. Furthermore, people in Costa Rica are sceptical about
decentralization. This is probably due to the fact that Costa Rica is a democracy that has a
presidential system in which decision-making is highly concentrated in the central government.
However, the state has a decentralized sector which includes the main entities that provide services
as water. During the twentieth century, municipalities lost functions to the central government but
those decentralized institutions were created in the 1949 Constitution. By creating those entities
belonging to the central government that provide government services such as the provision of
potable water, the role of municipalities in the provision of goods and services reduced even more
(Vargas-Cullell, Rosero-Bixby & Seligson, 2006). The highly centralized government prevents that
56
local institutions could make decisions on environmental issues (Bower, 2014). Centralisation of
water governance can be discussed because of questions regarding the basis of the state and its
willingness to promote the welfare of people within it. Furthermore, it is possible that it lacks broad
involvement of stakeholder groups at different levels (Pahl-Wostl, Gupta & Petry, 2008). Whereas
globalization processes and climate change ask for broad governance units, modes of governance
such as decentralization or citizen participation demand smaller spatial units of water governance
(Moss & Newig, 2010). Because of the specific situation of Nosara with pressing local natural
circumstances combined with a national phenomenon of an increasing tourism sector, a polycentric
system of water governance should be effective and legitimate. While laws should be implemented
and funding should be regulated on national level, on local level the ASADAs should be apparently
given more room for local decisions regarding research, collaboration, and implementing solutions.
Although the desire of the ASADA of Playas de Nosara to be more independent in taking
decisions, water management could not be completely decentralized. The management of water
requires specific investments in infrastructure and technical expertise and water is a non-
substitutable resource. The framework that the Costa Rican government has with the ASADAs to
manage the water is based on co-management that attempts to expand water coverage by
combining bottom-up community based management with the top-down regulatory power of the
state. However decentralized water management as this still depends on continued government
involvement, while support for the water system in Nosara is missing. There should be technical and
managerial support, trainings and other forms of expert assistance (Babson Dobbin & Sarathy, 2015).
The common pool resources theory, that states that all humanly used resources are
embedded in social-ecological systems is very relevant for the case of Nosara. According to this
theory, a resource would collapse when the resource harvesters are diverse, do not communicate
and do not have decent rules and norms for managing the resource. In the district of Nosara there
are various interests regarding water use. While some residents only use water for maintaining their
households and other residents are very concerned about protecting the environment, there are also
real-estate companies that need enormous large amounts of water for building new properties which
makes the resource harvesters diverse. There is no collaboration between the different ASADAs in
the Nosara District and with the AyA, therefore communication lacks as well. Besides, not everybody
communicates to their employees or guests to use less water. Furthermore, there are no restrictions
for using extensive amounts of water, so norms for managing the resource are lacking. This all
together could result in a collapse of the water supply system. The social-ecological systems theory
also explains that resource users could self-organize to maintain their resources sustainable. While
the residents in Nosara could not decide everything by themselves because of policy restrictions
from governmental institutions, they could collaborate and initiate a more sustainable management
57
of water. Important is that it only works under the condition that users observe some scarcity, and
that is exactly what some residents are afraid of: when the rain starts, the water is back and
problems are temporary gone.
The approach of political ecology fits well to the situation of Nosara. It has emerged for
analysing human-environmental interactions when they are associated with economic development.
The fast development of Nosara required large amounts of water that is extracted out of the aquifer
beneath the district. And as explained by this theory, the interface between human activities and the
environment are emerged by human-shaped biogeophysical factors and flows as groundwater
extraction (Zimmerer, 2000). Water problems in Nosara arise when pumping ground water exceeds
the natural recharge capacity of the aquifer due to the lack of rain in the dry season, which is
explained by the approach as well. Especially human impoverishment and environmental destruction
are important for the political ecology approach, which is apparent from the depletion of the aquifer
through high demands and the limited access to water for a large part of the community. The theory
states that the vulnerability and lack of power of local people often results in that they receive an
unequal part for environmental decline. Important is that local residents in Nosara experience water
problems not as result of their own extensive use. Besides, they cannot afford large tanks to storage
water for times of water shut-offs. Linkages among various social actors and social conflicts between
stakeholders over control of local resources are also part of the political ecology approach. The ways
in which international forces and the state affect actions of local people on the environment are
important in this field (Stonich, 1998). The occurring of social conflicts is not yet in line with the case
of Nosara, probably because the problem is there since a short period. However, in the future social
conflicts as in the case of Sardinal, another town in Guanacaste where a water conflict emerged
because of fast tourism growth, could arise when there are no solutions implemented. The
difference between the case of Nosara and that of Sardinal is that communities surrounding Sardinal
already experienced dry wells and were concerned about future water supplies, while residents in
Nosara did not have any water problems in the past. Furthermore, the community of Sardinal was
afraid that they would lack benefits of tourism development while many residents of Nosara do jobs
related to the tourism sector or because of tourism development (van Noorloos, 2012). This is
probably due to the inland location of Sardinal, while Nosara is closer to the main area of tourism
development on the coast.
Community-based natural resource management is based on the idea that if development
and conservation could be achieved at the same time, then the interests of both could be served. The
district of Nosara is running against the same challenge. As explained by the community-based
resource management theory, involving the community actively into the management process can
help managing complex systems of resources as water. Experiencing, access to and control over the
58
use of a natural resource is central to reach conservation of this resource. The system of water
supply in Nosara is already led by the community through ASADAs. Although water is one of the
natural resources that is protected most in community-based conservation projects, the conservation
of the watershed of Nosara should be improved to reach a sustainable situation. As explained by the
theory; if the whole community is aware of the importance of conserving water, the complex
resource system could be managed better and the source of water can be recovered more quickly.
Community-based water management is most effective with assistance from scientists and experts,
but only if they invest time and energy to establish a relationship and mutual cooperation with
members of a local community (Rhoads et. al., 1999). However, assistance from scientist and experts
is rare in Nosara, so more support should help the community manage the water situation.
The current research is conducted in a very specific situation where already for many years a
foreign community lived that tried to protect and sustain the environment around them. Therefore it
is hard to compare the results of this research with other cases of water shortages due to rapid
increase of (residential) tourism. Besides, typical (residential) tourism destinations often have golf
courses and large hotel resorts demanding huge amounts of water, which is absent in Nosara
because the foreign residents are more interested in surfing and yoga. Furthermore, because of time
limits only 35 residents have filled in a survey for the research. Therefore statistical significance is not
possible, although various groups of the community are questioned. Besides, some actors that are
involved in the water problem of Nosara as the AyA were unfortunately inaccessible to participate in
this research. Because of that, some viewpoints are missing in the results. In future research, more
interviews and surveys should be conducted and all concerned actors (mainly governmental
institutions) should be included to reach a better overview of the situation. Besides, it would be
interesting to compare the case of Nosara with other related cases in order to indicate if it is possible
to learn from each other. The current research contributed to the literature by providing an overview
of solutions for related cases with water problems. Furthermore it gives an analyses of the different
opinions of all local actors that are directly involved in the water issue. This could be useful for the
strategy of reaching a sustainable water situation in the district of Nosara. However, because the rain
started in May again in Nosara, the concerns are temporarily gone until a new dry season arises.
Therefore it seems that residents of Nosara do not know the value of water till the well is dry.
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9 CONCLUSION
The following question was central to this policy-oriented research:
RQ: What could be, in times of water scarcity and in the future, solutions for the water shortages in
the district of Nosara, Guanacaste?
The aim of this study was to gain an understanding of the water problems in Nosara in order to find
solutions for the water shortages. For this purpose is tried to obtain opinions and thoughts of all
actors involved in the situation. Observations did function as additional data.
The current research shows that the following stakeholders are the most important in the
water problem: the ASADAs, the residents, the tourism sector, real-estate developers, the NCA and
the AyA. Beforehand, it was assumed that the INDER, IMN, MINAET and SENARA would have a large
role as well, but those actors were not present in the specific area of Nosara and almost nobody of
the respondents mentioned them in the research, while they all have responsibilities regarding water
in Costa Rica. How does the local community, residential tourists, owners of tourism facilities and the
water suppliers (ASADAs) perceive the historical, current and future water shortages and how do
they deal with it? Except for two residents, all the respondents were aware of the water problem in
Nosara. This could be due to the fact that the majority receives water from the ASADA, which is
forced to temporarily shut off the water during the dry season. The majority of the residents
indicated that there was no or slightly a water problem in the past and that the situation got worse in
the last couple of years. This concerns the larger part of the respondents when they think of the
future situation. Some residents and someone of the Nation Union of ASADAs are particularly
concerned about the proposal of digging more wells in the district, because it could have
consequences for the whole ecosystem.
There are a few different main causes that are highlighted in this research. First, changing
natural circumstances as El Niño, climate change and extended droughts with limited amount of rain.
Besides, the dry season is the peak period for tourists coming to the area that asks a high amount of
water. The enormous growth of the population and specifically the type of users demanding a very
large amount of water in comparison with use of local residents, is stated as one of the other main
reasons for the water problem. This fast development is located mainly in the section of Playas de
Nosara, but the surrounding local communities in the district are growing too because people move
to the area for job opportunities. The high amount of cutting trees for developing projects could be
another reason for the water shortage, because of its effect on hydrologic processes and the
infiltration rate. Thirdly, the poor infrastructure of the water system is mentioned by the majority of
the respondents as well. Because of the lack of investments in the system, the current water system
60
is old, frequently broken and not suitable anymore for the high demand of water. The small number
of wells is according to some respondents another reason, but there is no up-to-date knowledge
about the amount of water in the aquifer which makes digging new wells a risky move. Two other
important reasons raised are the lack of collaboration and problems with funding solutions.
Currently, there is no collaboration between the ASADAs in Nosara or a satisfactory relationship
between the ASADAs and the AyA. Furthermore, the seven different ASADAs have a very simple
administrative structure in which there is a lack of knowledge regarding the administration of the
water system. In ASADAs of local residents, people with interest in water are often part of the water
board. But in the ASADA of Playas de Nosara, which is led by mostly foreign residents, not
particularly the people with the most knowledge or experience in the field are chosen as board
members, but the most popular candidate. Furthermore, the rate of water is very low while
maintenance costs are high which results in no possibility to invest in a new water infrastructure. The
majority of respondents experience water problems and state that they use less water than in the
past because they know that Nosara is facing water shortages. Generally, foreign residents do
storage water through fill up tanks when water is available. Local residents fill buckets or covered
bins for times when the water is cut off.
The results showed that according to the most residents of the district of Nosara, the ASADAs
are responsible for fixing the water problems. However, a quarter of all respondents indicated that
all actors are responsible because residents spill the water while the governmental institutions
should have more control over the situation and rating. When talking about actually implementing
possible solutions, the ASADA is again the one that is chosen most often. In contrast, local residents
frequently indicated that all actors should implement solutions because collaboration is essential.
Furthermore, opinions are divided about on which scale solutions should be implemented, but
national level is brought forward most.
To what extend are the effects of (residential) tourism included in the water policy and
management of Nosara and were there changes in water governance? Effects of tourism are not
specifically included in local policies of the district Nosara because it does not have their own
municipality with local regulations. Although there were no changes in water governance yet,
currently research is done on the possibility for collaboration between the ASADAs. One existing
policy that can be related to effects of tourism is the voluntary impact fee that people who build new
houses have to pay for improving the water system. Unfortunately, because of the absence of strong
regional zoning there is no control the massive development of tourism and real-estate areas.
So, what are useful (policy) solutions for water shortages? In the following table are
summarized the main solutions brought forward by different actors and on which term they could be
applied and whether they are realistic, based on interviews, surveys and observations.
61
SOLUTION TYPE WHEN REALISTIC
NEW WELLS Technical Short-term Yes, if there is enough water in the aquifer
IMPROVING INFRASTRUCTURE Technical Short-term Yes, with necessary financial resources
SMALL-SCALE WASTE WATER
TREATMENT PLANTS
Technical Long-term No, expensive and complex solution
DESALINAZATION PLANTS Technical Long-term No, expensive and complex solution
“SMART HOMES” Technical Short-term Yes, for residents with luxurious houses
COLLABORATION BETWEEN
ASADAS
Policy Short-term Yes, if the gap is smaller between type of
residents and willingness remains
ASSISTENCE FROM AYA Policy Long-term No, AyA should first have more manpower
EDUCATION Policy Short-term Yes, such as primary school projects
SLOW DOWN OR STOP
PROVIDING BUILDING PERMITS
Policy Short-term No, disagreement of the real-estate sector
and developers.
MANDATORY IMPACT FEE Policy Long-term No, should be first permitted by the ARESEP
REGULATION ON WATER USE Policy Long-term No, can’t be implemented by local institutions
IMPLEMENT LAWS ON
PROTECTING WATER SOURCES
Policy Long-term No, this is not an easy to fix solution because
of political circumstances
INCREASE OR DIFFERENTIATE
WATER RATES
Policy Long-term Yes, but this must be addressed by the
ARESEP as well
(INCREASE) VOLUNTARY FEES Policy Short-term Yes, can be implemented by ASADAs
TEACHING EMPLOYEES/GUESTS Personal Short-term Yes, can be carried out directly by residents
WATER SAVING METHODS ON
HOUSEHOLD LEVEL
Personal Short-term Yes, can be on so many different ways that it
is possible for all residents
WATER RECYCLING, RAINWATER
HARVESTING
Personal Short-term Yes, but only if the resident can afford it;
more likely solution for foreign residents
Table 6 Solutions for the water shortages
Who is going to pay for these possible solutions? There is uncertainty about the available
resources of the government for investments in the water system. Differentiated rates are frequently
mentioned as solutions for the lack of financial resources or to let the polluter or excessive user pay.
While there is a system of different rates in Costa Rica, in Nosara every type of user pays the same
rate for water. Another solution that is brought forward are fundraising events for water projects,
while some local residents mention foreign organizations as a source of income. The most
problematic factors for implementing solutions are inefficient government bureaucracy and
inadequate supply of infrastructure. After that, access to financing and corruption are the next
aspects that make it hard to improve the water situation. To conclude: short term solutions that
could be done by residents are on this moment the most realistic ones, but policy solutions are
important as well although these depend on the cooperation of several institutions.
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10 POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings of this research that is conducted to investigate solutions for the water
shortages in times of drought and in the future for the district of Nosara, the following
recommendations can be proposed to improve the current water situation. These recommendations
could be useful for all actors involved; the ASADAs, the AyA, the residents and the real-estate and
other tourism developers.
SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ASADAS IN THE DISTRICT OF NOSARA
I. This research shows that many people consider new wells when thinking about solutions for
water shortages in Nosara. This could be a solution, but as long as there is uncertainty about
the quantity of water in the aquifer beneath Nosara, digging new wells is a risky option.
Therefore is recommended to conduct more research to the condition of the aquifer. For
funding the AyA could be approached. Another option is to apply for funding of foreign
research through partnerships with universities or non-governmental organizations. A
starting point could be in the network of the Global Water Partnership.
II. In this study, it has been clearly identified that the infrastructure of the present water system
does not meet the current demand of potable water. On short-term basis it is important to
renew the infrastructure to prevent leakages and outages in the future. However, this is a
costly and wide operation, it is a valuable investment for the future. Nowadays, problems
with the system are solved when they occur instead of preventing future problems. As
confirmed by the literature, an increase of the adaptive capacity of the governance of water
in the district of Nosara is required to be able to deal with uncertainty.
III. This research shows that there is hardly any collaboration between the seven different
ASADAs in the district of Nosara, while many people believe that cooperation is the key to
solutions. The water situation asks for more collaboration because water wastage in one
area could cause problems in another. There are at least benefits in collaborate more with
other ASADAs to jointly purchase new tubes or to share information. As well, ASADAs
together could combine forces to apply for funding for solutions or implement school
projects about using water.
IV. As an example from other cases with water shortages, increase or differentiate water rates is
a solution to save water. The ones who use most or extensive amounts should pay higher
rates to discourage wasting the scarce water. However, this should be addressed by the
ARESEP but the ASADAs could approach together to be allowed to request different rates.
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SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS FOR TOURISM AND REAL-ESTATE DEVELOPMENT
I. According to the literature, the tourism industry puts mainly pressure on water resources in
relatively small communities on a seasonal basis (Lehmann, 2009). The demand-side water
management which aims to reduce water use is specifically relevant for the tourism industry,
because all tourist facilities could save substantial amounts of water by using demand-side
management (Gössling et. al., 2012). In Nosara, the tourism industry and real-estate
development sector should prevent exhaustive usage of water by educating guests and
builders. Furthermore, building “smart homes” should be promoted and all tourism
accommodations should take measures to save water. Smart homes have more efficient
appliances and maintaining household water-using devices that achieve water savings.
Examples are indoor water efficiency tools for the bathroom or kitchen, but also especially
relevant for Nosara are tools for saving water through pool management and sustainable
garden maintenance. These are of course applicable for tourism accommodations as well.
RECOMMENDATIONS RESIDENTS
I. Every resident should save water in times of droughts to prevent depletion of the resource.
Water saving methods on household level could be implemented on many different ways; for
example taking shorter showers and using a plug when doing dishes.
II. Residents who can afford it should take measures to recycle water or harvest rainwater.
Rainwater could be captured in the winter for at least watering the plants in the dry season.
Such systems could be bought in larger amounts to decrease the costs.
III. If residents have employees that work in and around their house, they should educate them
by providing information about reducing water use or giving them more sustainable
alternatives when using water. Gardeners should for example water the plants in the late
afternoon and cleaning employees should be careful with using water for cleaning purposes.
If residents rent their houses to guests, they should inform them about the water situation
and ask them to use only the necessary. As explained in the literature, if the whole
community is aware of the importance of conserving water, the complex resource system
could be managed better and the source of water can be recovered more quickly (Berkes,
2004).
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APPENDICES
1. LIST OF RESPONDENTS
Interviews
1. Foreign resident, board member of ASADA Playas de Nosara
2. Foreign resident, owner of a real-estate company
3. Local resident, sustainability manager of the Harmony Hotel
4. Foreign resident, owner of a tourism company
5. Local resident, board member of the Nosara Civic Association
6. Foreign resident, board member of ASADA Playas de Nosara
7. Foreign resident, consultant for the Nosara Civic Association
8. Foreign resident, former board member of the Nosara Civic Association
9. Local resident, someone of the Nation Union of ASADAs
10. Foreign resident, board member of ASADA Nosara
11. Foreign resident, owner of a real-estate company
12. Local resident, board member of ASADA Garza
Surveys
1. Foreign resident, Men, 53 year
2. Foreign resident, Women, 69 year
3. Foreign resident, Men, 59 year
4. Foreign resident, Men, 53 year
5. Foreign resident, Women, 35 year
6. Foreign resident, Men, 71 year
7. Foreign resident, Men, 48 year
8. Foreign resident, Women, 36 year
9. Foreign resident, Women, 50 year
10. Foreign resident, Men, 61 year
11. Foreign resident, Men, 42 year
12. Foreign resident, Women, 39 year
13. Foreign resident, Women, 26 year
14. Foreign resident, Women, 36 year
15. Foreign resident, Women, 36 year
69
16. Foreign resident, Women, 62 year
17. Local resident, Women, 34 year
18. Local resident, Women, 31 year
19. Local resident, Men, 30 year
20. Local resident, Women, 17 year
21. Local resident, Women, 24 year
22. Local resident, Women, 23 year
23. Local resident, Women, 31 year
24. Local resident, Women, 27 year
25. Local resident, Men, 33 year
26. Local resident, Women, 19 year
27. Local resident, Men, 34 year
28. Local resident, Men, 25 year
29. Local resident, Men, 81 year
30. Local resident, Men, 25 year
31. Local resident, Women, 42 year
32. Local resident, Women, 32 year
33. Local resident, Women, 28 year
34. Local resident, Men, 33 year
35. Local resident, Women, 35 year