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Rosa Parks: Born on February 4, 1913 died October 24, 2005. Refused to give up her seat on December 1 1955 on a Montgomery bus in the colored section after the white section had been filled. Known as the “First Lady of the Civil Rights” and an avid member of the NAACP who worked closely with black rights activists such as Martin Luther King Jr. and Edgar Nixon.

Warsaw Pact: A collective defense treaty signed May 14th, 1955, among Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union, that put Marshal Ivan S. Konev of the Soviet Union in command of the armed forces of the member states. It was created in reaction to the integration of West Germany into NATO in 1955 per the Paris Pacts of 1954.

Jonas Salk: October 28, 1914 – June 23, 1995 Got his medical degree from New York University of Medicine and then went on to be a virologist and medical researcher. In 1955 he developed the Polio vaccine and pushed for mandatory vaccination. He was highly revered as the polio disease was terrifying to many Americans.

Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956: On June 29 Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the bill into law that would allocate $25 billion to build 41,000 miles of highway. The largest national infrastructure bill that had ever been passed. 10% of funds to be paid by putting new taxes on gas, tires, cars, etc.

Dwight D. Eisenhower: October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969. Re-elected president in 1956 he was president during the Suez Crisis, the establishment of NASA, and the Hungarian Revolution. Together with his vice, Richard Nixon they accomplished the Interstate Highway System, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, and the National Defense Education Act. He is seen as an exemplary president.

Disneyland: The first of two parks that Walt Disney oversaw the acquisition and building of. Located in Anaheim California, it boasts the title of third most visited amusement park in the world. It first opened on July 17, 1955 and the event was televised on ABC.

Space Race: Began with the launch of the satellite “Sputnik” by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957. The Space Race was a competition between The United States and The Soviet Union to see which country could make further strides in spaceflight capability. The tension originated with the Cold War.

National Motto Change: “In God We Trust” was adopted as the national motto in 1956 as an alternative to the unofficial motto of E pluribus unum. It was originated from “The Star-Spangled

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Banner,” the fourth stanza reads “And this be our motto: ‘In God We Trust.” Advocates for separation of church and state questioned the legality of this as a national motto with the US Constitution prohibiting the government from passing any law respecting the establishment of religion.

Eisenhower Doctrine: On January 5, 1957 Eisenhower gave a speech authorizing the idea of The Eisenhower Doctrine which stated that any country in the Middle East could request military assistance from The United States. The action was taken to avoid war and suppress the spread of communism.

Civil Rights Act of 1957: Primarily a voting rights bill that Eisenhower backed and signed on September 9, 1957. Supported the decision made in Brown vs. Board of Education that enacted the desegregation of public schools. The first civil rights legislation passed since the Acts of 1866 and 1875.

Alaska and Hawaii: Alaska was a Russian colony from 1744 and was sold to the US for $7,200,00 and made a state in 1959. Hawaii ceded itself to the US in 1898 and then became a state in 1959.

Rock and Roll: Artists such as Billy Holiday and Elvis Presley became increasingly popular with the mainstream music scene beginning with the single “Rock Around the Clock” topping the charts in 1955.

Transatlantic Telephone: In 1958, a submarine communications cable was run along the floor of the Atlantic Ocean that connected one side to the other. It was created by Cyrus West Field and only ran for 3 weeks, but was the building block for following advancements.

Hungarian Revolution: The United States Refused to support the revolution by sending supplies. The people's revolt against the Hungarian People’s Republic marked some of the first resistance to Soviet ideals since the Nazis.

NASA: Introduced on October 1, 1958 NASA had the goal of encouraging peaceful applications in space sciences. NASA stands for The National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Created in response to the continuing Space Race with the Soviet Union.

Public Schools: September 12, 1958 the Supreme Court held its Cooper vs Allen case that ruled all states were bound by the Supreme Court’s rulings and therefore could not make Constitutional amendments designed to negate the court’s rulings. In the Brown vs Board of

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Education case the Supreme Court Ruled segregated schools unconstitutional and ordered schools to desegregate “with all deliberate speed.”

Vietnam War: The war was a proxy war between the US and the Soviet Union that was fought between America and Vietnam. It began on November 5, 1955.

Antarctic Treaty System: Although the treaty was signed on December 1, 1959 it did not go into effect until June 23, 1961. The treaty named Antarctica as a place solely for the purpose of scientific research and banned military activity on the only continent in the world without a native human population.

Cuban Revolution: Army revolt conducted by Fidel Castro and his allies against the US, including Cuban President Batista. The revolution ended in 1959 when Batista was overrun by rebels who replaced his government with a socialist state. This harshed relationships with the US.

Integrated Circuit: The invention of the integrated circuit, or the microchip gave way for the future invention of the computer. The small device usually made out of silicon was able to hold immense amounts of information.

National Defense Education Act: Implemented by Eisenhower to in 1958 to increase technical sophistication and power of the US. It was made in response to the growing national feeling that US scientists were falling behind Soviet scientists. The Act authorized over a billion dollars in funding for four years and increased the competitiveness and effectiveness of schools in the US.

Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act: United States labor law that regulates labor unions' internal affairs and their officials' relationships with employers made in 1959. Included that unions had to have secret elections, reviewable by the Department of Labor, unions protected by Bill of Rights by any abuses, bar members of the Communist Party and convicted felons from holding office, required unions to submit annual financial reports on the DOL, union officers must act as a fiduciary in handling the assets, limited power of subordinate bodies of trusteeship, and provided certain minimum standards before a union may take a disciplinary action against a member of the union.

AFL-CIO: The AFL, or American Federation of Labor was the largest national federation of labor unions in the US. In 1955 the AFL merged with it longtime rival, The Congress of Industrial Organizations, or the CIO. This formed the AFL-CIO, boosting membership of 15 billion.

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The Suez Crisis: Egypt was invaded in 1956 by Israel, UK and France, trying to regain Western control of the Suez Canal and to remove control of Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser from power. The US, Soviet Union, and United Nations soon forced the invaders to withdraw. The attempts humiliated UK and France, and strengthened Nasser.

Hard Disk Drive: IBM invents first hard disk drive in 1956, called the ABM 305 RAMAC system. It is now considered the fundamental patent for disk drives. The drive had fifty 24 inch platters, with a total capacity of over five million 6-bit characters. Average access time was under one second.

Geneva Summit: First Summit conference between “The Big Four,” or Eisenhower of the United States, Anthony Eden of Britain, and Nikolai BUlganin of the Soviet Union and Agar Faure of France. It was meant to bring together world leaders to discuss diplomatic peace. The leaders all shared a common goal for increased global security.

Minimum Wage: August 12, 1955, Eisenhower signs the Minimum wage Act, amending the FLSA and raising minimum wage to $.75 to $1.00 per hour. No new classes were brought under the minimum wage, and many more establishments and workers were supported by this Act.

Lebanon Crisis: In 1958 a Lebanese political crisis struck by political and religious tensions that included an US military intervention. Lebanon was threatened by civil war between Maronite Christians and Muslims. There had already been escalated tensions in 1956 when President Chamoun, a christian, did not break diplomatic relations with the western powers that attacked Egypt during the Suez Crisis, angering Egyptian President Nasser. Tensions furthered when Chamoun showed the Baghdad Pact and felt that it posed a threat to Arab nationalism. Lebanese Sunni Prime Minister Rashid Karami supported Nasser in 1956 and 1958, and formed a national reconciliation government after the 1958 crisis ended.

Explorer 1: First American satellite is launched into Earth’s orbit January 31, 1958, at Cape Canaveral, Florida. The launch happened four months after Russia orbited Sputnik. The US satellite was a cylindrical shape and was 80 inches long and had a diameter of six inches.

First Transcontinental Jet Flight: First commercial transcontinental commercial jet trip was made by American Airlines, using their Boeing 707. It flew from Los Angeles to New York.

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1) President Eisenhower

2) The government's use of the “secrecy stamps” were designed primarily toa) Prepare the United States’ military for the Cold Warb) establish the financial stability and credit of the new governmentc) d) e)

3) What significance, if any, did the Brown decision have for the civil rights movement?

A)It set the civil rights movement back by upholding

Plessy v. Ferguson.

B)It encouraged the civil rights movement by

overturning Plessy v. Ferguson.

C)It set the civil rights movement back by upholding

Roe v. Wade.

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D)It encouraged the civil rights movement by

overturning Roe v. Wade.

4)“Little Boxes” by Malvina Reynolds:

“Little boxes on the hillside,

Little boxes all the same.

There's a green one and a pink one

And a blue one and a yellow one,

And they're all made out of ticky tacky

And they all look just the same.

And the people in the houses

All went to the university,

Where they were put in boxes

And they came out all the same.”

What impact, if any, did suburbanization have on racial

tensions in the United States?

ANone — both whites and blacks moved to the suburbs

in equal numbers.

BSuburbanization helped reduce racial tension because

whites moved into black neighborhoods.

CSuburbanization increased racial tension because it led

to increased segregation.

DSuburbanization increased racial tension because

housing was scarce in the suburbs and whites and

blacks violently competed for homes.

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5)

Thesis: In the late 1950’s the clash between communism and capitalism fueled the American ideals of a conservative lifestyle. The Cold War fostered fear of both nuclear war and of people or ideals that differed from the norm. President Eisenhower aided much reform to the country by signing the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956, and the Civil Rights Bill of 1957. Racial tensions entered a new phase with the process of desegregation and the explosion of Rock and Roll music. The cultural, political, and economic fluctuations were spurred by a focus on conformism transitioning into non conformism.

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“Mob Rule Cannot Be Allowed to Override the Decisions of Our Courts”: President Dwight D. Eisenhower’s 1957 Address on Little Rock, Arkansas

Good Evening, My Fellow Citizens: For a few minutes this evening I want to speak to you about the serious situation that has arisen in Little Rock. To make this talk I have come to the President’s office in the White House. I could have spoken from Rhode Island, where I have been staying recently, but I felt that, in speaking from the house of Lincoln, of Jackson and of Wilson, my words would better convey both the sadness I feel in the action I was compelled today to take and the firmness with which I intend to pursue this course until the orders of the Federal Court at Little Rock can be executed without unlawful interference.

In that city, under the leadership of demagogic extremists, disorderly mobs have deliberately prevented the carrying out of proper orders from a Federal Court. Local authorities have not eliminated that violent opposition and, under the law, I yesterday issued a Proclamation calling upon the mob to disperse.

This morning the mob again gathered in front of the Central High School of Little Rock, obviously for the purpose of again preventing the carrying out of the Court’s order relating to the admission of Negro children to that school.

Whenever normal agencies prove inadequate to the task and it becomes necessary for the Executive Branch of the Federal Government to use its powers and authority to uphold Federal Courts, the President’s responsibility is inescapable. In accordance with that responsibility, I have today issued an Executive Order directing the use of troops under Federal authority to aid in the execution of Federal law at Little Rock, Arkansas. This became necessary when my Proclamation of yesterday was not observed, and the obstruction of justice still continues.

It is important that the reasons for my action be understood by all our citizens. As you know, the Supreme Court of the United States has decided that separate public educational facilities for the races are inherently unequal and therefore compulsory school segregation laws are unconstitutional.

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Our personal opinions about the decision have no bearing on the matter of enforcement; the responsibility and authority of the Supreme Court to interpret the Constitution are very clear. Local Federal Courts were instructed by the Supreme Court to issue such orders and decrees as might be necessary to achieve admission to public schools without regard to race—and with all deliberate speed.

During the past several years, many communities in our Southern States have instituted public school plans for gradual progress in the enrollment and attendance of school children of all races in order to bring themselves into compliance with the law of the land.

They thus demonstrated to the world that we are a nation in which laws, not men, are supreme.

I regret to say that this truth—the cornerstone of our liberties—was not observed in this instance.

It was my hope that this localized situation would be brought under control by city and State authorities. If the use of local police powers had been sufficient, our traditional method of leaving the problems in those hands would have been pursued. But when large gatherings of obstructionists made it impossible for the decrees of the Court to be carried out, both the law and the national interest demanded that the President take action.

Here is the sequence of events in the development of the Little Rock school case.

In May of 1955, the Little Rock School Board approved a moderate plan for the gradual desegregation of the public schools in that city. It provided that a start toward integration would be made at the present term in the high school, and that the plan would be in full operation by 1963. Here I might say that in a number of communities in Arkansas integration in the schools has already started and without violence of any kind. Now this Little Rock plan was challenged in the courts by some who believed that the period of time as proposed in the plan was too long.

The United States Court at Little Rock, which has supervisory responsibility under the law for the plan of desegregation in the public schools, dismissed the challenge, thus approving a gradual rather than an abrupt change from the existing system. The court found that the school board had acted in good faith in planning for a public school system free from racial discrimination.

Since that time, the court has on three separate occasions issued orders directing that the plan be carried out. All persons were instructed to refrain from interfering with the efforts of the school board to comply with the law.

Proper and sensible observance of the law then demanded the respectful obedience which the nation has a right to expect from all its people. This, unfortunately, has not been the case at Little Rock. Certain misguided persons, many of them imported into Little Rock by agitators, have insisted upon defying the law and have sought to bring it into disrepute. The orders of the court have thus been frustrated.

The very basis of our individual rights and freedoms rests upon the certainty that the President and the Executive Branch of Government will support and insure the carrying out of the decisions of the Federal Courts, even, when necessary with all the means at the President’s command.

Unless the President did so, anarchy would result.

There would be no security for any except that which each one of us could provide for himself.

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The interest of the nation in the proper fulfillment of the law’s requirements cannot yield to opposition and demonstrations by some few persons.

Mob rule cannot be allowed to override the decisions of our courts.

Now, let me make it very clear that Federal troops are not being used to relieve local and state authorities of their primary duty to preserve the peace and order of the community. Nor are the troops there for the purpose of taking over the responsibility of the School Board and the other responsible local officials in running Central High School. The running of our school system and the maintenance of peace and order in each of our States are strictly local affairs and the Federal Government does not interfere except in a very few special cases and when requested by one of the several States. In the present case the troops are there, pursuant to law, solely for the purpose of preventing interference with the orders of the Court.

The proper use of the powers of the Executive Branch to enforce the orders of a Federal Court is limited to extraordinary and compelling circumstances. Manifestly, such an extreme situation has been created in Little Rock. This challenge must be met and with such measures as will preserve to the people as a whole their lawfully-protected rights in a climate permitting their free and fair exercise. The overwhelming majority of our people in every section of the country are united in their respect for observance of the law—even in those cases where they may disagree with that law.

They deplore the call of extremists to violence.

The decision of the Supreme Court concerning school integration, of course, affects the South more seriously than it does other sections of the country. In that region I have many warm friends, some of them in the city of Little Rock. I have deemed it a great personal privilege to spend in our Southland tours of duty while in the military service and enjoyable recreational periods since that time.

So from intimate personal knowledge, I know that the overwhelming majority of the people in the South—including those of Arkansas and of Little Rock—are of good will, united in their efforts to preserve and respect the law even when they disagree with it.

They do not sympathize with mob rule. They, like the rest of our nation, have proved in two great wars their readiness to sacrifice for America.

A foundation of our American way of life is our national respect for law.

In the South, as elsewhere, citizens are keenly aware of the tremendous disservice that has been done to the people of Arkansas in the eyes of the nation, and that has been done to the nation in the eyes of the world.

At a time when we face grave situations abroad because of the hatred that Communism bears toward a system of government based on human rights, it would be difficult to exaggerate the harm that is being done to the prestige and influence, and indeed to the safety, of our nation and the world.

Our enemies are gloating over this incident and using it everywhere to misrepresent our whole nation. We are portrayed as a violator of those standards of conduct which the peoples of the world united to proclaim in the Charter of the United Nations. There they affirmed “faith in fundamental human rights” and “in the dignity and worth of the human person” and they did so “without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion.”

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And so, with deep confidence, I call upon the citizens of the State of Arkansas to assist in bringing to an immediate end all interference with the law and its processes. If resistance to the Federal Court orders ceases at once, the further presence of Federal troops will be unnecessary and the City of Little Rock will return to its normal habits of peace and order and a blot upon the fair name and high honor of our nation in the world will be removed.

Thus will be restored the image of America and of all its parts as one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.

Good night, and thank you very much.

September 24, 1957

President Dwight D. Eisenhower

“Mob Rule Cannot Be Allowed to Override the Decisions of Our Courts”: President Dwight D. Eisenhower’s 1957 Address on Little Rock, Arkansas

In 1954, The Supreme Court voted that public schools segregated by race were

“inherently unequal,” in the case of Brown v. Board of Education. The prior rulings in 1896, of

“separate but equal,” in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson were deemed unconstitutional under the

Fourteenth Amendment’s equal protection clause. Many schools across the country began the

process of desegregation. This heavily challenged the racially biased traditions of the South. In

1955, the Supreme Court ordered that the desegregation of public schools should progress with

“All deliberate speed.” Much of the South was enraged by this ruling, and resistance to the

ordain began; specifically in Little Rock, Arkansas. Governor Orval Faubus of Arkansas called

out the National Guard to defy Federal Law, and resist in allowing nine black students to attend

the all-white Little Rock Central High School. Mob violence became extremely prevalent as

people traveled hundreds of miles to join the mob stationed at Little Rock Central, to refuse the

equal schooling opportunities of black and white children. In reaction to this quick spreading

movement, President Eisenhower reacted on a radio and television address on September 24,

1957.

Eisenhower’s 1957 Address on Little Rock, Arkansas is a primary reaction to an event

that was a crucial step in ongoing road to black and white equality. As Eisenhower held such a

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power position both politically and socially in the role of the country, it is extremely interesting

to note his reactions, despite his own personal disagreement with the Brown decision. This

Address shows real reflection of the South’s feelings towards African-Americans and how deep

racism was ingrained into their believes, that they would actively, and with violence attempt to

re-suppress blacks. This exemplifies the late 50’s as a time of serious racism, yet the beginning

to reform.

Despite Eisenhower's dislike for social intrusion and personal racist beliefs, he strongly

believed in Human Rights. The blatant disrespect for the most basic human right to education

was infringed upon. Eisenhower saw this as a direct threat to not only the safety of his citizens

but also the strength of the republic in fighting bigoted and racist ideals. The speech delivers a

higher stress on the importance of national respect for the law, over social disapprovals. This is

the very basis that America was built on, and that concept will not be left behind. Eisenhower

points out that America as a whole has succeeded in two great wars and exhibited their readiness

to create a great country, and will not lose sight of the complete importance of the law.

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Little Boxes by Malvina Reynolds

Little boxes on the hillside,

Little boxes made of ticky tacky,1

Little boxes on the hillside,

Little boxes all the same.

There's a green one and a pink one

And a blue one and a yellow one,

And they're all made out of ticky tacky

And they all look just the same.

And the people in the houses

All went to the university,

Where they were put in boxes

And they came out all the same,

And there's doctors and lawyers,

And business executives,

And they're all made out of ticky tacky

And they all look just the same.

And they all play on the golf course

And drink their martinis dry,

And they all have pretty children

And the children go to school,

And the children go to summer camp

And then to the university,

Where they are put in boxes

And they come out all the same.

And the boys go into business

And marry and raise a family

In boxes made of ticky tacky

And they all look just the same.

There's a green one and a pink one

And a blue one and a yellow one,

And they're all made out of ticky tacky

And they all look just the same.

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The song “Little Boxes,” written by Melvina Reynolds, while on her way through a San

Francisco suburb, was an homage to the conservative lifestyles that the Americans of the late

50s and early 60s integrated into their culture. The song is about a community of people that are

made of “ticky tacky,” a substance that is weak in not only substance but also in quality.

Reynolds was commenting on the flimsy and seemingly fake nature of the late 50’s way of life.

This song is important due to its commentary of the social aspects of the 1950s.

The average family in the 50’s was made up of a father, a mother, and around two-point-

eight children. The mother would tend to the children and the house while waiting for her

husband to return from work for their family meal. Life was centered around the family; this

included spending time playing board games and listening to the radio. The role of the woman in

this lifestyle was difficult, being a full time mother, cleaning the house, and cooking three meals

a day was difficult, yet became easier with inventions such as more advanced coolers and

dishwashers. Along with these more practical inventions came an influx of gadgets such as the

juicer, automatic can opener, Hi-fi radio, etc. etc. These sparkly new items kindled the ever

growing fire of consumerism as a result of the effect of World War I.

Conformism, consumerism, and materialism put the people of the 1950’s into “little

boxes” where they all strived for the same things, went to the same universities, had the same

jobs, and eventually they all came out “just the same.” Reynolds commentary on the average

family's lifestyle stems from her upbringing, although she did end up forging her own pathway

and becoming a successful musician, singer, and songwriter. The catchy tune and upbeat music

that goes with the song paints the family life as somewhat of a joke, calling attention to, what

could be seen as, childish behavior. Their intense vindication toward the sexist roles and

material consumerism ideals characterizes them as children playing a game of house.

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https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/herblocks-history/images/s03531u.jpg

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"On this order for a new typewriter. ribbon -- did you know you forgot to. stamp 'Secret'?"

In the late 1950’s it was reported that a million people in both military and civilian

government were authorized to wield secrecy stamps. A stamp of secrecy indicates that

a specific document is classified information, and will not be released to the public. The

relationship between the government and it’s people was considered to be one of

growing mistrust. Concern spreads in citizens when they hear the words “top-secret” or

“secret” due to the endless underground possibilities conducted without their absolute

knowledge. It ponders the question of how much blind trust to put into the government,

after all the very word democracy indicates government of the people. In March 1957,

the Washington Post reported that the Pentagon had stamped more documents “secret”

than had been stamped during World War II. It was released that most of the

documents consisted of public records and speeches.

The political cartoon published in the Washington Post, on July 25, 1956,

displays a government official condemning his secretary for not marking a “requisition

for a new typewriter ribbon” as “secret.” All over the U.S. Government office are items

such as a tissue box, trash can, Washington Telegraph Directory, and a paper bag, all

marked “secret,” “confidential,” “classified,” and “restricted.” The official, seeming

enraged towards the woman at fault, confirms the high expectancy for even the

smallest, unimportant documents to be classified. Despite the obvious exaggeration of

the reality of the subject, both the irrelevant items deemed classified and the expression

of the man, exhibits the unnecessary overuse of the secrecy stamp in the U.S.

Government.

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The political cartoon shows that not only were the citizens of America resisting

the new laws created regarding social reform and desegregation, but the government

was also reserving information from the public. This questions the ideal relationship

between the government and the people. The thought that citizens have the right to

knowledge of complete details of the government's decisions has the potential to be

dangerous. However, the idea that the people are discluded from government can be

just as alarming.

“What I Tell My Child About Color” - Black and White Fathers in Atlanta Try to Explain Race Relations to Their Sons

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"What I Tell My Child About Color"James W. May, Assistant Professor, School of Theology, Emory University, Atlanta“That’s a nigger house. The bathroom’s outside.” Our son Jamie, almost six, was identifying a sharecropper’s cabin by a sandy road in South Georgia. My wife and I were not ready for this. We had wondered when and how our son would first express his awareness of color differences. We knew, of course, that it would come, just as surely as sex awareness.Well, here it was, and my first play was a fumble. “Son, ‘nigger’ is an ugly word. A colored person is a Negro. Don’t let me hear you say ‘nigger ’any more.”My wife, as usual more alert to the subtleties of emotional tension, helped us both by changing the subject.So began our discussion of color almost two years ago. Today, we encourage discussion, on the level Jamie can manage. Our concern is to keep him from embracing uncritically the familiar rationalizations based on color.Every day brings its cliché: All Negroes drive second-hand convertibles. (That one is from the playground.) All Negroes say “ain’t.” (From school?) All Negroes “talk funny.”Some we by-pass. Some we discuss.We hadn’t planned to discuss segregation in the schools until we thought Jamie could understand the complex issues. We wanted our son ready to face change, but we didn’t want to make him a conspicuous rebel among his friends. One evening at supper, however, I decided to bring up the subject.“Jamie,” I probed, “how would the kids at your school like to have colored children in class?”The answer was ready. “Why can’t they go to their own schools? Why do they have to come to ours? Besides, I don’t like to hear their voices. I heard them on TV.”I would have let that one pass, but his mother reminded him of the church nursery school in New York. “You liked to play with the Negro boys and girls there.” She spoke of “the nice lady from India” who was one of his teachers.It was well to remind him; but we were close to argument, and argument, we should have known, does not help.Jamie was prepared to surrender, but not yet with conviction. So I did not press the point. Our own attitudes tell more than our moral lectures. We do want him to be spared some of the emotional excess baggage we have lugged about. But we do not have all the answers. We want him to learn to find answers for himself. Jamie, now a seven-year-old, learns about people and issues from the feelings we express. He appreciates the people that we appreciate. This is where he gets his principles of sportsmanship and citizenship.Of course, the ideas and phrases that Jamie picks up from his playmates are just as superficial as his pontifications on jet planes and Navy frogmen. Yet there is a difference. Whereas his everyday experiences will correct many of these other misconceptions, he has no normal contacts to correct his prejudices about color.If Jamie had Negro playmates, he might react as he did when he met the Korean chaplain in the university cafeteria line. Jamie was so moved by young man’s friendliness that when we came to our table, he inquired if the Korean could eat with us.“Sure,” I said. “You go ask him.” Jamie darted off through the crowd with his invitation and was back almost as quickly with his guest. For a week afterward, he was parading his three-word Korean vocabulary before the kids on our block and explaining how he gained such proficiency.So our next step, already overdue, is to provide normal boyhood experiences shared with Negro children. How do we arrange it? Will Jamie like it?

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“Jamie,” I inquired the other day as we left the barbershop, “how would you like to have a colored boy come to play with you Saturday afternoon?”“How old is he?”“About eight,” I guessed.“Sure, if he can play baseball!”“What I Tell My Child About Color”William Gordon, Managing Editor, Atlanta Daily World“Daddy, why can’t I get a drink, from that fountain?” I shall never forget that day, my kid standing there, looking me straight in the eye. My first impulse was to snatch him away from the fountain and proceed without an answer. Instead, I said, “Colored folk don’t drink from that fountain. Can’t you see the sign says, ‘White Only’?” I walked on, hoping he would forget the matter. But he persisted: “Daddy, what do you mean by ‘White Only’?”Questions like those haunt every Negro parent who wants to bring up his youngster without fear and the crippling stigma of inferiority. My son Bill Jr. was only five when he became conscious of color.Our neighborhood is all-Negro, but still there are many children of varied shades.“Mother, why did Henry get angry with me when I called him black?” Bill asked.“Some children don’t like to be called black,” his mother replied. She told him about the different races, stressing the point that “God loved them all,”but explaining that every person didn’t know the story of creation.“But, Mommy,” Bill broke in, “is black bad?” His mother pointed to me. “Look,” she said, “Daddy is that same color as Henry. Daddy isn’t bad.”The kid stood there for a while, studying our faces. Finally, he slowly walked away to join his friends at play again.My wife and I looked at each other. The problem had finally come. And now, our task was to teach the child how to have respect for himself, how to mingle with others, how to account for human differences without developing a complex; in short, to guide him through the maze of race relations in the Deep South and, at the same time, give him a healthy outlook on life.Very few whites realize the trouble to which some Negro families go to avoid hurting their children. Some buy automobiles, even at a sacrifice, to take their children to and from school—just so they won’t have to ride in segregated buses. Others, who can afford it, send their youngsters off to the North or East to visit with friends at vacation time.“When my boy was younger, I frequently took him to Grant Park to visit the zoo,” said one of my friends, a former schoolteacher. “I literally dreaded the place, because we could not sit on the benches or buy popcorn or soft drinks. I always had to make excuses to my kid and I feel ashamed of it to this day.”Our own son had his first direct experience with prejudice while visiting the park with his teacher and a group of youngsters.“Daddy, I went into the restaurant to get a sandwich and the man yelled at me,” he said. “There was a policeman there also. He was nicer than the man behind the counter. He just told me they couldn’t serve me.”I was fearful that our child would become embittered, as did a friend’s eight-year-old son. One day, when this boy saw some white people driving through our neighborhood, he cried, “Stop them, Daddy. They won’t let us go through their street—don’t let them come through here!”Bill Jr. is now nine and we are glad that he has acquired no hostile feelings toward whites. We realize that all his questions pertaining to race have not been asked; that there are many situations he has not

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encountered. And we hope that when we are asked additional questions, we can answer in such a way as not to destroy his confidence.For almost every day now, we get the feeling that more humane elements are at work, all over the South. For example, at the big supermarket near the state capitol, the young white boys who assist us with our groceries are courteous to all. They surprise us with their “Yes, sir,” and “No, sir.”Such experiences make us feel that white parents are also trying to raise their children without bigotry. This is encouraging, for children are born without prejudice and it is every parent’s job—white or Negro—to see that they don’t acquire it as they grow older. Let’s hope the day is not far off when none of us will have to explain color to our kids.

“What I Tell My Child About Color” - Black and White Fathers in Atlanta Try to Explain Race Relations to Their Sons

In reaction to the 1954 court ruling in Brown vs. Board of Education that no public

schools are permitted to be segregated fathers in Atlanta spoke to their children about

the issue of race in America. The 1950s was a period of intense, influential, and crucial

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change on the passageway to equal political, social, and economic rights for African

Americans. In this editorial a father begins to explain to his son growing up in the deep

south about race relations and treating everyone with respect.

He starts out by telling his son, Jamie, that the word “nigger” should never be

used to describe a person of color. He then brings up the discussion of how Jamie

would feel if a colored boy or girl went to his school, and although he is met with childish

retorts and his wife decide not to push the argument of their young son he is reminded

that he did enjoy playing with colored children from his previous school. Jamie’s story

ends when his father asks him if he would mind playing with a colored boy, to which he

responds “Sure, if he can play baseball.”

The second section of “What I Tell My Child About Color” deals with a young

African American boy who first became aware of race when he asked his father “Daddy,

why can’t I get a drink from that fountain?” Bill's father focuses on reducing his sons

prejudice and aggression towards whites by agreeing to fully and truthfully answer all of

his son's questions pertaining to the injustice imposed on him only because of the color

of his skin. The overwhelming presence of bigotry and racial prejudice that prevailed in

the deep south causes fear in the hearts of parents wishing to keep their children safe

from blatant racial practices.

Raising a child that is conscious of the race issues that prevail in the social

climate of current day America is difficult enough but raising a child in the 1950s in the

deep south who is aware of the bigotry that seethes through the atmosphere seems

almost impossible. The white child seems to meet his father's guidance with language

that is imposed upon him by his schooling and by the people that inevitably cause his

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inert racism. The black child uses questions to try to wrap his head around the injustice

that plagues his everyday life. Both fathers wish to establish a platform for their children

to grow their cognizance beyond the confines of their environment.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NPHe8ET33Hg

http://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1957eisenhowerdoctrine.html

Eisenhower’s Doctrine

President Dwight D. Eisenhower’s address, entitles the Eisenhower Doctrine

addresses his feelings towards the conflict bubbling in the Middle East. He is in support

of the middle east adopting a democratic system. Because of this he initiates a doctrine

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that allows Middle Eastern countries to ask the US for money to aid them in the

conquest for democracy. These frustrations stem from the Suez Crisis, which was a

direct threat to the civility of not only Egypt and Israel but also The United States,

France, and England. The presence of atomic weapons, disgruntled world power

leaders, and the terror of communism caused Eisenhower to make a decisive and direct

message. Eisenhower's plea to the joint congress was for a greater presence in the

Middle East caused the area to be known as a battlefield for the Cold War.

The fear of communism prompted Eisenhower's request for military and

economic support for countries willing to work to defend themselves against the threat

of International Communism; which is how the US saw the situation. Congress

approved the ideas and it seemed for now WWIII was dissuaded.

The main goal of Eisenhower was “to secure and protect the territorial integrity

and political independence of such nations, requesting such aid against overt armed

aggression from any nation controlled by international communism.” This sentiment is

important because it elludes to the intense fear that was felt throughout the ranks of

American citizens. This fear of communism was real in the hearts of many Americans

but may have been taken advantage of when it seemed to be allowing the US to take

control of more and more territories. The sphere of influence enlarges where there is

money to be gained.

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1957 Griffin Microsheen Stain Boot Polish

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Professionalizing in boot polish, Griffin Microsheen was a widely popular

company that created many advertisements, for their products. Their product consisted

of “costly waxes, rare conditioning-oils and weather-proof silicones” that made up their

one of a kind shoe shine. Griffin Microsheen combined the advertisements of their

products with completely objectified, scandalously dressed women. In this particular

1957 advertisement, there is a young woman sitting on an ocean pier rod, almost

naked, holding a fishing pole with a Microsheen polished shoe hooked on the end of it.

The woman says, “I go hook - line and sinker for a man with Microsheen shine!” The

other text on the ad. explains that if “you’re fishing for popularity there’s no better date-

bait than shoes that sport a Microsheen shine.” It goes on to say that men who wear this

product catch women’s eyes quicker, and therefore should purchase it.

This advertisement shows both the economic and social norms of the later half of

the 1950’s. It so blatantly objectifies a woman for the purpose of selling a shoe product;

resulting, in the end, in selling her as well. It’s important to understand the lack of

awareness of sexism and the acceptance of it in this time period. This poster is a

perfect example of the shameless demeaning of women, not only in the way she is

physically portrayed, but also in the way that she seems so hopeless and dependent for

a man. Griffin Microsheen may have been very ignorant and sexist, but the rest of the

country was as well, so their methods were effective and Griffin Microsheen was known

for their sexy advertisements. It is extremely significant because the late 50’s were a

time of transformation, of racial tensions, technology, advancing laws, Rock and Roll,

and a fight for women's rights.

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Chevy Puts the Purr if Performance!

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Chevrolet held a strong influence on the American automobile market during the

late 1950’s. Their stylish look of the car set the stage for the second half of the decade

as one that rolled in both sheek design and efficiency. In 1957, Chevrolet produced the

Corvette, a two-seat, fiberglass body sports car, that took off in the markets for its

sweet, smooth and sassy looks, and its powerful, purring engine. As shown in the

advertisement, Corvette was advertised as a classy, slick, versatile car to appeal to

everyone from a family to a single person.

The late 1950’s were a time of style and development and the Corvette very

accurately represented that idea. Cars were a highly valued item and Chevrolet rose

above in car sales as one of the top performers. The Corvette offered people a new way

to travel, with fast acceleration and right-now response that offered safer conditions.

The Corvette is extremely significant because it shows a true boom in economic

importance in the automobile industry. Before the Corvette, there were fancy sports

cars, but the Corvette not only targeted the wealthy, high class, working man, but it also

targeted the family man and woman. This is made apparent by the visual on the

advertisement, with a mother in her car, putting on makeup, and a father holding his son

and dog up and listening to the “purr” of the engine. That very comparison of the engine

to a cat’s “purr” offers a sensual tone on the car, making it even more appealing, and

puts an idea into the viewer’s heads that with this car, they too can be powerful and

slick.

Transcript of National Interstate and Defense Highways Act (1956)AN ACT

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To amend and supplement the Federal-Aid Road Act approved July 11, 1916, to authorize appropriations for continuing the construction of highways; to amend the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 to provide additional revenue from the taxes on motor fuel, tires, and trucks and buses; and for other purposes.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled,

TITLE I—FEDERAL-AID HIGHWAY ACT OF 1956

SEC. 101. SHORT TITLE FOR TITLE I.

This title may be cited as the "Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956".

SEC. 102. FEDERAL-AID HIGHWAYS.

(a) (1) AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS.—For the purpose of carrying out the provisions of the Federal-Aid Road Act approved July 11, 1916 (39 Stat. 355), and all Acts amendatory thereof and supplementary thereto, there is hereby authorized to be appropriated for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1957, $125,000,000 in addition to any sums heretofore authorized for such fiscal year; the sum of $850,000,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1958; and the sum of $875,000,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1959. The sums herein authorized for each fiscal year shall be available for expenditure as follows:

(A) 45 per centum for projects on the Federal-aid primary high- way system.

(B) 30 per centum for projects on the Federal-aid secondary high- way system.

(C) 25 per centum for projects on extensions of these systems within urban areas.

(2) APPORTIONMENTS.—The sums authorized by this section shall be apportioned among the several States in the manner now provided by law and in accordance with the formulas set forth in section 4 of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944; approved December 20, 1944 (58 Stat. 838) : Provided, That the additional amount herein authorized for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1957, shall be apportioned immediately upon enactment of this Act.

(b) AVAILABILITY FOR EXPENDITURE.—Any sums apportioned to any State under this section shall be available for expenditure in that State for two years after the close of the fiscal year for which such sums are authorized, and any amounts so apportioned remaining unexpended at the end of such period shall lapse: Provided, That such funds shall be deemed to have been expended if a sum equal to the total of the sums herein and heretofore apportioned to the State is covered by formal agreements with the Secretary of Commerce for construction, reconstruction, or improvement of specific projects as provided in this title and prior Acts: Provided further, That in the case of those sums heretofore, herein, or hereafter apportioned to any State for projects on the Federal-aid secondary highway system, the Secretary of Commerce may, upon the request of any State, discharge his responsibility relative to the plans, specifications, estimates, surveys, contract awards, design, inspection, and construction of such secondary road projects by his receiving and approving a certified statement by the State highway department setting forth that the plans, design, and construction for such projects are in accord with the standards and procedures of such State applicable…

…

SEC. 108. NATIONAL SYSTEM OF INTERSTATE AND DEFENSE HIGHWAYS.

(a) INTERSTATE SYSTEM.—It is hereby declared to be essential to the national interest to provide for the early completion of the "National System of Interstate Highways", as authorized and designated in

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accordance with section 7 of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944 (58 Stat. 838). It is the intent of the Congress that the Interstate System be completed as nearly as practicable over a thirteen-year period and that the entire System in all the States be brought to simultaneous completion. Because of its primary importance to the national defense, the name of such system is hereby changed to the "National System of Interstate and Defense Highways". Such National System of Interstate and Defense Highways is hereinafter in this Act referred to as the "Interstate System".

(b) AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS.—For the purpose of expediting the construction, reconstruction, or improvement, inclusive of necessary bridges and tunnels, of the interstate System, including extensions thereof through urban areas, designated in accordance with the provisions of section 7 of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944 (58 Stat. 838), there is hereby authorized to be appropriated the additional sum of $1,000,000,000 for, the fiscal year ending June 30, 1957 , which sum shall be in addition to the authorization heretofore made for that year, the additional sum of $1,700,000,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1958, the additional sum of $2,000,000,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1959, the additional sum of $2,200,000,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1960, the additional sum of $2,200,000,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1961, the additional sum of $2,200,000,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1962, the additional sum of $2,200,000,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1963, the additional sum of $2,200,000,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1964, the additional sum of $2,200,000,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1965, the additional sum of $2,200,000,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1966, the additional sum of $2,200,000,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1967, the additional sum of $1,500,000,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1968, and the additional sum of $1,025,000,000 for the fiscal year ending .June 30, 1969…

The National Interstate and Defense Highway Act of 1956

The National Interstate and Defense Highways Act of 1956 asked for a certain

amount of funds to be allocated toward building thousands of new miles of highway

systems across America. Eisenhower approved this act along with congress and it was

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passed, known as the most expensive Act of its time, with a total amount of

$51,000,000,000 going toward building the 41,000 miles of interstate highway. The

push for the new system came from an overwhelming reliance on automobiles for not

only civilian transportation but also the transportation of goods and food product. It also

came from a need to improve the destruction done to the roads after WWI and the over

congestion due to the 65,000,000 cars on the roads as of 1956.

In a video from 1956 that states some of the facts of the bill it says that this

improvement will have a “Far reaching economic benefit throughout the country.” This

benefit is for everyone, including, the farmers, the city folk, and the people that are just

trying to get from work, to home, to the store. The six to eight lane superhighways seem

to be a large advancement from the previously gridlocked system. With more roads

came the spreading of not only suburbia but also the disbursement of industry across

America. Another benefit of the addition of more roads is the addition of new jobs, not

only in regards to the men who must build the roads but also the large scale

manufacturers of machines and automobiles. The video continues to note the many

benefits of the Act, including the saving of many lives due to how easy it is to find a car

stranded on the highway during an emergency.

There seems to be no negative attributes of the National Interstate and Defense

Highway Act.

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"All Shook Up"

A well I bless my soulWhat's wrong with me?

I'm itching like a man on a fuzzy treeMy friends say I'm actin' wild as a bug

I'm in loveI'm all shook up

Mm mm oh, oh, yeah, yeah!

My hands are shaky and my knees are weakI can't seem to stand on my own two feet

Who do you thank when you have such luck?I'm in love

I'm all shook upMm mm oh, oh, yeah, yeah!

Please don't ask me what's on my mind

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I'm a little mixed up, but I'm feelin' fineWhen I'm near that girl that I love best

My heart beats so it scares me to death!

She touched my hand what a chill I gotHer lips are like a volcano that's hotI'm proud to say she's my buttercup

I'm in loveI'm all shook up

Mm mm oh, oh, yeah, yeah!

My tongue get tied when I try to speakMy insides shake like a leaf on a tree

There's only one cure for this body of mineThat's to have the girl that I love so fine!

She touched my hand what a chill I gotHer lips are like a volcano that's hotI'm proud to say she's my buttercup

I'm in loveI'm all shook up

Mm mm oh, oh, yeah, yeah!Mm mm oh, oh, yeah, yeah!

I'm all shook up

All Shook Up

The hit love song, “All Shook Up,” by Elvis Presley was released on March 22,

1957, topping the Billboard Hot 100 and remaining there for eight weeks. The single

also topped Billboard R&B chart, staying for four weeks. Composed by Otis Blackwell,

“All Shook Up” describes the feeling of being in love, and the happiness, fear, chills,

warm feelings, and shakiness that comes along with it. The song begins by Elvis saying

his friends are worried because they think he’s going crazy. Soon he describes the

physical feelings of his knees going weak and heart beating concerningly fast; which are

feelings he’s never felt before. He knows that the only cure is to have the girl of his

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dreams, and after his tongue tied attempts to talk to her, she talks to him and his

dreams come true.

The feeling portrayed in the song describes the feeling late 1950’s that Rock and

Roll created, depicting a time of overwhelming love and excitement. Rock and Roll as a

whole was an extremely relevant part of the second half of the decade. At the time that

Rock and Roll sprouted, racial tensions were entering a new stage and as a result black

performers spoke to white audiences as well as white performers spoke to white

audiences. This was extremely progressive and was believed to push along the process

of racial desegregation. Rock and Roll also introduced a new culture of sex and drugs.

Many performers associated with the genre were known as heavy drinkers and hard-

living characters. Musicians attracted attention from “groupies,” who became particularly

popular during the late 50’s and the era of Rock and Roll. The use of drugs and alcohol

was becoming more prevalent in the music of the time, depicting the experiences the

artists had with them.

36

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<http://www.history.com/topics/cold-war/eisenhower-doctrine>.

"Herblock's History - Political Cartoons from the Cartoons from the Crash to the Millennium."

Library of Congress. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Apr. 2016. <https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/

herblocks-history/fire.html>.

"'Mob Rule Cannot Be Allowed to Override the Decisions of Our Courts': President Dwight D.

Eisenhower's 1957 Address on Little Rock, Arkansas." History Matters. Ed. Laura Beveridge.

American Social History Productions, n.d. Web. 9 Apr. 2016. <http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/

6335>.

National Interstate Defense and Highway Act of 1956. YouTube. YouTube, n.d. Web. 9 Apr. 2016.

37

<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NPHe8ET33Hg>.

"The New Dashing 1957 Corvette & Bel Air Sport Coupe." Click Americana Memories & Memorabilia. Ed.

Nancy J. Price. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 Apr. 2016. <http://clickamericana.com/eras/1950s/

the-dashing-new-1957-corvette-bel-air-sport-coupe>.

"Transcripts of National Interstate and Defense Highway Acts (1956)." Our Documents. History

Channel, n.d. Web. 10 Apr. 2016. <http://www.ourdocuments.gov/

doc.php?flash=true&doc=88&page=transcript>.

Sullenger, Jennifer, ed. "Elvis Presley Lyrics." AZLyrics. Musixmatch, n.d. Web. 7 Apr. 2016.

<http://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/elvispresley/allshookup.html>.

Zargarj-Reynolds, Paula. "Found in Mom's Basement." Typepad. N.p., 9 Oct. 2008. Web. 8 Apr. 2016.

<http://pzrservices.typepad.com/vintageadvertising/2008/10/1-2-3-4-found-1.html>.

OVERVIEW:

The later half of the 1950’s was a breaking point between the opposing forces of

communism and capitalism, and at a deeper level between consumerism and the

descent into non-conformism.

The Cold War was an ongoing reminder to the citizens of the US that safety

came at a price. Russia and the US came very close to physical war numerous times,

which caused a presence of fear, often nuclear bomb drills and constant propaganda.

The citizens of the United States were taught to fear the Russians, and most importantly

the communists, because they had different beliefs. Commercialism, consumerism, and

materialism were on the rise in America, with the emergence of a plentitude of new

fancy inventions, including new and improved cars. Conformism permeated through the

38

decade until events such as the emergence of rock and roll and the fight for civil rights

got underway.

In 1954 men such as Elvis Presley and Buddy Holly were gaining stardom in

America. The hit “Rock Around the Clock” by Holly was the first record to gain immense

popularity in both the US and in the UK marking a switch in not just American pop music

but also in a step away from the strict conformism of the decade.

United States citizens rejected conformism further by allocating for the civil rights

for all people, no matter the color of their skin. Events like the Montgomery Bus Boycott,

the incident at Little Rock, Arkansas, and the Civil Rights Act of 1957 helped to push for

first the political and eventually the social equality of all United States citizens under the

law. The president during this time period, Dwight D. Eisenhower, although admittedly

somewhat of a pacifist is revered as a great president who guided his people with a

strong and fierce grip.