Anti Malarial Plants Southwest Nigeria

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African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Vol. 4(2) pp. 055-060, February 2010Available online http://www.academicjournals.org/ajppISSN 1996-0816 2010 Academic Journals

Full Length Research Paper

Ethnobotanical survey of antimalarial plants used in

Ogun State, Southwest NigeriaO. A. Idowu, O. T. Soniran, O. Ajana and D. O. Aworinde

Department of Biological Sciences, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria.

Accepted 18 December, 2009

An ethnobotanical survey of herbal medicine used for treatment of malaria fever in 17 communities inOgun State, Southwest Nigeria was carried out. According to the results, 38 plant species belonging to24 families were used in herbal antimalarial recipes. Among the plants mentioned, the most frequentlyused were Morinda lucida (7.87%), Lawsonia inermis (7.41%), Citrus medica (6.94%), Sarcocephaluslatifolius (6.48%) and Morinda morindiodes (6.48%). Investigations were carried out on the plant part

(leaf, stem or root) used, method of preparing herbal antimalarial remedies and how it is administered.Result showed that irrespective of plant and part (leave, fruit, stem bark or root bark) or combinationsof the plant parts, water and aqueous extract from fermented maize were the main medium of herbalantimalarial preparations. Treatment regimens of malaria generally included drinking, bathing andsteam inhalation of the aqueous herbal preparations for 4 - 10 days or until symptoms of malariadisappear. About 65% of all the plants mentioned in the survey have been documented to have toxiceffect on the liver and kidney of experimental mice. Continuous consumption of these plants couldtherefore have pathological effects on the consumers. Hence, this show the need for more research inorder to identify lead compounds in indigenous antimalarial plants with less or no toxicity.

Key words:Survey, ethnobotanical, antimalarial, herb.

INTRODUCTION

Malaria is one of the major tropical parasitic diseasesresponsible for significant morbidity and mortalityespecially among children and pregnant women. It isestimated that 1 - 2 million people die yearly as a result ofmalaria (Sudhanshu et al., 2003). Africa faces thegreatest impact of this disease (Parija, 2008). Malaria isbecoming more resistant to a number of current drugsand is on the increase because of the global warmingprocess (Martin and Lefebvre, 1995). Thus, many com-munities who live in endemic areas, have started to lookfor malaria remedies in plants in their local environments

(Miliken, 1997). It is believed strongly that if the herbsused to treat malaria by our ancestors in Africa hundredof years ago were not effective, malaria would havedestroyed Africa. More so, Missionaries that came toAfrica would not have met a single person on thecontinent of Africa (Elujoba, 2005). The two main groupsof modern antimalarial drugs artemisinin and quininederivatives are known to have their source from herbs.

*Correspondence author. E-mail: [email protected]

Studies have documented over 1,200 plant species from160 families used in the treatment of malarial or feve(Willcox and Bodeker, 2004). Ethnobotanical survey is animportant step in the identification, selection anddevelopment of the therapeutic agents from medicinaplants. In ethnobotany and natural products chemistrythe mode of preparation and administration of herbapreparations are often crucial variables in determiningefficacy in pharmacological evaluation (Levine, 1981Lewis et al., 1998; AlbersSchonberg et al., 1997). InSouthwestern Nigeria, studies have been carried out to

document utilization of phytomedicines for treatment ofevers (Ajaiyeoba et al., 2003). Etkin (1997) also documented antimalarial plant used by the Hausa in NorthernNigeria. But these plants are taken orally by indigeneswithout any consideration of possible toxic effect ofcomponents in such plants. There is no record of the indigenous antimalarial herbs commonly used in Ogun Statetheir modes of preparation and consumption pattern.

The objective of the present study was to obtaininformation on the use of herbs in the treatment ofmalarial fever, the plant part(s) used, method of preparingherbal antimalarial remedies and how it is administered


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056 Afr. J. Pharm. Pharmacol.

The overall contribution is to document potentialantimalarial herbs from the Nigerian flora.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study areas

The study was conducted in the Southwest of Nigeria. A total of 17communities were visited consisting of 6 urban and 11 rural com-munities from 3 local government areas (Odeda, Abeokuta Southand Sagamu Local Government Areas (LGAs).

Odeda local government is a rural community. The residents aremostly farmers. Majority of the town lacks the usual social amenitiesand has a low density population. The community links OgunState to Oyo state. Abeokuta South and Sagamu Local Govern-ment Areas on the other hand, are communities of civil servantsand traders, and densely populated. The community has socialamenities such as electricity supply and pipe borne water. Theresidents of these areas belong majorly to the Yoruba ethnic group.

Informed consent

The purpose of the study was explained to the local traditional herbsellers, farmers, mothers and community and opinion leaders in thelocal government areas. Consent to conduct the study was given bythe traditional herbs sellers and community leaders. Informed con-sent was obtained from each of the participants. An approval for thestudy was obtained from the traditional heads of the communities.

General questionnaire

A semi structured questionnaire was administered randomly tofarmers, mothers, herb sellers, community leaders and elders in thecommunity to obtain information on commonly used herbs andparts frequently used for antimalarial remedies. Questions onmethods of herbal preparation, method of administration and

duration of use were also asked.

Sampling method

The study covered a period of three months from March 2008 toJune 2008. Systematic random sampling method was employed inwhich only odd numbered respondents were chosen.

Data analysis

Data obtained from the questionnaires were entered into thecomputer and analysed using Epi6-info version 6.04 (CDC, AtlantaGA, USA) (Dean et al., 1994).

RESULT

Demography

A total of 104 randomly selected respondents wereinterviewed which include farmers, mothers, herb sellers,community leaders and elders. The ages of respondentsranged between 40 90 years. Majority of the respon-dents were females (64.42%) including mothers, herbsellers and farmers, while the males (35 58%) werecommunity leaders, elders and farmers (Table 1).

Table 1.Demography structure of surveyrespondents showing age and sex.

Age (Years) N (%)

40-50 21 (20.2)

51-60 26 (25.0)

61-70 33 (31.7)71-80 18 (17.3)

81-90 6 (5.8)

Total 104

Sex N (%)

Male 37 (35.58)

Female 67 (64.42)

Total 104

The plant parts frequently used and mentioned in thisstudy are stated in Table 3. The frequency of occurrenceof various herbs mentioned during the botanical survey ispresented in Table 2. The most commonly mentionedplants were Morinda lucida (7.87%), Lawsonia inermis(7.41%), Citrusmedica(6.94%), Sarcocephalus latifolius(6.48%) and Celastrus indica (6.43 %). Among the topfrequently mentioned plants, three plants belong to thefamily RUBIACEAE (Morinda lucida, Rytigynia nigericaand S. latifolius). Other families in this category areAnarcardiaceae, Zingibercenae, Compositae, Apocynaceae, Fabaceae and Meliaceae. Level of toxicity wasbased on reports of documented studies.

Herbal preparation

Herbal remedies can either be prepared from dry plantingredients or freshly collected samples from the fieldRespondents however affirmed that either plant materiais efficient depending on accessibility to plant species assome plants are not easily seen within the localityHence, they are collected fresh or bought and preserveddry. In rural communities, it is common practice fodwellers to prepare herbal remedies in local clay potsThis is strongly preferred to aluminum pots.

Arrangement of plant part(s) ingredient

When remedies consisted of more than 2 plant parts andrecipes, seeds, fruits and stem barks were placed at thebottom of the cooking pots followed by the fragile part likeleaves on the top.

Traditional solvent of choice

The various solvents for herbal preparations mentionedare water, aqueous extract from fermented maize andalcohol.


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Idowu et al. 057

Table 2.Responses on common antimalarial plants and parts used in Ogun State.

S/N Vernacular name Botanical name Plant pt(s) Frequency (%) Antim. activity Toxicity

1 Oruwo Morindalucida L. S.B., L. 7.87 Significant Toxic

2 Laali LawsoniainermisL. L 7.41 Minimal Toxic

3 Osan were Citrusmedica L., F. 6.94 Slightly sign. Not toxic

4 Egbesi Sarcocephaluslatifolius (Smith) Bruce S.B., L. 6.48 Significant Toxic5 Ponju owiwi Morinda morindiodes Bark. A.P.,R.B. 6.48 Significant No info.

6 Ewe tea Cymbopogoncitrates(DC) Stapf L 6.48 Slightly sign. Not toxic

7 Ahun Alstoniaboonei De Wild. S.B., L 5.56 Significant Minimal

8 Awopa Petiveraalliacea L. S.B. 4.17 Significant Toxic

9 Mangoro Mangiferaindica L. S.B., L 4.17 Significant Minimal

10 Ata ile pupa Zingiberofficinale Roscoe. U. S. 3.44 Slightly sign. Negligible

11 Oganwo Khayagrandifolia S.B. 3.32 Significant Minimal

12 Koko TheobromacacaoL. S.B. 3.32 Slightly sign. Minimal

13 Owu Gossypiumarboretum L. L 3.32 Slightly sign. Minimal

14 Dangoyaro Azadirachtaindica A. Juss L 3.32 Significant Negligible

15 Oparun Bambosavulgaris L 3.32 No activity Negligible

16 Akintola Chromolaenaodorata L. A.P. 2.85 Slightly sign. Not toxic

17 Orinbo arinka Lecaniodiscus cupanioides Planch. L., S.B. 2.85 Slightly sign. Toxic

18 Orogbo Garciniakola (Heckel) S.B. 1.39 Slightly sign. Toxic

19 Goba Psidiumguajava L. L 1.39 Minimal Minimal

20 Aridan tooro Cassiafistulosa Lam. S.B 1.39 Slightly sign. Minimal

21 Efinrin Ocimumgratissium L 1.39 Minimal Negligible

22 Furuntu Terminaliacatappa L. L 1.39 No info. No info.

23 Otili Cajanuscajan Millsp. L 1.39 Significant Not toxic

24 Alubosa Alliumcepa L. L., S. 1.39 Minimal Not toxic

25 Elegun oko Rytigynianigerica (S.Moore) R.B. 1.39 Minimal Minimal

26 Ehin olobe Phyllantusamarus L 0.93 Slightly sign. Not toxic

27 Afon TreculiaAfricana De Wild. S.B. 0.93 Minimal Minimal

28 Ewuro Vernoniaanygdalina Del. L 0.93 Significant Negligible

29 Asofeyeje Rauvolfiavomitoria Afzel. L 0.93 Slightly sign. Negligible

30 Ibepe Caricapapaya L. L 0.93 Minimal Minimal

31 Mafowokon Argermonemexicana Linn. L 0.46 Significant Toxic

32 Irosu Baphianitida Lodd. S.B., L 0.46 No info. Not toxic

33 Atare Aframoniummelegueta S.B 0.46 No info. Not toxic

34 Piya Perseaamericana S.B., L 0.46 No info. Toxic

35 Olorin Xylopiaaethiopica Dunal. Seed 0.46 Minimal Toxic

36 Ponhan Lophiraalata S.B. 0.46 Minimal Toxic

37 Oju ologbo Abrusprecatorius L. L 0.46 Minimal Toxic

38 Iyeye Spondiasmombin L., S.B. 0.46 Minimal Not toxic

L- leaf, S.B- stem bark, R.B- root bark, A.P- aerial parts, U.S- underground stem, No info.- no information, Freq.- frequency. Toxicity of plants as reporteAjaiyeoba et al. (2006); Davis (1978); Bird (1991); Robert (2009); Uko et al. (2001); Yemitan and Adeyemi (2005); Aguwa (1987); Oze et al. (2007); Adeet al. (2005); Bakhiet and Adam (2004); U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2006); Raintree Nutrition (2008).

A higher percentage of those interviewed especially inrural communities showed preference to aqueous extractfrom fermented maize (98%) followed by water (90%)and alcohol (20%) (Figure 1). This notion was furtherconfirmed in the interview with herbs sellers in urbancommunities. All the respondents generally believe thatalcohol is only used for the preparation of remediesconsisting mainly hardy plant parts like stem bark, root

and seeds.

Traditional extraction methods

The two main preparation methods are boiling in water oaqueous extract from fermented maize and steeping/soaking in the solvents mentioned or alcohol. More


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Table 3.Frequency of Plant Parts commonly used forantimalarial remedy.

Plant part Frequency N (%)

Leaf 120 (71.0)

Stem 81 (48.0)

Root bark 13 (7.6)Fruits 4 (2.5)

Seed 4 (2.5)

Underground stem 4 (2.5)

Total 226 (134.1)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Fermented Maize

Water

Water Alcohol

Solvent of extraction

Percentageo

fres

pondents

Figure 1.Medium of herbal extraction as commonly used by respondents.

preference was shown to boiling than soaking. Boiling isusually done using either water or aqueous extract fromfermented maize starch but more preference was givento aqueous extract from fermented maize as this isbelieved to be more efficient. Alcohol was never used assolvent when boiling herbal ingredients. Duration ofboiling ranged from 1 - 2 h on burning fire wood orcooking stove till a change in color of the solvent isobserved indicating full dissolution of active ingredientsinto the solvents as some stated.

Soaking, a second choice of preparation was given lesspreference unlike boiling.Solvents used can either be water, aqueous extract fromfermented maize or alcohol. This method is preferred byits users as they believe that the ingredients will beextracted without the ingredients from the plant beenexposed to heat which they believe could somehow haveeffect on the efficacy of the herbal recipes. Plant part arecut into small piece and soaked in corked bottles orcontainers for 2 to 3 days.

Soaked herbal remedies are always available in house-holds irrespective of obvious symptoms of malaria and

most times are used for prophylactics than treatments.

Method of administration

All the respondents preferred drinking a cup-full (about 5cl) of aqueous alcoholic preparations 2 to 3 times daily oras much as possible till symptoms of malaria disappearAbout 40% of respondents suggested bathing and steaminhalation of the aqueous preparations for 4 10 daysespecially when high fever is observed in patients. It was

also observed that majority of those interviewed useantimalarial herbal remedies as prophylactics and thefrequency of consumption depends on the severity ofinfection.

DISCUSSION

From the list of herbs frequently used and the plant partsin Table 1, M. lucidais a widely known plant possessingantimalarial properties attributed to anthraquinones andanthranquinols isolated from the plant. (Koumaglo et al.,


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1992; Sittie et al., 1999; Adewunmi and Adesogan,1984). L. inermis is also used by some respondents asblood tonic, thus believing that it has a dual effect.Studies also confirmed that S. latifolius, Alstoniaboonei,Petiveraalliacea, Mangiferaindicaand Khayagrandifoliahave significant antimalarial properties (Guede et al.,

2005; Awe et al., 1998; Pedro and Antonio, 2001;Agbedahunsi et al., 1998), but little is known aboutMorinda morindiodes which was also frequentlymentioned and has a frequency of 6.48% as shown inTable 1. The combination of different plants and parts inthe preparation of antimalarial herbal remedy is notuncommon among respondents and it is believed thatsome plants enhance the action of other herbs. This canindicate an increase on permeability of the Plasmodiummembrane to antiparasitic substances or an inhibition ofpump mechanism of eliminating the drugs (Alexandros,2007).

The use of either freshly collected herbal recipes orpreserved (dry) plant parts seems not to make anydifference in its perceived efficacy to the respondents.This was confirmed in the study as respondents showedno peculiar preference to one. However, studies hadshown that there were quantitative and qualitativedifferences in the essential oil components of fresh anddry plant materials (Okoh et al., 2008; Fatemeh et al.,2006) Thus, dry plant materials might not be as potent asfreshly collected herbs. Pharmacological laboratorystudies have also employed the drying of plant partsduring the preparation of plant extracts.

There is no scientific reason backing the preference tothe use of clay pots for herbal preparations, but some ofthe respondents said that preference is given to the use

of clay pots because clays pots have been in use beforethe advent of aluminum pots and even cheaper thanaluminum pots.

Respondents also showed preference for the arrange-ment of plants parts in cooking pots although this has notbeen studied in relation to plant / herb efficacy. However,respondents believe that plant ingredients are soakedbetter in that arrangement especially when boiling is to beemployed.

Preference for solvent of herbal remedy is because ofthe belief that some solvents are efficient than others anddepending on the plant parts. However, aqueous extractform fermented maize was shown more preference than

water and alcohol. Laboratory studies had also confirmedthe efficacy of one solvent over another as solvent ofextraction in relation to the antimalarial property of theplant. For example, the methanolic extracts of Flueggeavirosa, Maytenus undata and Maytenus putter lickioideshad higher percentage of chemosuppression of parasi-taemia in vivothan the water extract of the plants. Whilethe water extracts of Harungana madagascariensis andWarburgia stuhlmannii had higher chemosuppression ofparasitaemia than the methanolic extracts in vivo (Muthauraet al., 2007).

Boiling as a method of preparation was frequently men-

Idowu et al. 059

tioned than soaking (Figure 1). This is partly because ofthe choice of solvent and the type of plant parts to beused in preparing the herbal remedy. From this study, iwas also observed that the dose of the herbal remedyused is dependent on disappearance of symptoms ofmalarial fever. Most of the respondents believe that

herbal remedies can be consumed as much as possibleeven as prophylactics but they are ignorant of the toxicaffects of most of these herbs. Studies had howeveproved that some antimalarial herbs have dosedependent effect, for example high levels of chemosuppression were produced at high doses of the leaf androot-bark extracts of Vernonia amygdalina (Abosi andRaseroka, 2003). Studies had also shown that someplants are highly toxic despite their high chemosup-pression of parasitaemia. Morinda lucida for examplewhich is top on the list of frequently used plants wasobserved for its in vitro cytotoxicity and the stem barkwas found to be extremely toxic (Ajaiyeoba et al., 2006)The seeds of Lawsonia inermishave also been found tobe toxic in molluscs (Singh and Singh, 2001). Howeverour search on published studies on the level of antimalarial activity and toxicity of the 38 plants in this studyshowed that 80% have been documented to haveantimalarial property but suppressive and noneclearance, while about 65% have toxic effects. Extract ofthe stem bark of Alstonia boonei could be potentiallynephrotoxic especially when dose is high and duration ofuse extended (Panda, 1999). The toxicity of S.latifolius ismoderately high while Cymbopogon citratus isinsignificant respectively (Iwu, 1993).

Conclusion

This study and similar studies shows the need for theenlightenment of traditional medicine practitioners andthe public in general on selective use of herbs for thetreatment of malaria.

However, study on the effectiveness of aqueous extracfrom fermented maize (as observed in practice) assolvent of extraction in laboratory test extracts had nobeen documented.

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