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Anthropology 2A FINAL Review

Four Fields of Anthropology (4)1. Archaeology: the study of archaic (really old)a. Focuses on past human civilizations (pyramids, tombs, etc.)b. Midden: trash or garbage heaps2. Biological or Physical Anthropologya. Human anatomy, human genomeDNA, evolution, primates, 3. Linguistic Anthropology: language, communication4. Cultural Anthropology (what we focus on)a. The study of human culture b. Tends to compare cultures around the globe c. Cross comparative method

Definition of Culture Culture is a system of meanings embedded in symbols Food items that carry symbols that represent any culture Clothing, cars lead to judgments or assumptions Symbols that lead you to a specific culture/event Always occurring, all things carry meanings, in different places Both positive and negative connotations We use culture to judge people because we think we know

Characteristics/Aspects of Culture (6)1. Unconscious a. Often unaware of the power of culture in our lives until someone challenges us (does something abnormal)b. Elevator example: we normally face the front of the elevator and go along with the standards c. Learning the behavior once you learned it, it becomes unconscious 2. Cultures are artificial a. Passed onto us, created by societyb. Not innatec. We still make these claims but claims are not based on real factsd. Not born with, learned in culturee. Children in abusive situations, didnt have culture 3. Cultures are Learned4. Cultures are Shared5. All cultures change or evolve over time. No culture is static.a. No culture where people are living the same as ancestors b. Uses tools that are similar c. No culture is in the stone-age today6. All cultures exhibit some level of social inequality a. Social inequality many forms b. Older people have more authority c. Slavery, abuse, etc. Very controversial Some Key Terms Ethnocentrism: belief that your culture is superior to any other Cultural Relativism (relativity): a research tool or method; it means that you strive to put aside your own cultural biases in order to better understand another culture, not mean as an excuse for saying that a culture is more morally acceptable; science cannot provide moral answers; can help people understand why Participant observation or fieldwork: the method of research used by cultural anthropologists, if we want to learn about another culture, spend a year or more interacting with them; didnt initially use this Ethnography: the research report produced by an anthropologist(s) based on their fieldwork; traditionally these were written reports, but today can be found in other forms of media Enculturation: the process of learning a culture Holistic perspective: an approach to understanding a society by recognizing how the different elements of a society function together Incommensurability: not understanding each other; doesnt make sense

Video Clip: The Yanomamo Napolean Chagnonin the jungle Anthropologists dont often go do research in exotic places Genealogy: how people are related to each other People can get offended; too nosy Dont mention the names of the dead Responded by lying to him and making fake names Found out it was all a lie, spend 2 years doing this Finally made enough friends and built trust *in reality it was much more problematic Anthropologists dont bring medicine, they bring medical people with them Some people died of the measles vaccination

Horace MinerNacirema Anthropologist: talks about bizarre things Nacirema things do Writes about the American Society

History of Anthropology 1800sa number of new sciences (anthropology, political science, sociology, psychology) We consider science a modern projectbut thats wrong. Weve always the sciences albeit in different forms. Examine the world to form a meaning construct: Hunters and gatherers know the science of nature Chinese traditions Social sciences however is a fairly new phenomenon During the middle ages of Feadal period (500-1500 A.D.) (no one used the term social science until the 1800s) Most large scale kingdoms and states were organized into a political hierarchy known as tributary system Tributary System

Divine knight of kings/mandate of heaven Will of God that emperors rule God has put this system in place No longer acceptable in 1500s-1800s You need to pay people above (i.e. tax, pay, respect) From the 1500s to 1800s, tremendous political unrest is unleashed which overthrows the old tributary system in many regions Examples: 1581: Dutch RepublicNetherlands doesnt want king; no more tributary system 1776: American Revolution 1789: French Revolution 1810: Mexican Revolution 1896: Cuban Revolution If the tributary system could no longer explain how society functions, new explanations needed to be formed. The social sciences emerged in the 1800s as a new means of trying to explain how or why society functions. At the same time, the social sciences were developing, many of natural sciences were also being developed For example: biology, geology, chemistry; there was a lot of dialogue in the 1800s between the social and natural sciences. There were interested in each other. More cooperative with each other.

Charles Lyellnot an anthropologist, but a geologist 1830 Principles of Geology no evolution yet He claimed in his book that the Earth was at least 500,000 years old. Believed that God created the Earth Most people believed that the Earth was only about 6,000 years old.

1644Sir John Lightfoot calculated that the Earth had been created on September 17, 3928 B.C. at 9 A.M.

1658Bishop Ussher claimed that the Earth was created on October 23, 4004 B.C.

Charles Lyell used stratigraphy as his proof for claiming the earth was half a million years old.

Lyell was a friend with the Darwin family. Lyell encouraged Charles Darwins father to allow Darwin to take the voyage for scientific purposes on The Beagle. Darwin returned to England in 1836He began to develop a radical biological theory which he was afraid to publish. 1859: On the Origin of Species published by Darwin Darwin argued that due to natural selection, some species would adapt to changing/alternate environment over time.

Many scientists became intrigued by Darwins claims. Sir Herbert SpencerBritish sociologist 1876: Principles of Sociology Abused Darwins ideas in a racist way Justify racism Claim that certain groups were more advanced/better Spencer uses the phrase survival of the fittest to claim that Western Europeans were the most evolved humans at existence. He was taking a biological idea to explain SOCIOLOGY BAD IDEA Spencer claimed that Great Britain was the biggest empire of the world because the English (Anglosaxons) are more evolved. Spencer tried to claim that the poor were less fit than the wealthy. Other terms this is known as: Spencerism Social Darwinism Scientific Racism

American AnthropologistLewis Henry Morgan aka Henry Lewis Morgan Ancient Society 1877 Ideas were similar to Spencer Unilinealism (one line) Divided into 3 sub categories Know 3 general categories Riding System: believed riding system in Europe was superior His own personal bias; no scientific data With proper education, you can improve the groups and thus reach European education

Human Progress

Savage Barbarian Civilized (African & Native Americans) (Asians & Middle Easterns) (Europeans)

Scottish Anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor 1871: Primitive Culture Uses religion but it is still considered racist Also a unilinealist

Human Progress(Africans & Native Americans) (Asians) (Mid Eastern) (Europeans)

Animism Polytheism Monotheism Spirit Worship/Nature Many Gods Worship of One GodReligions are not all equal though Monotheists 1. Protestant Christians2. Catholics3. Muslims and Jews

Franz Boas German-born Jew who immigrated to the U.S. in the 1880s Franz Boas had attended university in Berlin; he studied physics initially While working on his PH.D. He went to Baffinland (The artic; part of Greenland) Boas met and became very interested in Inuit (eskimo) people and culture Boas argued that Inuit (eskimo) were as civilized as Europeans Was told Jewish were not as good as Europeans After finishing his PH.D. Boas immigrated to the U.S. He hoped to escape racism but ended up experiencing it in America Chinese Exclusion Non-Europeans & Southern Europeans into the U.S. On the Growth of Children 1896 (long-term study) Boas noted in his study that the size in skulls among children was not a factor of race, but a factor of nutrition (environment) People ended up going against him Boas did a lot of research among Native American groups in the pacific northwest He worked with Kwakiutl He developed his own perspective to argue against unilinealism Multilinealism: From Boas (no single line of human progress)

Common Past

In order to promote Multilinealism and show the weakness of unilinealism, Boas developed the four field approach to anthropology:1. Physical/Biological Anthropologya. We can use this to demonstrate that no human group is less biologically developed than anotherb. All human races are equal, have same biological potentialc. For example: skull size (craniometry) studies showed nutrition was the major factor in skull size2. Archaeology a. Can use this to show that all human groups have developed civilization over timeno group is stuck in the stoneage3. Linguistic Anthropology a. Can be used to demonstrate that all human groups have complex, fully functioning language4. Cultural Anthropology a. Can be used to demonstrate that all human groups have complex, fully functioning culturesb. His books were burned in Germany and he lost his PH.D.

A.R. Radcliffe Brown (British Anthropologist) Published a book in 1922: The Andaman Islanders He developed a theory known as structural functionalism He argued that the structures of society function together to maintain and reproduce that society Radcliffe-Brown focused on the power that society holds over the individual

Bronislow MalinowsiBritish Anthropologist 1922: The Argonauts at the Pacific Trying to get the readers attention (Western and European readers) Trobriand Islanders (he compared this to the Argonauts of the Pacific) Malinowski developed the functionalism perspective

Tips on how to remember the difference between these two people: Radcliffe-Brown structural functionalism (much more on society & focuses on power that society has on the people) Malinowski functionalism Functionalism argued that the function of society is to meet the needs of the individual much more on the individual

Subsistence Patterns (economic factors) *Can do multiples1. Hunter and Gatherera. Forager2. Horticulturalist a. Small scale family farming; growing food for themselves 3. Pastoralism a. Raising herd animals 4. Intensive Agriculture a. Growing surplus foodb. Associated with cities5. Industrialism and Post-Industrialism a. The sale of serves and goods on the market

SUBSISTENCE PATTERN #1: Hunters and Gatherers were considered to be savages by the social scientists of the late 1800s and early 1900s. The bias against hunters and gatherers goes back to long before the 1800s. Thomas Hobbes: English philosopher Leviathan in 1651 Claimed that human nature is nasty, brutish, negative You backstab your friend Human nature is evil and cruel Argued that people are nasty, selfish, brutish, cruel People need a king or strong government to keep our negative behavior in check Since hunters and gatherers usually did not have political rulers, Westerners assumed their societies would be violent and dangerous

Adam Smith (British Economist/Capitalist) 1776 Wealth of Nations Smith argued that people are naturally greedy and selfish They want to accumulate wealth Called humans homoecomicus Only limited goods (gold, diamonds, resources) existed in the world, but people have unlimited wants Argues that society needs a way to control peoples wants Smith argued that a market system (capitalism) was a way to control human greed

Hunters and Gatherers do not traditionally have either political leaders or market economies. So Westerners (Europeans, Americans) assume their societies are violent. Marshall Sahlins argued that in reality, hunters and gatherers were no more violent than ours. Affluent naturally think people have great wealth but Sahlins argues that hunters and gatherers societies like the !Kung are actually affluent (live comfortable lives) Examples: !Kung Work 20 hrs/week Women, children, and elderly supply about 70% of the food (called gathering) Young and middle aged men supply 30% of the food (hunting) Violence: !Kung homicide rate is no higher than ours No relative poverty in !Kung society During the 1800s, most anthropologists were eurocentric (Europeans were better) and they were armchair anthropologists. It is an insulting phrase; you are judging from your deskBoas argued that each culture had its own unique genius or geist.

Bronislaw Malinowski (functionalism) Culture functions to meet our needs Promoted the Participant-Observation Method used today by most anthropologists live with your culture, live with them; do it for serveral months, years, etc. He came up with this by accident; he didnt intend to come up with this Trobriand Islands WWI caused him to get stuck there for 2 years and for almost 2 years he recognized that the more time he spent in the islands, the better he understood the culture

Hunters & Gatherers ConceptHunters & Gatherers !Kung Follow food sources which move with the seasons Transhumance (moving with the seasons) The !Kung practice sharing the arrows Everyone in !Kung society to get the same equal credit Arrows hunters use often belong to non-hunters who give them as gifts to hunters

Insulting the meatinvolves a method for a hunter to show humility after a successful hunt (young or middle aged men) Come back and say I killed the giraffe, its not much but when you have time, please come to check it out. YOU CANNOT BOAST; if you do, they will not eat it, think that the animal will get them sick, NO PRIDE The key to this is to stay humble and promote equality

Strong ethic (value or sharing) All food, water, and resources are sharednot owned by one person A band is a hunter and gatherer group

SUBSISTENCE PATTERN #2 Horticulturesmall scale farminggrowing food for ones family Work approximately 30 hrs/week The Yanomamo (Napolean Chagnon) are horticulturalists as well as hunters and gatherers. Most food from gardens from the meat is from hunting They practice Swidden or Slash and burn horticulture When theyre done farming, they burn it and the jungle grows again Primary means of growing crops Dont farm animals, they hunt them; they keep their own animals as pets Another group of horticulturalists Trobriand Islanders Live on islands on the South Pacific. They also practice Swidden/Slash & Burn horticulture Also work 30 hrs/week Men own one type of garden while women own another type Mens gardens are used to grow only yams which are always given away as gifts Two key rules about Trobriand Yam Giving:1. The biggest yams are given to chiefs as a sign of respect 2. Most men give yams to their sisters husband as a sign of gratitude for caring for the sister and her children Yams that are received as gifts are publically displayed in a mans yam house. Everyone sees how many yams a man as been given.

SUBSISTENCE PATTERN #3 Pastoralismrefers to societies who raise herd animalscows, sheeps, goats, camels, horses The Masai and Nuer in Africa are both pastoralists Generally practice transhumance Most Pastoracist societies today are patriarchalmale dominated because only men are considered owners of cattle

SUBSISTENCE PATTERN #4 Intensive Agricultureinvolves growing surplus amounts of food which will be consumed by others Usually associated with a market economy This practice has been around since the rise of human cities @ 10,000 years ago Major empires historically relied on intensive agriculture to feed their conquering armies

SUBSISTENCE PATTERN #5 Industrialism and Post-Industrialismrefers to the mass production of goods and services for sale in a market system Post-industrialism: contract, wifi, T-mobile, services that you additionally need and add Industrialism begins in England in the early 1800s with the creation of factory systems which mass produced numerous goods. These factories usually hired large numbers of workers for very low wages. The factories drove small business owners out of business Modern Times by Charlie Chaplin Addresses social problems Workers are often abused and they break

E.P. ThompsonTime Discipline Before 1800s, Englands main business was agriculturemost lower class workers were peasant farmers Their lives were organized around natures seasonal cycles Amount of work varied with seasonsmost work was accomplished during daylight Clocks were not needed and not widely owned In 1800s, factories emerged in England Factories were often functioning 24/7 Developed Time-discipline Started in factories Needed to get to work based on time, not seasons People worked at odd hours Rise of factories: Pay less and not much Women turned to prostitution Women had bad reputations as factory workers

The Enclosures caused a loss of peasant access to working on farms which led to many peasants going to cities to try to make a living-factory jobs were sought out by these former peasants Higher people realized that they would make more profit to use land to farm animals they no longer rented out their land to poor people and thus used their land to farm animals and then sell wool Poor people used to pay for land but then they got kicked out

Poverty in cities went up as factory wages went down. Crime in cities also went up and prostitution followed as well. Religious Reformers urged factories to make workers work longer hours for less money in order to keep them off the streets.

Luddite Rebellions 1811-1812refer to a period when angry mobs known as Luddites burned down factories in England. Not only workers, but also small business owners became Luddites because they ended up losing everything due to factories.

Short Response Questions:

1. Why did Franz Boas found the four-field approach to anthropology? How did he use each of these to combat the scientific assumptions/bias of his time?Boas promoted Multilinealism and that there was no single line of human progress. Boas wanted to eliminate racism and he argued that eskimos were just as civilized as Europeans. He wanted to show the weakness of unilinealism and in order to do so he created the four-field approach. The four-field approach includes Physical/biological anthropology, archaeology, linguistic anthropology, and cultural anthropology. Physical/biological anthropology: no group of humans is more biologically developed than the other; we all have the same biological potential Archaeology: humans have developed civilization over time, no group is stuck in the stone-age Linguistic anthropology: all human groups have complex, fully functioning language Cultural anthropology: all humans have complex, fully functioning culture 2. What is Unilinealism (Unilineal Evolution)? How did social scientists such as Herbert Spencer, Henry Lewis Morgan, and Sir Edward Burnett Tylor use unilinealism to justify the colonialism, ethnocentrism, and social inequalities of Europe and the United States in the 19th century?Unilinealism is the belief that human progress is considered to be in a single line. Spencer used Darwins idea of survival of the fittest to demonstrate that Europeans were more advanced and more evolved than any other group. However, this was considered to be a bad idea as a biological idea can be used to explain and sociology. It was deemed to be racist and Spencers ideas were considered to called Social Darwinism, Scientific racism because it tried to promote the idea that the poor were less fit than those who were wealthy. Henry Lewis Morgans ideas were similar to Spencers, but instead his was divided into sub-categories. He believed that the savages, the barbarians, and the civilized divided human progress into three parts. The civilized would be classified as Europeans, the barbarians would be the Asians and Middle Eastern, while the savages were considered African and Native American. Sir Edward Burnett Tylor believed that human progressed was divided by three classes, generally based on religion. The three sub categories were Animism (spiritual worship), Polytheism (belief in many Gods), and Monotheism (belief in one God). Tylor believed that the well established and best fit were those who practiced monotheism, which generally were considered Europeans. However, not all religions were seen as equal. Spencer, Morgan, and Tylor all practiced unilinealism to demonstrate that Europeans were ethnocentric and were the most fit and well established. This was considered to be scientifically racist. 3. How did the writing of Adam Smith and Thomas Hobbes create a bias against non-industrial, non-captialist societies (hint: what social institutions did hunters and gatherers appear to be lacking in order to be civilized?) What did Hobbes as well as Smith believe about human nature?In Adam Smiths Wealth of Nations, Smith argued that a society should have a market system or live in a capitalist society in order to control human greed while in Thomas Hobbes Leviathan, Hobbes argued that humans were evil and cruel and thus a society needs a strong government in order to keep the people in check. This showed to be a bias against hunters and gatherers because hunters and gatherers had neither a market system nor a strong government in their society; it deemed them to be less civilized and violent. Because Smith and Hobbes believed that people were selfish, cruel, greedy with many desires and wants, there would be no way to control their greed unless there was an establishment of a market system and a strong government.4. Why does Marshall Sahlins claim that hunter-gatherers are the original affluent societies? In what sense are they affluent? What does he believe about Smith and Hobbes assumptions about human nature.Sahlins claim that hunter-gatherers are the original affluent societies because he sees that they actually do live comfortable lives. He disagrees with Smith and Hobbes assumptions about human nature because he learns that the hunter-gatherer society is no more violent than ours. They are considered affluent because they live comfortable lives where they are able to work approximately 30 hours per week with no relative poverty and their crime rate is no higher than ours.5. What are the main categories of subsistence presented in lecture (foraging, horitculturalism, pastoralism, intensive agriculture, industrialism). Foraging: Foraging is can also be known as hunters-gatherers. In this subsistence pattern, there is no market system or strong government. The people in this society generally are transhumance, meaning they move with the seasons. An example of this would be the !Kung society. This type of subsistence pattern practices sharing of the arrows and insulting the meat. Being humble and not displaying pride was extremely important in this society as they promote equality and humbleness. Horticulturalism: small scale farming for ones family. Two examples of horticulturalism are the Yanomamo and the Trobriand Islands. The Yanomamo generally garden for the food for their families but for meat, they hunted. They practiced Swidden or slash and burn horticulture, meaning they would plant their crops and then they were done, they would burn the field and the jungle would regrow again. The Trobriand Islanders also practiced slash and burn however they displayed their respect through the giving of yams. Women planted their own gardens while men did their own. Yams were highly respected and was considered a symbol. Yams were given to chiefs as a sign of respect and the number of yams in a mans yam house demonstrated how good he treated his wife. Pastoralism: a society that raises herd animals: cows, sheep, cattle, etc. The Masai and Nuer societies were considered pastorcists, they also practiced transhumance. Males generally dominated these societies because cattle owners were usually men only. Intensive Agriculture: involves growing surplus amounts of food, which will be consumed by others. There is a market economy and the army leaders usually depended on this type of agriculture to feed their armies. Industrialism: refers to the production of goods and services in a market system; workers were required to work a lot more with very little pay; the innovation of factories drove small business owners out of business which is shown in Chaplins Modern Times film.6. Think about how the new biological (Charles Darwin) and geological (Charles Lyell) theories of the mid 19th century. How was Darwins theory used (or misused) to contribute to a scientific racist perspective in anthropology and other social sciences?7. How did industrialism develop in the 1800s. How did it force people to reorient their lives around the clock? What sorts of reactions occurred against industrialization?

Everything After the Midterm

Industrialism

Industrialism: began in England in early 1800sdeveloped a factory system Because of The Enclosures, people had to accept jobs This led to prostitution

Rebellions against industrialization from a very early point Industrialization was not around for a short time Luddite Rebellions 1811-1812: England Industrialism did not just impact where people worked or the kind of work they didit also impacted home life Less time on child care by parents Gender roles were impacted (what men and women were expected to do)

Among peasant farmers (before industrialization) both husbands and wives did farm worknext to the home. Both husbands and wives watched the kids. Children spent a lot of time with parentswork and home were nearly identical farming (can see mom and dad) industrialization changed this dramatically

With industrialization, mens work became more highly valued because factories paid more than women.

1848: was a violent year in Europemany workers took the streets in protest.

New political groups emerged in 1848 to try to assist the problems of the workers. Karl Marx 1848 The Communist Manifesto Reaction to the massive protests in Europe in 1848

Key Marx Concepts 1. Labor theory of valuecaptialists make profits from the value that the laborers give to the products they makeprofits goes to the capitalist and not to the laborer 2. Profits are made by exploiting (under paying) the laborer (proletartiat)3. Workers experience alienation (not treated like members of society; more like slaves)a. They are treated like disposable machinesnot as humans4. Marxs solutionWorkers unite and take control of the factories and profits for themselves

In the United States and Western Europe, Marxs ideas were not popular and other solutions to the problem of industrialization were soughtmost developed in 20th century These helped factories combat abuse: Minimum wage laws Liability laws Overtime Laws Child labor laws Unionization was legalized for many laborers

Offshore Production Began being used by American and European countries in 1970sGrowing ever since Opening of Free Trade Zones in developing countries In Free Trade Zones, foreign companies often do not have to pay minimum wage No liability laws (gets hurt &company pays) No E.P.A Laws No unions permitted Sexual harassment is not prosecuted

Aihwa OngMalaysian Factory workers in Free Trade Zones Free trade zones are different in each country Girls live in factory dorms Work long hours, most girls are Muslims (had to work on days off) 12 hrs/day sometimes ~16 hours per day Poor families depend on the income provided by daughters working in the factories Kampung Girls (farm girls); girls would be safer Girls dont quitparents need the money Spirit possession factories built in the jungle; haunted by spirits Ong doesnt think theyre possessed but that they have really nervous breakdowns Ong doesnt think theyrey lying either

Race: The Power of an Illusion Video Guide Extinction thesis (Hoffmans Extinction Theory) Eugenics Racial Purification Jesse OwensPotential Corapse

Vitamin D: the North did not have enough sunlight

The 1500smodern categories of race were created by EuropeansThey did this to give Europeans political power over non-Europeans in their overseas colonies

Key Points about the Race film MtDNAhelps demonstrate that race is not really a biological factor No pure raceseveryone is closely related on the planet

Anthropologists emerges as a new social science in the 1800s. European anthropologists are strongly influenced by 800 years of racial discriminationthis discrimination has become naturalized

Paul BrocaFrench Anthropologist 1859 established an anthropological society of Paris Slavery is still an issue in the U.S. Claimed Europeans are superior to other races Compared skull sizes

Hypotheses:1. He assumed a larger skull to the body ratio was a sign of greater intelligence a. He filled skulls with shot (metal ball beadings) and saw which skulls held the most (biggest volume)b. He found skulls from Mongolia had the largest volumec. Rejected hypothesis2. Skull length a. Longer skulls had more room for a more highly developed frontal lobe b. His research found that skulls from Africa were longerc. Rejected hypothesis3. Forearm length ratioa. He found Asians had the shortest ratiob. Rejected hypothesis4. Measuring the angle of the forearm magnum and the spinea. Four legged animalsmore horizontal b. Humansmore vertical c. Africans had better positione forearm magnumsd. A priori Assumptioni. Prior to assumption

Robert Bean 1906 He claimed he had proof that white American brains were superior to African American brains (thicker) Corpus callosum tissue (thicker than African Americans)

I.Q. Tests are culture boundthey tend to test cultural knowledge, not intelligence

Clines are minor physical variations within a species Skin color, blood type, taste sensitivity, allergies, eye color, hair color Do not come in bundle traits

Marriage, Dating, Sexuality, and Family

The Trobrianders Monogamous marriage except for chiefs Young people start dating as teenagers. Dating usually begins at the Yam Harvest Dances. Trobriand teenage boys move form parents home to a bachelor hut. They believe in having sex before marriage. If she doesnt want to marry him, the girl must return home before dawn. If a couple wishes to marry, the girl and boy sit together on the front porch of the boys bachelor hut after spending the night together. They wait for the girls mother to show up. If the mom approves, shell cook them yams. Trobriand Traditional Beliefs about Sex and Children When a person dies, their soul (Baloma) leaves the body and goes to live on Tuma Island for 80 years. This is called their heaven. After 80 years, this soul has become old and wrinkled/aging. It bathes in the ocean and is transformed into a baby spirit. (Waiwaia) Baby spirit wants to be born. Ready to come back, believe in reincarnation. The babys spirit swims to Trobriand Islands, finds a woman from the same bloodline (matrilineal bloodline) and impregnates her. Dont see sex as what makes her pregnant. What does sex do? Opens the path in the woman The fathers sperm is kind of milk that nourishes the unborn baby

Babies and children are only related to their mothers and mothers relatives. They are not related to their fathers. A matrilineal kinship pattern Can Trobrianders marry a cousin? Trobrianders can marry a cousin on the fathers side of the family but never on the mothers side.

Patrilineal Societies (unlike the Trobrianders) are considered to only be related to their father and his relatives. (Mom is not a blood relative) The Masai or Massai These are pastorialists (raise herd animalscattle &goats) Live in East AfricaKenya/Tanzania Have their own unique religion They are patriarchal (men hold economic/political power) In Masai society, only men own the herd animals. This gives men far more economic and social power than woman.

Masai Life Path

MenWomen (marry at 15/16)

ChildhoodHelped with herdsHelp mother at home and have more free time than boys

AdolescentCircumcised at 18 become warriors; go with other bachelors & go to village to village; show and demonstrate manhoodCircumcised at 15/16; removing clitoris form womans body in order to become a woman; Become wives

After Adolescent Become elders & husbands at 30 years oldArranged marriage; official marriage: bride cattle; grooms family gives brides family 20-30 cattle

Bride Cattle is given by the grooms family to the brides family to seal the marriage. About 20-30 cattle are given. Cattle are seen as a great respect, build a relationship. I want to thank you type of thing. Example: 9/11 Masai got a herd of cattle and sent it to the U.S. to show concern and respectThe Nuer (South Sudan in Africa) Do not practice circumcision but make scars on the boys forehead The Nuer (somewhat similar to the Masai) are also pastoralistsbut they live in Southern Sudan In this society, only men own cattle; but there are ways to bend the rules They do not practice circumcision, marriages are traditionally arranged by parents; both sexes usually marry as teenagers Polygyny marriage to more than one wife is permitted in both Nuer and Masai society Nuer & Masai can both marry more than once. Bride cattle must be given for any marriage Grooms family Brides family Nuer teenage boys undergo gar Sacrification of the forehead Nuer teenage girls (&boys) undergo beauty scarification; anywhere on the face and the body In Nuer society, men get gar not women, but both men and women get beauty scarification

*Know the differences between Masai and Nuer*

Exception OneIn some cases a Nuer father has only daugthers. He needs a male heir. A Nuer woman has been selected as her fathers heir and given part of his cattleshe will need to start family and have children to carry on the family name. Female husband She needs to become a female husband and take a wife by giving bride cattle. The wife of the female husband will be encouraged to take a lover and get pregnant. When the baby is born, the father of the child is considered to be the female husband.

Exception Two If a widow has no children and is too old to remarry, her family (brothers, father, uncles) will allow her to become a female husband and give her cattle to take a bride and start a family. They do it out of compassion because they feel bad.

Refugee Camp Lived in the war IOU: pay back later Pay back cattle Love marriages would become more common Gender is social Gender is not simply the result of your biological sex

Three Examples of Differing Gender Roles from New Guinea

1930Margaret Mead went to New Guinea

Group OneThe Arapesh The different expectations between men & womens behavior was minimal Both sexes cooked Both sexes farmed Both sexes raised children Both sexes got pregnant Couvade male pregnancy Both seem a bit feminine

Group TwoThe Mundugomor This society had a kinship systemknown as ropes Both sexes raise children Moms sons Dads daughters Both boys and girls are raised to be aggressive and assertive (unlike Arapesa) girls stand up for themselves. Teenagers of both sexes are expected to show interest in the other sex. Both Mundugomor men and women behaved in ways that might seem masculine by American standards.

Group ThreeTchambuli Live near Chambuli They fish Women are fishers Women are the romantic aggressors. Women propose marriage; make the romantic move Because men cant approach women, he tries to make himself look attractive for the women. Spends hours getting ready Men have to use looks to attract women Gender reversal Girls dance with other girls to get the boys bothered then she dances with elders then she asks a young boy. Boys threaten to drown themselves to get someone to dance with him. These boys are often alone. Gender roles in American society are somewhat reversed relative to Tchambuli society.

The Five Sexes (Fausto-Sterling) Not all humans are born clearly as only male or only female. The rarest biological sexual manifestation in humans is the hermaphrodite. Mermaphrodite: reproduce only as a malebut has some female biological characteristics Fermaphrodite: reproduce only as a femalebut has some male biological characteristics

In the Dominican RepublicGoevedoces Someone who is born physically appearing to be female Male development comes into puberty (delayed development) Not a successful transformation Cant be a female but late arrival doesnt work right Goevedoces (not a man, not a woman); they can choose how they dress Permitted to marry a man or a woman IN BETWEEN STATUS Many Native Americans societies also had 3rd or 4th gender categories These people were not considered to be either male or femalethey were known as Two Spirits or also known as Berdache = two spirits

Two spirits could be biologically different from a man on a woman. Two spirits could also be determined by behavior on a woman.NO SHAME ON TWO SPIRITS

Mojave Indians had 4 gender categories: Man Woman Aliyabehaved in a female style Hwamebehaved in a masculine style

Man cant marry Hwame, but could marry an AliyaWomen can marry a HwameBehavior determined genderMan couldnt marry man

Susan BordoThe Slender Body Looks at gender in the U.S. Focus on issues of gender in American society especially as they impact women

Key Points Women have been given mixed messages about their role; what it means to be a woman During WWII, women were told to go to work After the war, women are told to go back home In the 1970s, U.S. experiences economic crisiswomen are told to go to work. Still expected to do housework also. Women had been torn capitalist conflict 2 different messages. CAPITALIST CONTRADICTION Eating disorder is a result of capitalist contradiction Not found in areas that arent industrialized

Egg & Sperm Emily Martin claims that the sperm is presented as aggressive and the ovum/egg is presented as passive. In biology textbooks, not because they really behave in this way but rather because we see and think of masculine things as aggressive and feminine things to be passive. Claims that labeling sperm as aggressive isnt appropriate/accurate Think men as aggressive and women as passive