Anthropological Research. the Structure of Inquiry - Pertti J. Pelto and Gretel H. Pelto
Transcript of Anthropological Research. the Structure of Inquiry - Pertti J. Pelto and Gretel H. Pelto
7/25/2019 Anthropological Research. the Structure of Inquiry - Pertti J. Pelto and Gretel H. Pelto
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ECOND EDITIO
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C A M B
,R
I
D G E U
N
I V E R S I T Y P R E S S
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ridge
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na
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:
r
nd
A nt hropology
U ni versiiy o
f
Connecñeut
PERTI
I
PE LTO
P t
o f C S $ 0
r
oí A nth
r
~fgy and
M
edici
ne
Ur1iversity o f O onn . eeticu t
o f inquiry
Second
edition
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N D I C A T '
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7/25/2019 Anthropological Research. the Structure of Inquiry - Pertti J. Pelto and Gretel H. Pelto
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Tools
of
research -
1
Participant
observation
Key-inforrnant interviewing
Collection of lífe histories
Structured
interviews
and
surveys
Questionnaires
Concl usions
Emic
, etíc, and the goa l
s
of anthropology
lntracultural variation in ernic
categories
54
55
6o
43
5 1
5 3
Operationalisrn in anthropology
Theory versus reality: the operational cornpromise
Summary and conelusions
U nits observation: emic and etic approaches
The ernic approach
Th e cticists
3
O perationalism in anthropo logical research
Operationalisrn and
intersubjectivity
Operationalism and operationism
l
9
21
21
13
ssess
ing the usefulncss of
definit ions
Seience and anthropology
Science and
history
Science
and
controlled
experiment
s
Science
a definition
A nt h rop o l ogy
and problems of method
o
logy
Conclusions
8
lements of research methodology
T he domain methodology
XIII
• •
ix
Contents
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7 Counting and sampling
123
Counting
in cthnographic repo
rts
124
Problems
of represent
ativen
ess : sarnpling 12
7
Patterning and
sampling 38
Summary and
conclu
s
ion
s
39
8 Measurement, scales,
and
statistics
1 4 1
Variables, measurements, and scales 142
Murdock, social
structure
, and the chi
-
square
test 1 47
Tests of independence and measures of association 152
Parametric and nonparametric statistics
Statistical tests do not preve causation 162
More
complicated statistical operations
164
The Mcchl
parados
: sorne problcms in hypothesis testing 172
Special
zed competence in statistics 175
9
Art
and seienee field
w o r k
1 77
Stratcgies in the art of
ficld
w o r k 177
H azards and punishments of
field
w o r k 184
So urces of tensión in field w or k 185
Elcments of
community
study
Ccnsus taking and
mapp
ing 193
Description and hypothesis testing 214
M ulticommunity research projects 21 7
Assistants
Communication among
f ie ldworker
s 221
lnterdi
sc
iplinary research 224
Summary
227
6 Tools of research
- 1 1 :
nonverbal techniques 103
The stream of behavior and
measuremen
t o f social interaction 104
Proxemics , kinesi
cs,
and videotape re
s
earch
Content
analy si
s
of
folktale
s
,
myths
, and other li terature 3
Physical
traces:
ero si
ó
n and accreti
o
n 115
Archives and
other
written r
é
cord
s
16
Techn
i
cal equipment in f ie ld work
1 1
7
M u l t i
-in
s trument research
121
V I
Ratings and rankings
The se11tantic ditierentiaJ technique 87
Ptojective techniques
Other psychological research instruments
lntetactional researcb
tooJs
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325
31 0
8
291
2 9 4
2 9 8
304
3 05
3o8
2
5 1
25
1
5
254
25
7
2 7
9
28
23
0
230
243
24
7
•
V ll
Research methods, relevance, and applied anthropology
The
i s
sue of
re lev
ance
Sorne methodologica
l
issu
es
in
applied
re
s ear
eh
R e
l ev ance and
methodo)ogical
rigor
1
1 Building anthropological theory: methods and models
The th e
o
retical framc of refer
ence
: general pa radigms
De du c t i
v e,
inductive,
and abductive r
es
earc
h
s
trategi
es
The r
o
le of models
Models of research design
Statistical
correlations and
cau
s
al m o d e ls
Causal inferences
and
correlati
o
n
pattern
s
Multiplc
hypotheses :
the strategic
eliminatio
n of
alternativ e
explanat
i o n
s
Methodology
and the culture
of anthropolo gy
A N o tes on research de
sig
n
Forrnulation of a
research problem
Elcments of
a model research plan
B
The Guttman
Scale : a s
pecial type of o
rd inal
measure
C On using computer s
Types of computer operat ion
s
The culture a
nd social organ ization
o
f co mputer u
s
e
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.
I X
I n
th e sJx
years
s i
nee the
f ir s t
appeasanee
o
f
th is
book the
·
trend
t
ow ard greater
i
n
terest
i
n
1
meth
odo
l
o
gi
cal iss
u
es
ha
s
conti
n
ued
.
M o s
: t
gr
adl
.mte
progra
ms in an-
1 • t::.
L
• • •
ro po ogy
n
ow
mc1
uue
tra
1
l
1 mg
in
, me s
truc
tu re < J>
s
cie
flO J 1 C researcn
; tra1 n1 ng
t
n
statistics and
eo m
p
uter
use
has
s
teadify and severa bo ek s to
re s
es
rch
p ara
d
i
g , m s and s .
ta t
ist
i
cs-
for ·anthr < > p o lo
g ists have appesred .
Th
e
gr t> w th
of
i
nteres
t i1 1 n1 ethodology ha
s sha
rpen
ed
e:ert~in l
ongs
t an
di
n
g
.
l~ . 1 • •
1
' l •
1 oso
p I 1 1
e
a an
·
m
ues
a
nt
'
ro
po
o .
gy
. :
e ce
ntr
al
oo o ogl-
cal d
e
bate
o
f tite i97os eo
nt
ínues to be the co
nfJ
. t e .t be tween quant
ita
tive meth
o d s
and the
su
p p o
:
s
ed
ly
m
o
re
persc
nalízed and
h
umani
s ;
t
ic
q
u
al
itative
sc
ho
l
ar
s
h
ip
.
C
lo
sel
y I
í
nked
to th i s issue i s the eo ntinuing
d
íscussíon abou t
et
ic
data .
C o n .tra 1 r y
to o ur
e
arl ier expectatíens, tl1 a
t
anth r { } 'po l
o .
g Jcal oonve c satio n re-
, 1
·
I
d
• t
h '
• •
1 1
} '
L .
.t
• •
main
s
: 1
ve1y
an . . a
tt
entíon to
·
emK: .etic 1
s
sue
' .
a
s
• 1venw O '
t
1 ter
útse
1 -
plines
as wel
l
.
R
e
fte ( : : t i
ng on these is
sues , w
e
f in
d that our
v
íews
s
bo
u t th
em are
n
o :
t
much
h
.
L • Tt
d
.
·
' •
e
a
n
ge - u rrom ye a1 s ag
. o
.
nen, as now
,
w e argue 1r a 1 e1 ous o
q
uan
ti
tati
·
ve
a
n
d
qual i
t
a
t
ive
re
se
a
ee
h
.
T
he
pr
ob
l
em
i
s
not
m o
d
e
o
f
d
.
ata
g
at
h er
ing r o use to bu í ld ered ible an
d e
ffeetive
an
· ~
th .ro p o logica
l k
no wled
ge
. T
he g
o
a
l o
·
f
r
eses
rch
to develop
infonnati
o n
. C r e d ihil 1ity, in m atte rs o f human behari
o r
, ean ne
ve
r . r es
;
t finaJl
y
en
puriñ ed num erieal . a
r l
a
l
ysis. Nor can it depend 1 ly on ríeh ve
rba
l
d
eserip t
í
en
t
h
at ig no res un
d
er
l
y ing
q
uestíons
o
f
qu
a
nt
ify a
nd in
tensity . w e e
·
xamine
sorn
e
o
f · the mo st
r
efined statistical o r m ath ;
e
m
a
ti
c
al an
a
lyses
o
f ar1fu · l o · p o log
i
ca
l
dat
a,
w e
o
ften find them l
'
osing their anchorag
e
to l iv e , human
subj.ee
t m a tter.
I
n the p ast
te
n y e
ar
s
o
f
an
t
h
ro
p o l
ogic
a
l
r
esea
r
ch we
h
ave seen
t
he
~ : th th
. . .
l...-.•
t
d..
-
d •
a =
. - . . . tt
1 e s
um
a n
1 J r o
u g .an
t
JCfia · v . 1 o : r are e" '''c '. m e y _
· l 1 J 1 J A ;
w
to quantify in en t
ire
ly
ri
goro us
w ays .
R a .ndorn- . ~ a m 1 p lin¡ str
at
-egies are bese
t
· w ith
many pra
ctical o~t
.acles;
and att
e
m p t . s
t
o
standa
td iz .
e f ield observations fal l
sh o
n
in m at1 y social s
et
tín g : S . S o . 1 netim e - s
w
e
are
te
m p t
e
d inro . r e lativ
el
y topia of
o bs
erv ati o 1 1 s i 1
1 1
. pl) ·
be
cause
q
uanti6a
. b
le data are more access ib
l
e the
re .
T
h
us
ov erq , uan
t
if i ed
.
0 0 1 1 1
pu
te , riz e d anthr
o
po lo gy quick ly reach
e
s tl)e p o i 1 1 t o 'f di·
mi
a
i s
h
in
g
r
etum
s
i
n
.
bo
t
h
cred
i
bil
ity
a
n
d
us
e
fu
l
n
es
s
.
the seeond
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T h
J
d
C
: . . . -h
• 1 ; ·
h f t
·
o ·
. .
IAQ . ton~ qua 1 ia, , ; J v e .uescr 1 p .
v
e m uues o : researc . ,
a
. v e o · en
u c ;
e
1 1
.
_.J
•
1 · .J
:
exto as preservmg a
persoaa .
i
z
e
ingre •
t i ?
·
nt
essen .
tial un
ucersta
nwng
huma
n
behavio
r
(cí H on 1igm a 1 1 n ~ 1 9
7 6 }
.
W h enever
w e
step
nt
o fidd
w
o
rk , w e
are
remi
n
ded the
s
ig n
i6c
a i 1 i
oe o
, f the
h l 1 m a
n factor In al
] our
obserwt ions .
M o
re
tha
, n
othe
r
beh'8vioral
scienti
$ts ,
w e
anthropo
logists
fin
d
tbat
a
per .
sonalised , qttal i 'tative..descr ip
t
ive
re
search per i
od
is essential
to
d
i
$ C O
v
e
r
ing
1(
hence
variabl
e
s sn
d
hypotheses
)
are , even
wh:en w e ap proaeh t
he
6 e l l d
with clear
themetic al i
d
eas
,
Wit
hout den .
y i ng
the
importa
nce of our prees
t
ah
l
ished concep tua
l
framewo.rks
. , w e f
e
el
th
at an i th
r
o po logy is t
be
most
f imda
·
m en
tally in
d
uctive ofthe
se
í eeees ,
The
p e
oonaliz.ed discovezy of
"the way i t rea.
ll
y
ís" in
hun1an com
-
muni
t
í
e
s
i s
o nt
y
a
ste~
:
o
w e v e r
.
M
u
eh of
the
gl
a
m o
u
r
a
nd
'
m
ys
t
ique
anthro
p o
logy i
s found
i
, n th a 't emct
íe
nal
exper
ienee, bu t the
co
m rnitment and
em o ñ
onal un
d
: e r st
and
in
g : t h a t
grow s in fhe course
1of
6 : e
d : res eareb i
s
not e : r 1
o
ug
h
to
asure
t J h a
t
raul
t
h 1 g dala 1
w i
ll be eithe 1 u
se ful
or credible .
The
pexsonal factor
t
h a t
seems cruc ia l i
n
.t
he phases
of w o . r k m u s { brough 1
t
und
er oontro.J
(
no
t
eliminatoo ) in
the l
ater ph~ lsesof
researc
h
. The
reeent h
i : story
of d
e
bates and
disceurs
e on
h
uman hehav
i
o : an
d hist.0 ry have e
entinued s
tren . gthen
the
signific
a
,
nc
e
ofFran
c
is B
aeon
'
s
sssessme
n
t, that the
h u m a
n
min
d
"
as
s
n
une
v
en
inir
ror
dí
:storts the
ray s
o{
obj
ects a
coo
rding to it s .
ow : a 1
f ig ure and seetion, se
th
e
C...
'
...
¡ ,
L~
man
_ . , .
~ n ivrm1ng 1~
n .
· ·
o n
s
m1 x
es
u :
p
1 t s
own na
.·
· .
re
rne na
u r
e
o
th i ngs
" '
(8
qcon. 1~2-l;
f irs
t
·
p ;
ubl ished . ,
1
62
0
)
.
the l . a . & t anal
y
s is we can of eourse do nothing to elimina t e
e
n
ti1el
y
t
h e
d
istortions
of the
huma : n '
The
ch.alleng~ i s to
our o w n
sub jeetiv:e
and
p enonaJ ized f
ee
l
ing
$
a
'
n
d i
m
pressions.
To do th
is the resea
rcheJ ,
.
pro.vides h
islhe
r
a
ud ience
i
oformat
io n
ab'lut the
dence on
w
.h ich d .escriptive generali
zati : o n
s
a
r re b itsed , . t
o the
full
es
textent p o : ss i -
b
l .e. an ethnog
r
aph i
e
~
'
fa
c
t
'' a:rise
from
first
-h&nd ,o bs,ervation
of
a gjv en
.J ' fu • , . ,
twioe, ten
t
im.es? , . t is
t t
on
ho w
.
many
su
. c
h ,
state
'
ments doe
s it de
p e
nd ? Ho
w
wet
e the
statemen
ts
ma.de?
The em
ic
" '
eti.c
controver~
h
a
s
further hei¡htened our aw ar
eness
of the fun
. .
d amental
e
l
usi
vene
ss
of
de
6
n.itions
a
'n d co ncepts
.
Overreliance
on the
·
pe
rsonal
fa
ctor in 1 researcb ean that th '
e a
nthro p o logist, a . stran ,ger
to
the l o ca l oom -
m u
n
1 f y
,
as
1
.
mp o
~
tS
or
,
er
e
-
ni.,1.0fl
S
an
ings
.
a
wu
·
rea
1 1 ( ¡
on
havi
o rs and even , fs th a t may h
~
ive qui te a diHerent , signi6eance from the emic,
insi.d
er-
s
p o
in
t of
vi
ew
. 0n tn
e othe
, r ha
nd
,
a peop
l · e *
s enúc
p o i 1
1 t
of
view
m a
y be
o f ' ljmited uS:efultless (or even l imit , e : d dependin¡ on one
's fucus
of
research . An in
sider can
j
ust
a8 biaied
or
unawate as
. an
outsider eo11ceming
aspe - c ts o
f loat
J be
hav ior
and cultu
re
.
f irstste'p toward .
a
.dequate
c
r
ed i l b
i l ity of
a
.nthro pologica l data
still d
.
ep e
nd
s
on clear de6n
it i
o n
s
of
bas
i
e
ooncept
s
,
the
fun
d
ame
n
tal
unit
s
o
,
r
bui
ld
ing
bloek
s
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aroun
d w lli
· ch . o
u
t
observatio
:ns
are organiz
ed
.
S
o
m
e
times these i te
m
s and obser-
· vat
i
ons
ne
ed to be
c Q un
; te d
;
o ften the wr
iations
rn
ust
be r
eoorded to sorne
extent mea:- s ured . This meth o d o log
ica1
p roeess
is o
ften such a thorough
mixture
of q
,
ualitative and quantitati
ve
as -
p e
- c t s : that the distinction beecmes mean
í
ngless ,
Fudhermore,
ev
en the most r
ef in
ed
nusn
eri
e
al observat í ons must
fitted
into a
m atrix o f
h
uman behsvior (and a brosder theoretical framework) that
i
s fun . da
.
menm
J l y ncnquantitativ
e f
- 0 r a
li pr
actica
l purpo
ses.
I n ti 'le
p
ast
few
years , s
i
n
ee the f i
rs
t edit i
o
n
o
f there
l
ia
s
been con
s
iderable sou
l s
'C a rch
ing
conce
rni
ng ap p
lied or
ac
tion
a .nthropology
.
W it
h m
o
re
experi
enee in spplied res
e
srch, w e now feel th
a
t the methodolog ic
,
al
r
equirements
of applied w
ork are not
alwa
ys same
as in
academ
ic anth
ropo l
-
o
gy
.
P
rse
t
i
ca
l
,
co
mreenity-or
i
ented
act
i
on re
se
arch
o -
ften
h
as
s
e
v
ere
tim
e
c
on . .
stm
.
n
t
s ~ appli
ed
p ro jects in the
in
ner cit
ie
s, in
h
eslth
c a r i
e s
y st
ern
s
, in sehool
s,
or
i1 1
v
arí
ous
eeono m ic
deve
lopment p r
o ,
grams , oft
e
n
do
no
t
stan
d
sti l t for
l
ong .t
e
rm
re
s
e
arch , In o rder to useful , · data
are
needed rigl1t
a
w
a
y -
i .v
ith in a few dtty s
or
M
sny a
i
nth ro po · logim w il l balk at the id
e
a o
f
• • q u i
ck
a
nd d irt
y
'f
r
e
s
eareh . S o rne
: a cti
o : n .
an
· th rop olog
i s
t
: s see
t
h
eit
ro le
s in o rg a :ni
zing
the
ac
t
i
on rath er than
in
p
r
ovid
in
g
use
fu
l
resea
r
e
h
d
.
ata
.
.
H o w e
v
e
r
,
al
i
a
p p li
ed
p
r
o
ie
ct
s
mu
s
t
ha
v
:
e so
rne
m i
nim u tn
o
f ccnc
r
ete inf
ormat
io n
;
all
p ro j
ects and
p ro
gr
arns rnod
ify t
h
e
i
r
seo
p e
and style in res
p o n
se to
f
eedback f rom their envircnme
nts
(soci
al
and ph
y
sica l~ .
a
nd
m u
st p ro vide
the
se data during the continuing J i fetime o f any
p ro
i
e
ct .
T
he w hol
e
pro cesa
o
f it 1
t
elii
g
eiit dat c a
util
iiatro n -
suppo
' 5 e
rl l
y the ~
1 a } J . .
mar'k
of
th
e
h u m a n
a
nim
a
l - for m u
e
h m o r
e anthropel
o g ical attent
io
n
.
And
so
rne o
·
f ' that attenti
o
n
tak
es the f
o rm o
f direet ae ticn researeh in a v ariety of
pract
ic
a
l
p
r
o
jec
ts
.
Actio n
ant
li
rop o lo
.
gy often
includes
ano
th
e
r
sig 1 1
i
fi
ca i 1 t featur
e
- that the
stu . died
ar
ise
f
rom
a
p
a
r
tic
u lar. to c
a
l
iz
ed
c
o
nte
x
t
, .
a
nd th e proj -
ec t s
o
me c
o
nlmuni
ty g rou
p. mem
b
ers
o
f the
, gr
o
up m
ay
b
e th c
·
c
hi
ef
so urces o f the questio n
s
. T h at i s · v . ery differerr
t
hom the
~ cho
larly s i
t
u , a
tio
n in
w l1 i . c
h th
e
researc
h
qu
est
io ' l
1
s
and strategies arise
f
ro in tl 1 e es
mbl
is
hed
l a
n ~
thro
p o
~ o gic al culture · - t
l 1
e
bo o
b and journals a
n
d
ac a
d em ic s .
e
ruin ars
.
T o
exp lo
re fu l l y the
me
,
thodo
l
ogi
~
d
l r
am
. if
ic
atio ns of
th e
se d i ffer~
r 1 ce
s
w
o
t
t :
ld
ca
l
J
f
o
r
e n
ti
re
v
o
lume
d
ev o
t
ed
to
a
p
p
l
i
e
d
an
th
c
o
pol
ogy .
W
e
h
a
\ , (
e
o n
l
y .
t
ott
c lled l
on thes
e p o i nts in
th i s n
e
w
ed itio
n
t but Cl1 ap t
er l
o
i
s
inteo
de
-
d t
o p o
i 1 1 t
ou t the iniportance o f further m
e
t
ho d o l
o
g ica l exp loration i : t
' l i
appl ied co n-
;
tem
T
he ·
e
ar lier ed it i
o
n of
th i
s bo ok W3
$
already a joi
nt p ro d
u
c
t n
1
1 1 1 . an
y
respects
.
S . i '
nee
t
h
e i
1 th e
re
sear
c
h
a
nd
th i
nk
irtg l
e
ad i
1 1 g
t
o
a
re v ised
: editio
f I ba
ve
inv o lved a
t - e a m e f fo ·
rt
th a
t
' W e · fee1 fully
ju
s ti
fi
es jo int al
1
. ' t l 1
ors
h ip . A t
th
e same t
in
1 e f w . e l1 a
v e
d
i s
c
us
s
e
d
m
ethod
o
l
og
i
c a
J
i
s s
u
es
w
itl
1
a gr
eat
m
a
n
y
peo
pl
e
,
in
c
lud
i
n
g a
n
ew
gen
. . .
X I
7/25/2019 Anthropological Research. the Structure of Inquiry - Pertti J. Pelto and Gretel H. Pelto
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. .. .
1
e
mbarked on
1 tny anth r
epologie
a
research
ventare
- the
f i
e
ld
w
o
r k
.
f
or
m
y
P h
.
D
. d
isse
rtatio
tl
-
1
h s
d
h
sd
1
ferm
a
l
t
r
a
i
n
i
n
g
in
t
li
e
Jo
g
ic
and stru
etu
re o f socia
l
s
ciences
r
e
s eareh . M an
y
o
f
peers have
deseri
be
d a
s
i . m
1 ila
t l
ac
k
o
f
m
ethodo l og i cal
prepsr
e
d
nes
s
in the
y e
ars of th
eir
do
ctoral
cand
i-
O
ur
generati
en
o
f
anthropologists
;
traíned in ttte i95os,
leamed
the de -
seri
ptive a
nd
t l 1 eor:
etica
l contr ibutio n
s of our
p r
ede
c
essors ,
b
ut
not h
ow
th
ese
a
nthropologice l contributions achieved. w e
r
e n .ot unccneemed
a
bo u t
he
w fi
d
d research is
carri
ed
out- i
n faet w e
w e re
al
m o s t
fra
~ i : t
ic
to f i nd
out
-
bu
t
w e
w
er
e
as s
ured
b
y
our
t
eac
h
ers
th.at
ce
uld
l
t
< > a r n
t
he
m
yster
i
es
o
f
f i
e
ld
w o r k
o
n J
y thr
ough p e
rsona
l
imn1
e : r s
io
n
i
1 1 the
p r
actically
iadescríbab
l e
bu t ro m ant
i-
edl
y
a
llur ing
1
C o
mplexities
of ttte
f ie
ld.
M uc · h the Io r
e
abeut
f idd
r
ese
are
h tha
t
w e p
ieked
llp
i 1 1 f
o
r 1 nally ·
i
n o
u r
gtad
.
ua
t
e · s t . 1 . 1 d e i 1 t da
ys was
co ncemed w ith the
gentle ar ts
o
f rapport build ing and
ro
le pl~ y ing in f ie ld 5ltuat i
1
o n · t . W e w ere not
s
o
mueh co neern
e
d ,
n
or were our
mentor
s, w i
t l 1
rules oí evid
e
nee,
q
u
estí
o ns of
'
. . M u e r t
"
d
' •
•t i· bi
' : t . . d .
-L l
a ..
~
represen
w r
1 v eness ~ v a i : 1 1 . ly., r e íia . . an
· e
ot[ 1 er r e 1 a
· tcu
-L
. .
tc
•
•
L
d '
tb
•
l •
me
n
, s
u
sc ien
me
l
nqu1ry
.
r
1
1
c
1
1
o u
r
me
n
s
m
o
·
er
s
o c
ia
:
scie
n
ces
t
o be
p reoc
e
up ied ,
I can
r
ecai
l
no
discuss í
on or even
m entien
of
th
e
i
dea
"f. . .
-
• 1 · . . b
1
1 t•
•
h h 1 d
v
ana 1 e s ·
1
1
n
t .
a
. ay s .
I
to o k up m
y
6 rst po ,
s
it i o - n o f teaebing antJ 1
ro
polo gy a newer generat í
c
» , l
developed an interes t
i
n
teac.h
ing research
m e thod
s to
gradu
ate s t - u
d
e
nb
. 1
q
ui
c
k ly
found
,
h
o w e v
er, that
diseussio
n
s of
anthro
p o lo
gi
ca
l meth
ods
w er
e few
and '
fa
r between
:
in
our
prof.e
. s sio 1 1 ,
a
l w r it ing and that to exam i 1 1 e ma
n
y proble : m s
of
tl1e so c i
a
l
se 1
ie nces
it
w a
s
necessar
y to
tu
r
:
n
t
o
· .
a
fa
ir ly v o
lun1 ino u
s l
iter
: atu ·
re
in
socio
l - 0 g
y
and
~
y
c
h
o
lo
gy
,
.
much
o
í
wh:ich
h
a
d
to
r : c
i
n
'
terpre
ted
·
t
o
fit
t l 1 e
oo
n
-
t - e . K t
of o
u
r
c1 oss-cu
l
tura 1 re
sea
rc
h
ioterests . 1 n re ; etrn
t
ha
s be en a
s . tea
.d
y . 11ereate in the
a
mount of anthropoJogica l d iseussio n o f r~earch
me
: tho d . s .
T l1
is
acc ·
u
r
n
ulati
ng
J iteratu 1 r - e i
nc
l
udes ma1
1 y p er
sonal
ized a
e o o t tnts of field ex·
p e
rien
ces
that p ro
v
ide us e . f
u
l inf u ·nnatio n
abou
t w hat a
nth
ro pol
o
gists do · in f i " C l d
r
esearc
h
. and ·
ho
w
t
hey c
o
llect
s
pecific ty
pes o
f
i n
forma
:
tio n . TI1e
re stil
l .
s
eems to
n
ie, how ev
er
,
to
b
e a seri
o
us shortage
o
f
m
a
te
rial o oncerning
t
he 1 o g ic al
s
teps
and
1
r :
eq
u
i
r
e 1
ne
n
t
s
w h
e
r
e
b
y
e thnogr
a
p h
e
r
s
co
nv
e
rt
th
,
e
s .
t
uff
o
f
ra
w
ob-
s
er
v
ation
7/25/2019 Anthropological Research. the Structure of Inquiry - Pertti J. Pelto and Gretel H. Pelto
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M an
y
pe
o pJ
e h e l
ped
me "
~
e
t
his
book
.
A t v
ariou
s
stages in i ts pre
patation
portion
s
of the
m ,an
u
scrjpf we
r
e
r
e
,
ad
and
co m n1 ented o . n by H a .ro l
d
D
r
i\
rer ,
Theodore
Grav .
es
>
M
y les H
o p p e r .
J
a
me
s Jacquith. Phil ip Kilbr
i
de
.
R
o bert
Mu·
w
ell . R a .ou l
N
ar o ll,
P h
ili .p N ewrr1.an
,
R i c h : a . r d P o llo ac, M icha.el Robbins,
R
onal
d
R - 0 h
ner
, ,
and D o o g
las W h i te . l o w e
them a
l l
m an
y thanks
for th e i r s U ' g
-
The resear
- c h p
ro jects that provided m 1uc
h o
f
th e
experien
c
e
o n
w
. hich
this
b ook dlep.ends i
n
vo lved m an .y g:mdtiate s )t
t 1
dents, s
orne
of w h o s
e
: r
ese
a
rch
eo
:
n .
tl'il 1 > utio
n
s
a :
re disc
wsed
io th
; e O
f
1these
J am partic
u
la
r
l
y gr.ite{ul for
the
ex
ce
lle
: nt f ie l d w ork .ami cr
it
i
ca
d
i . s :cw s i .
o n
of John
Loi
i
e
r, J . A n .thon
y
~redes,
J
o
.
hn
Pogg
ie ,
J
r . , steph-en
S
chensul
~
and
t B
a
r
bara
S i
m
o n .
Over the
pa r st f
ew
years
ha:ve
h a
d
innum er
able
con\ r
e
rs
atio
- ns 'v
i
t l 1 .
an-
t
hr
o
p o lo
g . - i
s
t
sf
st
l
cio l
o g
·
ists
,
p . t y
c
ho
t
o
g
ists,
a
nd
ot
}
)e
'
r
s - 0 c
ia
l
sci
e
nt
i s : t
s about
1
\
nthropo l · ogical genera liz at r . o ns and mo
r
e eomple x the
ore
- tica
l st
ruc
t
ur~ can built
up onl
y
through c
arefuJ o
p era
tio
nal
i z :
i 1 lg , ofb
a& c ·
eencepts
-
th- e bu
il
ding b loeks of all
tl
1eory
.
Su
oo
essful
d
ere
r
i
p tio
n and
h
y po
th
esi
. s
t
e
s
t
itig
d e p e n
d
< >
n fue i
ud
i
e
o
u
s
m
ixin
g
o
f
quan
-
.: . , , . . t · _J 1 · ~ ~
...l..
• 'l
m aten
ai
s .
m q a
es .
genera l
, the reader
thes
e p.ages w
ill
note that m y p o int of v ie w quite
e
el
ecei
c,
l p
ut
e : m
:
p :
lia
s
i
' S
o
n
q ua
;
ntifre
a
tion
and
statist
ics
, ,
b u t I
a
l
so
feel
s t rongly
that man
y of
the
more
qual i i ta tiv e
a
sp e c i ' S
o , f a
nt
h rop o l
o - gica í working
s ty l~ af C essentíal
to
efíecti
ve
research
.
1 (
I were
t
o pidk
o
ut sorne main
thernes
of
fo1
1 • ~ 1
-.
• •
1
m
y a
. rgu
m
1 en
;
t, w o r ~ tng µ r : l'nc1p
1
es w o
, ui
re -ceiv e spe.eut
,
em ; ; ~ iasis:
ruques
.
In
th
¡
s
boek
I
f
ocus
dis cuss
ian en what 1
cons
í
der
to tl1e essenñal
elernents
of
p :
e
par
ing and
m a ,
n
, : ipula
ting
the s
upporting ev i
d
ence from whieh
bo
t
h
beh
.
d
. _ _ d
.
enera 1 z - a .
1
:0ns a , '
U
· uman
ut
1 iVtor are , some
po1nts
t : J . s - c u
s
-
s i en of
res
esrch fogic must
te
uch
b
ase in the r~ · l
at
iv el :y concrete de tai l . s
o
f
speci6
c
t o o . I s c
bservabon
- esample
,
int
e
rv iewi ii
g
, o
bserving
eeremo
-
d
' --L
h
ma be av
mr
, an '. su rvey researen , my m sm l
nte
.nti'On
tS
to examine t e
d
-e
-
.
..
r, h
.
l : L . • •
. e t : a
s or
parti
cwar
eeses
rc
. · _ .
mstnnnents
o n
y to the
rm
mmum
e){tent neees
sary
for
loo k i ng
a
t h o w
these
basic observat ion
s
can be
sy
stemat.ic a l iy tmnsla .
ted in
' t O
• •
•
i t . a .
_
_
.
,
soooc
w
iui.u
gen"Cra.
t . z a tion
s.
M o
s
l o
f
tl 1
e
p
rincip J es
of
researc
h
rn
e , th-odology
that
I ineorpo.rate m
to
th is
boo
k
nave been amund
i
n
the soc
ia
l sciences
f - 0 , r
a
long time
, a
nd th
e
y
have
been
succe~ully
utilized
.
a
number
of
anth
r 0 c
p o
logi
s ts . Thus, i
n
w titing t l 1 is book
have tried to serve mainJy
as
a
eomp i ~ e : r
of
m
.
eth
od oJog i cal
principie
s snd tech-
X J V
PREFACE TO
T
H E F
IR.ST
EDITION
into
. abst
ract
anthropo
. fogrca J , conc
ep tu
a
l struc
turee
,
This the
do m
ai
n
of
methodology . , as contr11sted \ V i t b the c o n c r e t e , how -to-do-ü
realm
of f i 1 eld teeh-
7/25/2019 Anthropological Research. the Structure of Inquiry - Pertti J. Pelto and Gretel H. Pelto
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Th
e
: f i
r
st
pr
eblem d i rects atrentio n . to the
t
eehniques
and
co ndit iot
is
neees-
sary fo r exploration eur pher1omen
al W
orld . lf w
e w ís
h
•
Io r esarnple, to ga
i . n
se
me
n
ew
i i
rlo
rmatio 1 1
about st
.
e
ll
ar
bod
ies and
t
heir
behz
rv
io r
it
l i k . ely
that a
t
desc-0pe w o u l
d
be
a
handy fo
o
l in th is s
e
srch or
i
nf
ormatioa . man
fer
·
en
. t :
domaíns pbenom
e 1 1 _ a i
n
e
ur
un i
versa
eacb
requir
e
th
eir s
p
- e c i a l tool
s
and
t
ech n í ques far pthering knowledge about them . The s t : u d
y
of bacteria and
nther mieroo rganisrm requires a
mieroscope, tbe
examins
t
ion
eleetriea
l
c
ir-
cu
itr
y
requires various
m
eters . and
o t _ h e r
dev
ie
es , get
ti
ng kno.w'ledge about the
an
-
atomie
al chara
cteristics
an
ima)s requires
a
u
~
gi
ca
l teehniques and too l
s f
or
l
ook í
ng at features are
gener11tly híd
d
en
When i
t
c
o
mes
to
s
tudy
ing
human behav íc
r the m atter o f re
search
i n-
. ........... """ • 1
· ·
t t t d
. M .
J • e :
stmraems I : S a .
a i J
ne · 1 1 1 , eren t . · p flm a
ry .
uaw in u1c socia seienees
t
l1
ree
seur
cee
( 1
)
d
ir .
ectly oh
servi
ng
hu
man
bebavi
or •
1
(.i)'
li
s
tening to and notín
g
the
eontents
o f
human
S 'P"Ch,
ami
(
3 )
t
h - e
products
of human
'
b e J
hav
.
.
i
or . . . .
p.articuJarly
those
products fo und in
ar
eh ives , , museums , reeo
rds, snd
W
e - use the
cxp ? eQ i : o .
n ~ "'true and
. u H f u
l
inf -0rm
a
- t i . o n . i
n
q
u .o
taü
o :
n ' D l
ar
b i
n O .JÚ'tl
to
in d
ica
- t e lh
at
.
although
w e
pn.eml ly assume thc praenc
e
of
a
~
'®
e i :
et~. mt
l W O ' t l d ~ ~ thc troth •
'
o : r
•
th . e
~ bg.ut tbe r
a
wotld
aR . always s.eoi at 1
d
interpt:dm m9N o í oor ®ser:v : a f lon~ l~1
1
lp
m
mt
.
O W
oori
~
al
c:att¡-
ori~, and
o u
r
gen .
a-al theasoti
~al
oot look. :H$ce \\~can, nev
er
esmh l l i s . ~ l
an
y finaJ
a
bsolt
1 ~
tmth
.
"
O n
the o
ther l1and .,
s
,c
iaittBc
i
nfur
matio
n
v
ati
e's
w i
th
tep f
d lb d
qtee
df
p r ó x i o mati
o :
ntn
s
omt postu l a t : é d a 1
bt&]utt
t
r
uth . In
genu~l.
thoogh. th~ tr u th
\>alii
e of o ttr inf
~
rm a ~
t
io : : n best
m
easu red erit~
a of
usdu]nt$$ . . . . i
n
prc c :li
e
t1 ngan 1 1 exp lai ni
n . g
o u ·
r
~inc
e n
tlte
nahl : ral w trt: ' l d
.
o f ' usefWnm a . r e d erW ,a i b l e f 1 o
n\ t
heoteti
cat
domai m o f sci
en
~ e a n d
f t
:
o.m
poople
'
$
pract1
~
al
expe
r
i
uices and
·
pr
o b
l
ems.
In
s
imple, p ersonalized
t :
erms the essene
e resea
reh meth 1txlo
l
ogy líes in
s
eekin:g
answers
to
·
t
he
follow
i
ng
b
asíe
ques,t ion
:
H ow
·
e
an
w e
find
"
true
and
u
s
eful
í
nfo
r
-
matien" about a part
icu
lar dema
i
n of phenornena
i
n our uni
ve
rse? This fun-
d am
.
enta
l question
ínvolves í tw
o
closeJ l y re l
a
ted problem s ,
1 H ow can w e personalJy i
nvestiga
t c .
sorn
e domain
o
f p f 1 e
n
o nlel1 a i
n
erd er to o h tai
n
:true
and u
sefu
] inform
.
a
t
ion?
H
:
ow ca
n we k :no.w, sorne ass : - u r a :nc · e
,
wh
a
t
ether p c r r son
s
( r
esearehers) me
an
w hai
th
ey assert
p
ro µ o s
iti
o ns
a
l > . out
inf
o
tm
a
tion
, an
d
how can w e judge w he tl1
e
· r be l ieve
üi
em
?
7/25/2019 Anthropological Research. the Structure of Inquiry - Pertti J. Pelto and Gretel H. Pelto
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l ANTHROPOLOGlCAL RESEARCH
librarles . For
example,
t
he
study
of
eee
ne
mie behavior the significan t
data
may
in the.
forro
prica
o f , g o o d : S
) velume
goods
(
e.g s r
numbers o f ears,
bushe.ls o f wheat)
~
costs
produc tiun
.
a
.
nd
rela . t ' e d ri
:ume
rieaJ infomiation
.
R
e-
seareh m
ee
caemics, thm
.
m ay be carried out w ithout ,
S :
pecial
i
nstruments
al
o~ .
s .e rv
a ' t i o 1 1 and : m e a , , s
ur
em 1e
n~
but the researeher
mu
.st able t o g o
to
so ueees o f
a
lr
ead
y . .
teeorded
inf or
mation (go
vernmenta l statis
t i c : a J
reeo rd - s , recotd sy sle1
1 1
s
indiv idua
l m.anufactur i ng
:
enterpr i
ses
, etc .
) 1 • The
monetí
zed s truetur
e eeo-
nem
í c behilvio r
in
o ur socidy prov ides b
u
ilt-in
ob
s : e r w tio nal units . I n non-
od
. '
L
1 . .
~nd
•
em s
ocieees
WJ
: out
ec
o n
e
rm
es ,
en
t 1 1 1 - e o
er
1
m
, . economic
r
e-
sesrc
h
involves · pr imary
oble
rwt ions behsv ier ami good · s;
h
ence
te.chniques
af
data
coJJect
i
on
mu & t
quite
düfere
nt.
In
general ,
the social seíences
differ from
orher sci:entitic
i
n
tha
t
p ri
1
mary
data
pdler
i
n¡
i
s
u
s
llall
y
poss
i
ble.
without
_e . t . ¡
•
A n
unfr-ained p ersn
n
lookmg
into a micreseope or telesoope
le ar ins prac.ti
e
al l
y
no
th
ing &om th
e us
e
t h ' C powetful instrument. S im il , a rly . a n
- 0 nspe
eíalist
pre-
se
nted
w
i
th
lis
u
.
ofpr i
ces , oosts
"
and
o
ther
n om e ríe
sl data can make li
ttl
e
se
nse
of
this pile
eco
no m ic
da
ta . W
i
thout
s
o rne k ind of a
d
ditionaJ expe T itmce and
i
n-
f
o
nnat:ion, the no
v i e .
e has no Ít'S mework and rules f < n in
terprding
w llat
h
e
o
r
sl
1 e
se
es
,
ovice
m
ierose
ope
u,sa
s need
t
o acqu
i
r
e
cenceptua
l
fmm
ew
orb
f
or
di
fiere
ntiating
liv in
g
f
r
on1
n
·
onliv
i 'ng
for
ms;
they
oeed
s
et ddi
nition
s
c
on
-
ce
rning
types grgan Í 's
ms,
parts
of
orpnisms,
and
th e i
r
relationsbips . N o
v íce
eeo
n
o_ . , . , ; . , . , . , . .
are
eq
u
t · pped · ]a. , .
·
.r
t m e n s e n s e . . J . , . f i · · o :f
¡
'''
p
· .ic e
~.,..u '
.·
1
'\¡¡; '.
'. · -
~;,:~ '1
- .
1 . •
"eo
st,"
an
d
so
· o
:
n;
but
th e
y
eannot male sense e > f a ma55 da . ta
,
w ithout some lo g i-
od
rule
s f
o
r plottin¡
cu rv
e s , ,
in .dices
, and
other
rel
at iooaJ
stat
en
i~ts
.
E th
~
nograp
hic ab
,
s .e
. rvatiQm;, 5 ' i
m
i
la1
ly
,
make l
ittle sen¡e unless
the
ob
s
ef\lie
fbu
a
era
l conceptual ftamework f o .
,
r
rorti
. ng out antl
o
r
gani.z , i
ng
behav
io
r
al
elements .
T I 1 u
s
> i n addi t i
on
: t-0 the
bas
ic tool
s
and it ts:tnzments of ob&ervawn
and
.mea
. .
su1 emen~ a
se
ien
t
iñc researcllet
m u st
hav
e ~
at
th·
e
lea
st~
s
ets procedural
r
u
Jes
( i ne l
ud
i
ng
c.oneepts an
d
deíinition
s
)
far ttaasíormin
g
s
en
su
a
. l ev id '.
ence int
o
general
' i
za
tions
aooul pheno
m
ena
. l
l
Í
one
t
he goals ali se . i e : n
t : i f
ic dis-
ci
pline~
to link: togethcr
g e
,
neralintions, or proposi
tio
:n s
'>
large.r
networb
p r o p o o t
í
o n
s that
w ül
make '
possi
hle the pred ie t
i
on and
~
an. a tion
phen"°m
e
na
with
i :
n
tl 1
e given
dom
a
i
n
. S ,
uch n~lworb
p roposit i
om at
e
g e - n -
era
l
ly
ea
l
l
ed
.
T h
" C
rdat ionsh
i
ps
among
the
s
eveml
dements
s . e
ie
n
ti
6
c
w , ork
c
an
be di
ag
nm
ed
as
i
n F
ig
,
u
re 1 ..
l
,
MethOOo QgY ; th en , r .
ef
e r s :
lo
t h e : structurc p r :ucedu.
r
es and :
tra
nsfo
r
m ,
a
tio na l
r
ul
es w h e r e by
the
scientist s , h.ifts
inf
o.rma t io
n
up and down
t
hi-s
la
dder o f ab
.stnt
c .
t
ian in o rder to produce and o rganiz.e i n
er
ea$ed lmowledge . A < t the p o int
p : r
urm
ty
o b . s ervati
o n
, as
the ba
c terio
l
ogj
st pee:
. r s
i .
nt
o · the
mic l "
o
sc
o p e .
,
he
ha v :
e
a v o a il
abJe
so me
conceptual
to o
~s- defin
i : tio ns o{ th ing
s seen
.
and
experi-
e
n
c
ed
-
f
n
r
g
i
v
i
ng
forro
a
n
d
.
d
es
c
riplio
n
t
:
o
o bs
e
rv
at
io n
t S
.
Th
e
p
r
i
m
ary
d
.
escr
i
p
-
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tí en
s,
in
turn
, are
re lated to more abstract
propositions - t : o gene r
al
theo , ry
about
m ic
roorsanisms
- by a pregressic
n
of log
1
ical steps that
must be
dearly
un-
derstood and agreed
e
n
by fell ow ~ c ientists in
the
pro íeo íon . T h is
progremon
through Ievel
s
of
abstract
í on i
s ,
nota way pr
ocesa
, however. The bacteriol-
ogist
does
'.tl:Ot seleet
objects
for o bs
ervstion randonuy. The
genere l , thee
retíesl
f . ramework
i
s
a
prime
souece o
f ideas and
prediretions
in
.
term
s
w h
i
c : h
part
ic
ular
fuc i .
o
f
obscrva
: tion are seleeted,
u
'--
hed
.
us • en.neu, m et . 1 1 0 0 U J o g y c
an IX; nom
res
eare
·
niques" in that the
)a
tter term useíul
referring
pr1g
1 1 1
at
i
t s of p r i r n c a ,
ry
dsta
c
e > J l e c ti
on,
w
hereas
methodology denotes
the
"log ic-in-use
"
i : 1 1 v o l v . e d in
$
decting particular o b
s
ervational
teehn
iques,
as
sessing their yield
of
data,
a
nd
relati ng the~e data to
theore t
í
cal propesitiens, I n pract
ie
e, the p rac t i cal problems
of using
partic
ular teehniqu es of data ptl1 'ering cannot be en . tirely s
ep a
· rated
fr
om
the
examina
,
t
i
o
n
o
f
their
Any
methodolog
ic
a : I
d i .
scu
ss
io n
,
t 'hen
>
r
nust i nclude sorne
referenee
to techniques,
lt
l Chspter s
w
e wilI
e
xamine methodo.logica l
problem
s related to interview ~
_r
tn .
orm - ants .
· nave oeen
w r1 tten
a
m
tnter-
v i ewing ; for the y i .eld o .f d .
ata
b
y th
is process can vary gr
e
,
atly
depe '
nd
í
ng
en the
sk ill ,
ta
etics, and other
charae
íeristics of the interviewer.
011
the other hand, our
con
c
em
in
this book w il l
be
mainly
with the
whereh
y
use
interview data
to
a
cc
o mp l
i
sh theoretically important
(
and
v a . l i d
)
results,
F
i
g
u
re
1
.
1
.
doota i
o of
m:ethodo
l
ogy
.
L
o w - o tder propas it
io n
s
L og i
c a J
trans . ro rmat
i G
n
~
i
mJuetiv - e
.
a J 1 d deductiv e
parad ig.ms ~
ma
themat ic at , statis:t ieal.
an
d
o t h . : e r m anlpulatio
rts
M
i
ddle--range c n o o r y and m o d e ls
H ighest
Oenerat
and me d
ets
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4
ANTHROPOLOCIC
AL
R
.
ESE
ARCli
Let
es tum toan a.amplie f fom a
nfhropnlogica
l r
esearch
, in otder to explore
some ba S t i e
issues
of
res.earcb meth
odo logy. Suppose
w e
are interested in inding
out
somethirlg
about the cultural and
social
c h a : r
aetet
istics
retatively
iso lated ;
nomadic grou
.p : s o l
hunting peoples , we want
t ' O get fi
rstband
info.rmation
ahout such groups, w e
m
ust
amng
- e fo r a f i
e
Jd e-xpedi tion
to ·
a r i e g i on
w h e r
e
they
f o und , the other hand
, be
e ause
t
here are
publi& h e d
no
ma
díe
socie ti . es , w e can
begin o u
r analysis w i
t
h
these
material&. W e
eoul
d start
w
iíh
a
sysiematic oollection of relevant
li
'teratu
r
e
u
nder
ru hri
c
nomttd ic ·
N e t i ee
th
at our
<rpening m o v
e- a
s
ea
re
h
<Jfthe
l iter
~ ·
ature - is
impos
sib
l
e witihout
so
me defini tions . W 'e need at least
tentativ
e defini
~ .
tions
"
nomad le,
' "
'hunfíng..gathering
,
,
, , , and "
sceieties. ) ~ Sinee the literat.u
t
e
co
n
ta
ins
re.ports
f re
m
a
great
m an
y
different
ethnog
1
raphers
,
.
g
ene
ra
l
agreemen
t
abou t
definitions
anti
co
neepts is
o i grea impo
rtan . ce . Thus
eveo t
he most e
l
e-
mentary
·
e<>neeptuai
·
tasb depend on a J argert more a '
bstrac
t,
theo t
e tical
H a
v i
ng set out eur
tentative deñ niti
ons
of
the researeh
dema
ín
, w e
o b : t a in a s · et
matermls
dea
l
ing w i th
a
number < i hunting . . , g - a
t
hering
p e
nples
i
n v atious
p ar
ts
of
die
w odd - Suppose one
t
he researeh reports about nomadíe societia
Allan HoJmberg
'
s Nommb · o f Lang &w
( 1969), a
1
n
acoount o f the
Si rionó
people
< : i
eastern
an:d
no r
;
fher
n
B
o l
i
v
ia.
w e
twu
toan
examinat
i
on of that
wot i t
, we leam trult i
r ¡ ,
º esides bei
n
. g a mernb:er oí a nuclear fa
mil
y .
ev
ery Sirio
n
ó
a ] s : o
b e . J o n g 5 t - 0 a larger
kin
group , th e
matr
i
lineal aten
d
ed
f á 1 1 1 i
l y "
1 1~ 8
J
. Our
f i : r
. . . p r . . . . L l
e
· m te ..... d· '-
lll
•
H
' e L
v
" ' h . o --n-e 1 1
·
. . . . . . . .
:\ . ·. uu
. . , . . , u;rJ
í; .
. .
~ wit ·. • · • .
1 1 }
,
"'
.;
Hl
_ - .n . Q /
1 '
~ " 'A-r• · ' " ' . . w . 11@1 .,:t
eal · extended family . ~
Fortunately
, · he
p rovides
a d .efin
i
tion
is
quite
exp1ici
t
''
A n
atended
[matr
il ineaJ
}
family i
s
made
·
up
females
in a direet line of de - .
l t l " .•nt
pi •
'
u
~
~
tt't,.J
·
t h . m . . .
n -
i-,.J
,..h')d
r
_,. ''
Th
· t > d · , , , c .
ru · ti ·
·
· n ' a
·
n
,_ . . . , .
,
: , , ..- .
S u.
a ~ . ; , , .r-.-
. . : . . ; , .
· . . . . . , o
Á + U
· , . . .
. : _
1
• 1 1 ' 1 . i U '
'ir
•
1 ; ¡ .
: r ... .
, ~
~r
t
. úO 1 :S , .
· ~
'
fect. a for
grou
pmg
inft>rmation
" ' That is, the con:eept of matr i
l
i 'nea
l ex
-
t
ended : fmnily aJlows H olmbetg
.
to s tate
a .
number generalizati ,
ons
tha .
t
appJy
é i;m uJ., ..-e · .
: or
• : c l · v
•
:A
e-
r
-a l , . , . .
, . . . a . . : -
.a l
t : X f O
U fW # ' . " f
'
H : " " m b · MDP . 1 > m 1i•
nn
.
~_
.
•
•, _ 1
JA,ll
~ ~
·
' 1 CJ . ~
t " " ' °
1' , J
_
1 ~
•
graph , l ike , a) I
S llJ <;h w:orb
,
is :
full term
tn o l Q & Y thatt in ess - e n e e ; . p enn
i
t s the :
c
)
i ustel'ing
, or abSitracti.ng
: J of infor
mation
into horth.an
d fotm in
rJ tran~
formatiom l rul · es .
We are
faced " h
o " W C V er .
pro blem k n o w ing
how
H o lmberg , obtained
the inf
o
rm a ' t ion
oontain
«l the expreuion • . : matri l
jn
_ eaJ atended
fam
ily.
the
monogTaph
and
.
othet
'
s . o u
r
ees
it
is
cl
:
ea
r
t
hat
he
l
iv
ed the
S
i
r
í
onó
for a number ri months, so that the
possi
bilities gaini
n
g t h - e in
fonnati
. on
were
cl .ea
dy
pres .
ent .
P e r .
h
a
, p . s this ti
:
m e
he a & k e d one
of t h e S iri
onó abou t h i s
bnJmen
. H
is
infor:mant
m
i
g h
t
ha-ve
r
eplied
, " I
,
l ik e al l S lri
o nó
, bdong a
matrili
,
nea l atended fam i
ly ,
w h . i
eh may
d -
elined a s .
...
.
. " ' S u ·
ch
a r.espon· se i. s
~ · .. .
u
.
nlikel
y ,
:
h o w e v e r . It much m o re l i ' . k e l y that
H olmberg
's . informant w : o u J . d
ha
ve
amwered
w i
th a
.s
eries statanents
o o
n c e : r r 1 ing
his
. mos1 important
k ins
m
en
, or
p erh a
.
p
s
with
s
tatements about
th
.
e
peop
le
with
whom he
s
h
are
d
f
ood
an
,
d
other
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5
i
tem
s ~
A fter :
furthe
r questio .
nin
g , he
1
nigh. t
ha
v e told
;
lt\e ethno grap
her
th a t ev ery .
bo dy
belongs o
r
h
as
a group
k in
sp eo
pl
e w
hom feod and o
t
h
e
r
: i t e m s
are
s
hared and th
at
these groups are alw ay s th
e sa
me i
n th
at
member
sl 1 ip i1 1 thern is
tra
ced t
hr
ou
gh
fem
ale l i
nb
i
n
a
p
articular w ay
.
H
ol
mberg
al
so
hav
e
o
btaíned
t
h
e
i
nform
a
.
tion
d
irec
t
ebserv
at
í
on .
l
t .
turn
s
o
u t
tha
t members of
the exte
n
ded fam il
ies ' 'c o e p e
rate to blJ
ild
t
hat po:rtio
n
: o f
th e
d w d l
i ng w h ich they oecu p y . They sometimes p lant gardens in commen"
(ibtd
.
1
1 8
). A J s o , ,
''the dístribution
of
food
rardy extends bey on
d
th
e e
xtend ed
f a mily
. ''
Beeause H mberg I iv ed
a
mong
t
he
S ir
ion .ó
a
nd
beea
use
esch
J i .
ves
i n a c o m m u
na
l h o use, w e expect · that he h a d am
p l
e to observe
th
at eer íain
i n
d :
i
v
íd .
uah
w
ere reg
u l arly
gr
o u
ped tog
e th e
r
i
n
ter 1
ris afk e y
activ it
ies .
Wi
di.o
ut
a
s
li
ng
s
b
out
k
i
n
grou
ps
from
tb
c people
th e
ms
el
ves
,
H o
l
m
berg may
h
a
v e neted th
a
t w henev er a eerta
í
n
i
nd i
v id
u
al
A
retumed
to
lh
e
co rnrnu
na
l
hou
se
w i
th
so m
e
m
eat,
h
e
di
s · tr
ib
utcd it t
o
p er
s
one B .
D
,
and
E 1
but never
t
o
a
ny the
othet p erson
s
in t
he band
.
In
ad d
ition, he
m
ay
h av e not
ed tkal
A
)
B ,
C , , D
,
and 'E w o rlced togeth er to build a p o r t ian of
th
e
o
.
o
·
m
. mun
a . l
dw e
ll
i
ng ,
after
w h
ich
· th
e
y
w ete
usually · t
o
f o un
d
i
n
that p o
rtien
of
the:
ho u
se
- s . leep in
g,
eat
-
in¡
,
er restin
g
- j
f
they w ere p res
e
nt in the ba
n
d
ares
. H e
w
tr
uld
, course , need
v
e
rba
ll
y
p r
oduced
i n E
or
m
a
t
i
on
abou
t t
he
pr
esu
med
k i
.
ns
h ip
re
'
l
a
ti
o n
s
hips
1
i
n
king
th .
e
pe
rsoos
i
n
t
he
eb
served
gro
u
ps
.
Ty
pie
al l
y ,
anth rop o
logi
cal 6e 1 d '
worke
rs co m b i
n
e the
d
ata fr:om
p e
rs
on
al .
eye .
w i
tñ e
ss o b.servatinn
w i
th inf
onna
ti
on ga
ined f rom i
nforma11u '
descript
ion
s . .
Holmberg
· s
s . t a telnen ts abou , t :m atrilinenl ext
.ende
d
f
ami
l ies
am
ong the
S
iriond
u : n doubted
l
y wer e
based
en k
i 'n d s :
i
nfo
rmation
U nfortunat
el
y ,
Ho
l
m .
berg '
s deserí
p tí o n ,
like
p ra
cticall
y : a li o th
er
eth
n
ographlc
descnp
t
ions,
r
a r r e l
y
m
ak es
.
cJear exa
c
t Jy
what
k
in
d
s
of
o b
serv
ati
o
t
l : S
f
o
cmed
t
he
b
as
i
s
fo
r p
art
ic
ul
ar
ge
n
.e
ra
l
i
za
tions .
L " ik e
m o
s
t eth 1 n Q g
:
rap
l
1
er
s *
H o l n :
lher¡
in
.tend
ed
t
o
c
ollect
a w i de r
a
n ¡ e
of infor . .
mation a
bout
chosen r
es
earc
h
1 p eople in o . rder
to
p re
s : ~
nt a h
oli
stic po rt rai
t
o
f
t h e i r w ay ri liíe .
T h
at i s , th e theor
e
tic a J orie
nbtio
n d f
cul
tutal anth 1 rop o ogy has
f
o : r the
m
ost p ar t
en
couraged a
v
ery
ed
eeü
c
view w ith
rega
rd
to
the
s elec:tion
of
rel
evant
data .
In
a su
mmary
sectio
n
:
of
h is H o l m b .
erg
d
'f ew
t
oge
the r
the
w i
de range
of
p rimary
o bsl nati
ons
ab out the
S
ir ionó into a
izations the
w
h
o le
.
h
e
fe
'
lt,
these people
ar
e
r
a
t
h
e
r
u
.
n
s
u
c
cessfu
l
i . n tl
1 ei
r
food quest , a 1 1 d
t
hey live
1under
con
di
~
i ons of pe
T e
n
1 1 i
al
fo
od inseeur
i
.ty
a
nd
. 'h unger frustratio n . Frotn a
no
th e
r
eom
plex
, ar
ra
y : pr
imary
observ , atio:ns ~ he
cam
e
to
the oo nc
l
us i
o
n
tk
at ·
t
b .
e
S
i
ri
onó a
, r
e unco.opera
t i v : e v
is . . Q ~ v i s
oiie ano
t
her
gteedy
about
tood
J
uncaring abo
ut one
a rlo tl1 : e
r
1s w
e
l
far
e. and g ,enera ll
y
quar
rd-
d
. .
so
rne a . n s
usp1c 1 0 u
s
.
From these descr
ip
tiv
e 6eld
da
ta H o l 1
mberg
sugg
ested
a s
erl
es o f 1
m
idd)
e
, - ra
nge
g
e
n
e
rd
l
iz
,
a
" t
i
o
n
s
' " f
o
r f u r
t
l
1
er
r
d
i
ne
m
e
nt
a
n
.
d in
v
e
- S t
i
g ; ¡
ti
o n i
n
o th
e
r
s
o
ci
e
t
i
es
.
w
h
er
e
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The d is c . u ss ion about · the S itioJtó
a ,
nd about Holmba¡' s thenreti
c
al s
tatements
·n~d
-l
n •
t
•
l
.
T h
- . -
as
,
an
u~ u . . . .
on
m
.
u . e
m a
1
n
~
emen~
U I
resear
c
- 1
1
me:
:
uu
o
o gy
.
.
,
.
:ae
demenb ma),e tt p
di
e research language, tbe logical f r
am
e w o t "
k ,
in
tw
ms
which anthropologicaJ inv
e S ' . t i ¡ a t i :
om (and other scientif ic s tud i
es)
. are earried
oul At th
i s point
it
w ou ~
d u
seful ~lar
ify s
ome o u r
w
um p tio n
s
about
these
methodolog
ical elemen t s .
ANTHROPOL
O G
ICA L
R
ESEA R
·
Cl 4
C
lose
]
y
re l a l e < I
to
,
th
is f irst
quati
on
a
re the
:
ollow i
n , g :
2
t n . m J y
ohwvatiO D $ (ha~ qu w hat criteria selcction
)
are needed to estabJ~
h
tite genera
. l
i '
zati
oo { , s ) a.bout pc~
ti
ge and itatu s?
~L
.n
"' l n s e e ( J •ty a · h· • · • na° '
"
C .
· ·
:h...d .. n · L
-
a .
~
:
fJl1
1
ia;;
"'
U
'
.
•
.
lfU
S
1ci4UiO
• ·
idmtilied and eontr-asted c > t h er
sod.cti
e , s m o : t d e . r . to
p:ropos
ilio :
ns a t
bout
al l~
tio n af pRt
ti
ge and ltltus7
Holmberg asumes t h a t
eh
arae te ti tiu ind ividual human o~ p n i
s
m (d
riv
es) can .
" t raml 'o rmed
d
ír
ecdy
intog;
oop ,
. or 5 < ocida
l
,cham
ctetisfi
e 'S .
{ allooation
p1est
~
ge
aud sJatus ).
an
thra,pol~ '8nd t
.
othets)
wou l d . disagree. m
. a i o ta
i
n
ing
that i
ndi
" '
vidualo•it procies.sa md soeidal behiivior oorms f '
q> r
-eRnt
two disti
nct c f
l)lt
.. so that
tra
nsfo
miat : ionJhctw een
th
e t w . D ca
n
1 1 o t
o ec
or
in dte
form
implied
by Holmber¡
. How can tbi
s general
rndho.dologi:eal
co
n8i
d be
rcsol ; v ed
?
Stat~ i
1 1 n
1
ort
genml
ttmrn
s , .
.
·
what
a r .
e th
c
rules
fo
. r
ttansforma
ti
o
m
datt
am'lft
a
u p - -
p o s e . d
level
s :
r : A
ph,m&
al e : n a 1
s The
i
níol mational
~
m . e - n t s
i
n th e pr«eding pa r - a , d 1 gm are hi:ghly sub ject m
o d i
i
aitio . n { or ev - e n
tota
l . nega
tion
) by o th~ r Ñ cton a('eeting ,
hum
c Q n ~havior . W hat rules
a :
nd p roc«lura c - - an ,
be used
to ~
lt-m
th e · inl 'mdati
o mh
i , p s : a k trge numbct
m
wrelamd
lae'.tort
. s o d a . 1 '
ev.ents a
mi
pr
ocesses
?
6 11ieordicaJ
prapos
ítiom
dm v
ed
&
om
o th
er
doina
ins ami f _ f
seh
ools
t ' of socia
l
scienecs may c ; q n a J ly~
i : : e 1 t
1 mu:
rces
d ld
gher
.
ord•
statemen
ts
th
at can be tran:s
.
fozn1
cd irlto f
ow
er-orda
l
nf
orm atí o : n a 1bout ·
the
S
irionó
. That . s ,
a
number otbe . r
k
i
nd
~fl mtements
coold
be
w
bstitnted
f 0 1
so
me
el
H al
m
lxtj
s : s
'tat
e m :
e
nts.
H o
w
c
an
thc goncra.l thcoretica pt -opm-ition: s (or $y , s , tems oí ge
nera
l
th
eory) b e :
sdectm fmm among cornpding alt
unativ
es?
lf
ene
beeame
invOlved . in actual r
eseareh on
Holmberg;'
s
p1 o p o s itions) . a larg
e
numbet d addition
a
]
methodolo.gj
cal
i
ssues would ha
v
e
be facetl
This
.
d
iscus
.
sion 1 ntended to s
et
fo rth onJ
y
the ou
dines
of pm blems
an
t h . r o p o - -
'logi
eal md
hodolqgy
. A d d iti
onal
d .
etails about 'these
problem$ , ,
as w ' C I J as sume
ptoposed
,
solution
_ s
t
~
o
them
.
be
d
i
l : l
uss
ed
i
,
n
r - e l
a
ti
o
n
spe.cifíc
r
esea
i
c
h
.
ca
s
es
in , l
ate
1
ehapt
er ,
s.
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The
b
nguage
O
f a ,
nthropology, l i . k
't
tha
t every seíen
ce
,
c
onsists
ma
i
n J y con-
cepts, p
1
opos'ition
s
,
modd
s
, an
d theedes, C eoe epts are the ; basie elements - the
building
'
bloclts
anth
r
opolgpcal
research
.
Fam
i
liar
a
nthropo
logicaJ t
e
rm
s,
s
utb ' 1 ' a m i l y · , . " ' ' ''digg:ing
stick
, , "pea
s
ant, t• "hunter, • •
"
slash-
and
-bum
ag ricu
] . .
ture,
,
_ . and ~
're
ligjon,•t
are
all examples coaeepa, th .
ough
thcse
eesrnpl
es
d
i
f f
er
c.onsid .erahly in degrec a J bs
tr.act
ion . The point to e m p h a
s . i z
e
is
that concepts ate
abstnactions f:rom
concrete
observatíons
, The term
~
" 'digging
: s t ick
, , · •
·
er
enmple
~
is
an abs
t
raetioo that r " e f e r & to a v ariety o f pointed (us
ua
l
l
y w o o d en) o b}oots by
rn
esns
o
f w híeh
hor ti
euJ
t
ur
al
tsb in
variou
s
p a
r ts oí the w o r ld carry out sume of
the
ess
,e
ntia
l
a
e
ts
re
J
ated
to crup
g
ro
w i
ng
.
This
s
ta
tcm
ent
(
w h
i
ch
i
s
nota
defini-
tíen)
is oo n
structed from a string abs-tra
ct cencepts ,
N ,
o n
etheless, the
ter
tn
' - 'di : gg
j
ng st ick ª *
is
much
Iess
abstracl
tha
n, fur
examp
l
e
, the term '1r e J
.
ig io n . ,
· w h i ch dees net refer to a
pa
r
t
icular type object, but rathe r
t
o a
d
omait 1 of
w i
de l
.
y
v
ar
ied
belie& , a
n
d
act
i
o ns .
Whole boob in thc
p h
ilosophy
s
cience have been devoted to exam ining lhe
fundamental
1 < > . g i
c and r e :
J
a .t ioosh ips am
c
ng scíe
n
tific
c
o ncepts
.
We w i . 1 1 llO'f
esplore this
v
ast
a
rca
.
disecarse
h e
re,
certain fundamental
assu
mp t
i
ons
must made elear .
First, i
1
t
should
be e m p h as i
aed that , conoep
ts ar
e s,rbitr
ar
y
se
l
reti-o ns f
ro
m the univ er
se
exper í
ence
, Coode and 'Hat t ,
i
n
d
iscussíng the
ar
-
b
itm
r .ine s : s
oí defini
tions,
rnake
the fo
ll
o
wing s
ignificant
p o i
nt
s
: .
1 dConcepts dere
lop
f
rom a
s 1
hared
exp erie r1 c e
.
"
i ·~crms used to deno
t
e
scientiiic eo
acepts
m
a
y
a
tso
i 1 a v
e n 1
e
anin~
i
n o ther fr~ mes of
r
tt 1~nc
e .
3
·
" A r
ef
er di
ff
erent
pbe
t1 0
1 T 1 e n : a .
"
4 ' '
D
if f
e
r
e
nt
te rms
may ·
rcfer
to
the
sam e
µ : h e n
o .
m
ena
.
"
s
'
'A ~un
m a
y h
ave
no
·
i
m
n
i:
edi
~te
em pirica
l
rd.t re:n
t at
a
ll
.
t
6
"The
m
e .
ania¡
of ;
concq>.h ma
y eha
e
ge."
(
O e o d e
and H a
tt,
J Q S 3 = 4 4-8 . }
Fer th i
s
.
last
p .ain 1 it
i
s instruc
tive
take an aample from the p h .
ys
ical sci
e
n
.
c ·
es
.
Ernest
N
a 1 gel , i
n
h is disc
ussion
oí the structure seienc
e . ,
.
po i n
ts out
th
a
t
the
defini.tion 1
O Í the has
c
-
h an
g ed as
th
eote tical ~ ph
ysi
C S h a : S dev e f -
o p c d
:
W hat i
s r o
be
an
el
ec tro n s ta ted b
y
a i
n
· wh i ch the wo:td i .telec tr
on
r
'
o eeu
~ an
d
when th
e · the
0 1 " )
1
al t
er
ed
t he mC 1
nitt1
of
th
e w o r d undergo o s a m
od
i . 6 . ca : tion . -
.
though
t
\e sam e
w o
td º
electron
" '
i
s
u : s e d i
n
¡rteq uant
um
'
tf t
.
eo ries th
c r
t : l
ectTorric
c-0nsfi-
tu t i : o : n matt~
.
in the
B
o
hr
theoiy
.
a
nd in p o . s .t-B
oh
r
t
heo:ries , the mea
n
in-¡ o f
fu
e is .
no.t í the
sa
me in
a
li these themies .
(
N
ageJ , 1 :
961
:8 8
.
)
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r:r
t..
•
~
•
l
ted . , _ .
d
•
. , ;
. L " " ,,,,
,
.. -
d
as
s
ystenu QI
'ntmc a .QJ.; · oonoep~
a
n p l' oposi ,,on:s, can uc
theories'~
that
attemp t
to 6t
toge
ther
in
log
ic al p a : t te
ru
w s t a
reas
human beh~v
. .
io
r
. ºª he o t h e t hand, ,, theo.tetical,
system
can mueh ni.ore
mooest
i
. n
seop e
t
inv
o l
ving
1only
a smal I numher coneepts
a : nd p
ro p o .sitions .
T h eo r
ie
s as . such are never
'" proved
. '' R athcr
~
they
differ
reprd tn the
i
r e f . .
fec
tiveness as
. s o
u
rces
el
propos
.
itlons
th:at
can
t
ested
b
y mcans
.
eml)iriea
l
resear
eb
:
.
and also d
i
if
e ; r
, ,
egard
to
th
e
nw n 1 b«s em
pirit:al observa·
tio ns that
su
p port propositiom o f wbich the gj-ven theordica l systeirl is oonsti-
tuted.
Thus
c h e
ge
netal
· theot
eti
ea
1 l
s y & t e m usu
ally
oaD ed the
t
\heory
ofbio logical
ev
1 0 J : u .
ti
o n'' is S < u , p p o r t e d by a very l a r g e em;piricaJ o b s : ervations . , w h , ereas
. C . •
i n t h e
¡«:ta sc
1 ences ( . ' l t e
.oretic . a s
y
ste
m s o r
S í 1 m 1 1
.
a
r
s
e-ope can 1ar 1 ewet
. . . . 1 N
s
upporting
emp t
tt
ea
o~rva:t 1
o ns
.
When
an
i
ndividual
sa
y
s
•
"i
h . a
v .
e a
th
o o : r y
about
t
h3t,
"
'
he
[r
equently means
are statemenb abo ul
i
ntmelationshíps a:mong
c
oncepts. T h e sfate·
ment
'
·
P
easants.
ar
e
p
ragmatic '
~
i
s
a
proposition wb~e
r e : J a t i
v
e
trutb
val
u
e
p e
,nds en the e l f e c t i v . e . n : e . s s fi the
r ' C S ea
teher's m ao
ipulati
ons
t
he coneepts
,,_,
. .
an
d Ptopositkm
s often
h
ave a par t
,
ru
·bi
ect.pt
ed
icate fmm
~
in w h
ieh ene oo nc ept invo lves the de&nition the given population ( of objceb,
peno~ events
) . abo
u
. t
whieh
a
measurement
ot
ju dgme
nt
o f q u
a
l
i
tics (eg ,
ma r
e
, f - OJO U ' S p ll l l .Q ltg ent , ,,omogeneoos ,
1
oipnrz.~ c;
.D~~1
v e 1 s to oc
made
,
I
n
a
ll
cases
th
e
d
e ñ n : i
tiom
particul
a
r
concepts
a s
.
sub
j
ects
o 1
·
r
eseatc
h involve
t..
~·-
C X , t n l C
I o t 1 m p 1 - c 1
con"
asts
~
"w een e oonc-ept
un '.
tJ .
e o n & > i
: e r - a t i o n e .g .
.
,
p easants) the set o f all o.ther
poss:i'ble
s : u bjects ehesen & o
m
t
he
s:ame
u
nivers:e.
Tha
s f ledsm t , t is ddined as a o f
p e
rson (er
oommJ¡J
j
ni
. ty )
h av ing
, partirular
characte.mti:cs
di
at oontrast w ith and other
possibl
e
l d • ..J .: (
h
' ..
memucts ut t 1.is p artí-cu ar
,. orna
. to m w sco urse . " uman
g T o . u p s cate¡onzw
i n a
subsistencc
. .
typaJo.gy
~
Since the conceptual dAmain
of
(~e.
w.tim
o
ean be diierentíated in terms o f a
great
numbef' of dif-
ferent
c
h .a tactetooe
. s ,
íollows that
esch anthr
opologi
cal rese.rcher atahliS:hes a
ty · p o l o g y w i
t
hin this concep tual d o m a in in terms of ass'llm ptions ( stated 01 un-
. . . . , J . .- . 1 ) t . ~ ~ ·
t
.
. . . . . . . .
1
-~
-
.....:
- t
d' ' · · . . .
J ,...,
~E:
a
oou
tm p n r .a
or 1 m 1
i
~iuns m
hu m a : n s . T h e c r i e s are
1
con~titu
red
eo ncepts
(
typo
l
o , g i , es : a
n d
tax " '
d h . • d
1
•
nomtes , p r o p o s 1 t 1
ons aoout
coneepts ,
a n i
.
· .
e a .
ssumpt1ons :
t · .
at un
erne sacn
propmitio
ns
.
P r o t x > rition
s
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C
'
uJ
Wfa
.
l
p:mduct
s
F
a
ntuy
S ay ing.s
R .
e e ;
ruti 0 1 1
Co n c e~
t: s of world
e
#.
'
hild
· behav iof
Oatl\ti
A d
u
lt personallty ,, _
A
dult bebav i
ar
Cr
i
me
S u : i c . ide ntes
L c i &
utc
·
t
ime
aoii
v i 1
y
R eli g tous
Mf
i
efs
Theo
ri
es o.f disease
E mlnlf --• Mainten&
JD,
S ocl
aI : & t r : ' ® t ure
ll
A 'NTHJlOPOLOCICAL RESEARCH
pneral l
y encountered
in
meeting the íinfonnational requirem en ts these
math
~
m . . . . , . : . . . . . . .
1
1
- - . . . . .
. . i ~ t t s ~
It
i s
alse umul to
apply
the
t " C r m ~ '
modeJ
» in
a
more modest fasbion to
these
theoretlcal
systei111
for whieh scientific metaphors or analogies can
rendeted
in
t h - e
fonn
«
d ia
,
gr
a
msj Bow
eh
.
ara
, .
or
·
oth.er picturial arul physic.aI riepresen·
tations . I n
1
anthropology standard t"endering
of kimhip
1ehatts
a
frequen1tl
y
eneountered model,
' l r u t more
eomprehe:ns :
ive qs
· tems
, mch
a . s
the
in-
tenelaüomhtps in compla eeo)ogical i .
ntera
ctio : n . s
,
can often made
more
~l
" " '
;
.a 1 . . , .
.
E
•
. .,
, , . . . , . , . .
:
. . .
¡ fA'R?-_.....,_....,..
t
• io
~J.1w\
"?
. CIJ'• 'S
\ju'"'
UJ plC : : t ov . 1 . i . . f " ' " " '
·
'" '
''
L " A lOa
1
,
.,.
fue theore
ti
e _ a . ( modd i n w h f eh t h : e ¡»,eho1-0g
i
c
aJly
ori
ent-00 1 S~ · CuJ-
e tuali·mi
(
W
h
'
ttng,
. . 9 6 )
- primee -s
,.,O
'ºCPn · l ;
·
1
"
'
·
~
'JTA
L
""
'
- \U .. , . . . . , , .
_
, _ . · . · . \ ·
·
.... , . ., . •
a set
ci
rcelation&hips
has
e
_ x p . r e s . s e d
in some
k i
nd
of
píe
. .
to t
i
: a l represmtat
ion (
o . r
even
a
physicaJ , strue
tur:e. s
uch as
th
e
n1od
1
e
ls
0Í
mole
. .
cules
ene
often sees geaeral " ' i S cience
laborwtories
, or
the
model e ities d i & play ed
in schools arcbit«ture } . ,
d i & o o
v
ery of
new reklticmships;and researc . h 1 diree-
tíons often fucllitattd . lt beeemes p o o ible to experiment with
t h - e
model itself p
to see if chan¡es
i
n
sorne thc
structu
re foree praltietabfe m o d
i
ficaiions i
n
o the
: r partians. Su.
e
h mentati-on is ofte:n g.reatly
e
n lhaneed . at least some of
the
rd.ationsb
i
ps am~
the
parls
the modd
ca
n
e~
in
m ~ t h e m a t i
c
al
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C A L . R ES1 E
.
A R C
H
d .
O W '° 3 Q ) " \x a d io u
ene
_ ·
· t - 0
. e researc - · · p ara
IJ m ·
The
mmt pres.si
n¡
pro c11etN in an
-
th
ropologica l :researe
h
daign li
e
in the o f . p rimary
data
¡athe - i n . g - i n
tbe actual
6eld
" 'raearch operations .
Once
the proeedures and o nneep ts o l pr
í
-
~~
. ·
L
l . l
. .J • ..:....
'
L~
L_
_ ~·
.
.d .-
-.J • U - . J
m4f'f
a1m1C-al)O
Oile:3
uucn
p m : . . , m
na
v
e
~
~ 1
-
,, .emÍll.U~
,
f
lgOfOU:S
COn'
c
o
comparisons can
developed,
theoty bu i lding can pr
oceed
en 6rme1 feun .
d atioos.
Tbe logic in use of anthropological data-
-gath
aing operatiom is e s c sentia
l
l
y
the
sa
.
me
•
t h a t
oí
ali sci
ent
i
fic
endeav or s . .
T h e r
, eío re
,
.
our ex
am
ination o f methodo-
)ogJl;a
J
p rinciples dees nnt depend on any particular theo ry . Resear 'f h esamp les
la.te
r ehapt e r - s teprese
n
t a
nt
1 mber
d i
tí
er
ent
t
h : e Q r
eti
c
alposit
iom .
bul th
eir
logjcal stru c ;tura to a ;general scientifi . c realm that embraces at least ali .
of
lhose
disc
i
pl
i
nes
c
eneemed
h
u
m
a
n
beha
v i
or
.
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%
0
ANTH
R
·OPOL
O
C
I
CAL R E S
.
EA . R C H
ch:emútry
as
their p :oints o f oomp
ari's
ons
a
nd have perltaps o v .
e
.raim
p]i
6
ed th
ei
r
co n<:eptu
al
ization
of seien
ee
,
In
th e 6m
p lace
" it
shou
ld
be r
ec
o gnizcd th at
\.
. .r ·~1 •
, ,
;
f i
º
tí
.
th
h . J
. .
numeer
\JI
1 e s -pe"• ~ e
scaenu
e p
r
o
posi
· ·
ons
i n e p . y s1 c a se renees inv o
, 1 v e
par-
t ioul
a
ristic
o
b5 erv a · tions ; note t h t
num
ber se i
enti
ñe s : ta temeots tha
t in
c
1u
d
e
:
pa
rtic
·
ular
: i
-
stic
referalc
es
tn
th
e
nm
,
t
h
e
moon
,
a
nd
oth
er
st
ellar
bed
i
es
,
In
g
e
neral
,
lim
iting
scie-
nce to
example
s dr
a
w n
f ron
1
1 ph
y
s
ics and
che
mistry
produces an exbemely
n
arr-ow v i
ew
af th e
sc
i e . n:ti6c en
t
e r p t l - &
e
t fo r : · this to ig .
no re
i
mportant ar
eas
ti: resea
reh in
geo lo
gy
) b
i
ology " · pale .o
nto l
ogy, and n 1 a ny
ather
es
tab
l ishe
d
disc
ip l
ine
s
;
that
ate
f r a n k J J y par t icular - i
s
ti
e
i
n
imp
o
1tant
respects
,
Fe
w
p .
e
ople claim ~ fa
r
exam p le, th at
tbe
geolog ist
is
not se ien tiñ c,
ev
~
en th
augh
h
i s .
aims
mB
f
be
the
s
tudy partic'Ular
features of th
e Ca.
m
br
i
an age er d
esc
rip-
ti
o n
s
s
o
me
g
l :S
ci
al
s
eq u
enc
es
c i f
northern
E
u
ro
p e
.
Ju
st
as scien
tis t s in odt
er
d i
~ ei
p lines are
no
t
always
eo ncemed so ldy w ith
nomoth
e : t i
c ·
g
e -
oc
ml i .zatio
ns
. h i
s:toric:
a J
r
esearehers are far from
be
i ng totally i d eo-
graphic
.
Hisloria
1n $ a
nd ant
h ro p nlogjs
ts
a
r
e freq
uen
tly
ee
ncer
ned w
i th
d
escrihing
hum an
beh
a v i - 0 r in speeific times and ;p
laces
,
bu
t
i . t i : t 1
f J
r i
n , c iPl
f
1 npossible
to 6
n
d
n
o
mothet
ie p rop os i ti
o
ns appl
ieabl
e to 1 - a r , ge el
esses
of h . is torical cases,
a
nd
m
any writm
(Toy nbee ~ Sp en
gl
er, K ro eber , o thers ) have gen . e · ral i
ze
d
broa
d
ea
tures of c
i
v
i l i
za
t
i
í
o ns
,
t
h
·
e
f
" 8
1
l l
o
f
em
p .
i
r
es
,
.
a
nd
o th
e
r
nomo
t
hetic
t
a
p
ies
.
N
a
gd
,
in 1 l
ists
fo u
r p ri
1 1 c í : pal m
odes
of expJ a ~
1
aton
em p loyed in stie
nti
fic d iseeurse
(
1 )
from
. known
a
nd law J i k e prir1 c
i
·
ples ; in
w h
ieh the ~ · e ) { 'pl
a
nato ry
p
remises
d
o
n
ot for-
m all
y
im
· pl
y the
ir explica ,
n
da~ ; (3
}
in
which
s
: t a t e : m 0 1 ·
t s .
are
m
sde abou t the t " fundio ns ( ar
even
dys func
tion
s } that a
unit peóonns in mai
nta
inin,g or
r
- e a liung certain
tr
aits of a
s
ystem to
w l
1
ic
h th:e
unit
bel
o
ng s
, o r oí s tati : ng the i .n
stru
menml role
a
1n acti
o
n p lay .s in bringing
abou
t
s
o m e .
goal
'
'; ¡ (
Nap:J
,
.
1 961 :
2 '4
~
an
.
d
(
4
)
, , -en:llíc.
"
w h i c
l1
set
o u
t
th
e
even
·
ts
through w
hictl
snm~
earJ i
er
sy
stem has been
transform~
i
,
n to a later one1
1 5
) . glane-e bi
ol
ogy ( emhryo l~
gy
~ the study
evolut i
ion, etc . )
a
nd
astron
.
o
my
s .
tudy
th
e
h is
t
ary
of the
unívcn
e
)
r
em i
nd. s o s
.
that
th
i
s f
ou : rth mode explan ·
ati
o n i
s
not u
ni
quely a p :roper
ty
of tho s - , e
dis
. .
e
iplin
e s . th
at stu d
y hu
: n
r a
n histo
ry
and ~hav io
r .
w e ac
,
ce
p t Na:g e l's foor types
o
f exp
la
nation a
s
val
i :
d pat1s sc ienc
e
a 1 i ld
en
ti&e
i
nq u
1
i
ry
,
m
ay
mgges
t
that
d
:
iile
r e n t
scien
c
es
ex
h
i
b
it
diff
erent
thes.e
f
ou · r
logical mode
l
s
, w íthout
the
reby departing f rom
membera
h ip , i1 1 the
~ " " ·
1
·
..
.A, , : , .t:-
· · n . . : i : -
"'"". . i 'k • h1
·
·
~
o
r
~ tlns . . , .
. . , .
.~ t
•
u oc
~
; _ : _ , . . . .
1
1
ne m ~¡.- q:u- ·-~ ~ ..
, '-
ª
" .
-
.
•
.
•
thropoJ
.
og ists
and
othets .
w h o re
ieet
the
l a b e : I o
f
s
ci
ene . c .
are
no
t
d iffe
ren
t
in
k ind
from th .
e
ty p es explana tions of int
er
est to
otber
sci
e
nt
i$ts
,
but the traditiu
nal
patre
rm resea: r ch a nd u .
se
of
e
vid
enee
ma k : e thei 1 p
uooi
ts radi
cally
d
i
f . .
f
ere
nt
fro
m thme the
scie
nees
.
T
h
e
lo gi
t scho
lar,.ip i s t
he s
am
e
for 'both ~
but canons
ev
iden
ce
are:
d
üfe:
rent
.
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ANTHROPQ L O C I C A L lt
ESE
ARCH .
Throughout bis study w c e f i nd
an
1 empl 'l
a
sis t1pon the eoopecativ e and t1n
i
f
y i
ng fa . cto
rs
i
n
epot eean
s . 0 < : i c t y
.
Our
6nd i
n¡s , en
tt
ie o t h c . i ' h:and.
would
e inp
hnize undcr
ly in : g in
d
iv idual ls:m of
T e p o z t « a n
i
mt
i
tutions and cbm. cter . th e .
J a
cl
a f
eoopera
ti
on, the ten
~
io ns
bc'
tween
w
1lag
C o
s
w
ithin
t
h
e
munieip
i
o ,
t
he
sch
i:sm
s
w
it
h
i
n
the
vil
lig
e.
.
a
n
d
tbe
pe
rv a
d
i
ng
qual
i
ty
ci
fea
. e , envy and d
istru
st
.
(
Osear
Lewis, 1
·
9 ; 1
:
428-q. . .
)
R
ed~ el
d replied
an ad . miss ;
ion
t
ha
't
~bl
9
hed the o .bie-
ctiv
e truth
cer
ta .
i
n . the U
'ttplea ~
~ il l
l
eatu
r - e s o
f
T e p es-
t
ecan
'
l
i
fe
, .
H e h
a$ s
hown that
m o r
e th;,n '
h a l f the v illag e : r s a
ot
o
w n
ta
nd the
ti
me
t h ' . 3 t s . tud
: ¡ e < f
the
e
ommuníty ; that man
y
we:re in set
io
lJtw ant tha:t s
teating
; q uarre lin g , ,
p hy si
cal
v i
ol
ence a
r
erlot ratt in T:e-pcm
l
án
.
. . is tr ue t
h a
't be t w - o boob describe
w
h
a t
mj¡ht a l m - o s - t
seem
t
o
be
two
di:fferent p eo
p
l
es
oocup
y i
ng
same to
w n
: .
(
R e d i f i ~ l t J
.
196o:: .l
3 '4
· )
H e adds
"
h o w e v e r : "The
greater p.art the exp
l 1anatjon
for the
difference
itween the two repo~ on this
mattet o f Tepcztecan lif e and eha
ra
eter i s to
found in d
i
fferences
betwee
n the
·
two
i
n :v
est
ipton
.
.
. . I
th i
nk
tha
t it
Is sim t > l
Y
'tt '
U
. e that . . . . 1 looked
at
ee
r
tain aspects ofTepoz
tecan
I t
fe
becsuse
th e
y both
inw
1
terested
an
d plea
s
ed me"
(R
edfi
e
ld,
1 9 0 0
~ 1 ;;
}
.
A n o t h " C 1
instan
.
ce
c1
'
t
his
k ín
d
o f
a11thropolog
i :
ca.l
debate
coneem
s
t
h
.
e
eb
s
ra
e
te
r
life
amon,g
the
Puehl
o l
t
1
di
ans of
the
Southwest.
Th
e
st:a
r
y .
begin
s in
1
93~
w hen lüith
B e nedict
p
u
b
l
i
shed
her
oharacterization the P u
eb
lo In
d
i
a
ns in
P attemt o/ In this
w or l c
she deseríbed thc P ueblos
as
"Apoll
e
n
ian
" -
r
e
mained
i
n
e
motiom,
avoíding v í
olence,
q uarre l s, ot warfare snd given
mod . .
emticrn i
n
ali th
ing s : .
Other
wri ters
, notabJ
y
L aura T h o m ps o
n,
have
g i V i
en si
1 1
tilar
portcai ts of the
i
ntegrated ,qualities of P
ucb l
o culture
.
This
'
'
Apoll
o o
i a r 1
~
'
eth
.
os
the
Pueblo
,
peoples i
s
m
pptJSedly
s
o
pe
nr
asive that
ha
s
neve
r
becon1e p roblem
among
them
' •
O
run
.
ke r
l.n~
: s lepuJ s i v
e tu
tbem
, ''
B e
n
ed
ict
wrote. «
Jn Zuñi
alter ,
the
ea
r
, ly
in
tr
oou
c
ti
o n
liqu
o r ~
the
oid
men voluntatily ootlawed
i
t
and
th e
rul
e
was
o o n g - e
n i . a l en .
ough
to
h
o11ored»
{ i b
íd .
, 1 9 '
J4=fl2
). Similad
y
7
al]
types · emotiooa l '
and vi
o l
e
nt displa
y
w
ere
sa i
d
t
o
b l .
De e ' U i ; c 1te1
y
a ne.ons1s , . . " e n 1 . wt1ei1 . o
a1
:
it
cuQeS
.
O n t h - e
· o th
er
han(
I, Estller
Gddfr-ank
and
Doro th
y Eggan
(
amo ng
other
s
) ha
v
e
deseribeti
some as
p ects
Pueblo Iifeways
(pa
,
r
ticula
r
l
y
among Zuñi
a
nd
H o p
i) as
t raumatic
, ,
v i
o le
n
t , .
an
d
rep
r
e & s i v e
(s
e
·
e e s p e c e
,
i
al
l
y
Egp
n
,
1 9 4 ; .
;
L l
A&C l11e
,
1 93
7
;
G o ldfntnk.
1
:
94
5 .)
l
n sup
p
ort her. argument,
Esth
er
G old
frank o f f . e r . e d ,
fe
r e
x
-
am p
th - . s .
cn' 'lo - q - u . . .
" " ' t
~ o · n
R
· O ' ª t . .
~
s
01:. ,
·
;[ ,
e
-·
"" ·i
nn "
r
a
;t ..
1
·
'
'1~
': '~
IV
I
' ' .ri',a: uu:a
l
.
I
:
1 ,'
•
1 ,..
1 •
,;. '.
:
,.
P o w a
m .
u
ceremony :
the crying and s - c
t
eaming
the
c
and i
d ates, and women
mi
ngle th e
i c r
v o ices
,
,
~ e-ncouraging tbem.
o1hets a
ct
li _ sin g
tire
1 'atcina~ , p aitialit y , cl
a:im
ing
tha
.t
the
y
w h ip some ha
.
nler
r
han oth~ in
short
. pa11de
t
n
o
niu m reigns i
n t
t re k iv a
du
ring
fhis
e - x c - i t .
i
ng
h
a
lf
h
o
u
r
.
B
.
ut the
s e -
ene
bu
not
o : n l
y
it
s exci
ting
.
bu
t
a
lso
i
ts
disgusting
f
~atu
r
es
.
As
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Her
e
w e
involved
i
n de
ser
iptive
smtements
are
fro
m
s
im
ple .
Moral
v a
l
.
u
es
a
r
e extfremel
y
d
i
ffi
eu
J
t
to
ge
n
eta
l
iz
e
abo
u
t,
a
s
i
t
is
near
l
y
i
mp
oss
ible
t
o
no
n .
l '
n ano the
r
s ee tio
n, h
o w ever , K l
u
ckh o
h ·
n
d
i
scussed
N av ajo
1
mor
a 1
s
ata
much
mo r
e abstract
l e v - e J , a
nd
t h e : r i e l e v a t
n t data a
re
notas ap
p
arent
Thc Prote
: s .
{ i n t virtue dÍc a 1 'e p o S : S e
ssio
ns (th o ugh
.
not th e
Í
r eqJJen tl y p a i red one of
clean
r -
l
i
· n
ess
) i i . s shared t h : e N av ajo; destru
c
tÍ '\ " en
es
s. w as
te
, ca
r
e
J e
$ S n .
m
, an . d even
c
l
ean
line s
s
.
a
1
,
e
di5approv
ed
of
.
G am
b
l
ing
is
w
r
o
n
g
you
los
1 y
o u
r
mothet
's
i
ewel
ry
..
.
"
C
ames
must
Í
lrteifere with wotk . m u
s
t
no
t
e
~ en
a t t :e
nd
eetemoni
a
ls
t
oo
often t
his
becom-e a d l
m
f i
ng
.
'
K.now]edge ,
inelt
id ing . eere
monia l
k nt 1
wtedg
e
nnd s . ound ¡ u c t . g e . .
ment ate
g
ood because they a
, r e
eonducive h e c a l t h and
lo
ng : l ife . . .
S
o br
iety 1
set
f
co
n
-
bd,
and
ad her-enoe to
O l d
c
u
stom
are
valued ... drin . k iflg
·
wrong
i
t res:ults
in
, loss of
supe ieg :
o
e.oott '
o l
, if one ~Qmes " 'w ild without s . e n se . ." O ne s . hould talk ~
pretfy
n ic e · •
( ib
id .,
p .
170
) .
Th
ese
pre:se
nt (ofher than
p.at
i
e
nt.
s
inger, and n e < :
· essaey a
ss
: ista
n ts ) until the
fi
n
a
l
day O
f
a
ceremo
1 1
ial
are
almost i
nvarit
b
}y
l
imited
to mem
:
be t
s .
of
patient 's im
.
n 1 ' C d i a
te f
a
mil
y
gt ' · O U P ami perhaps a f
ew neigh
bors
.
Spectatars g a " t h er d
1 1 r
i
n g th e fi
1
·
1 a l day, reaching
a
maxi
n
1um
·
duril• f : h e
co
n~ tu
d i
ng all.ni
g
h
t ' singi
ng
.
Studying the J J : s is
of
those present
s
ugp
$ :
t $
that
kinsh
~
p
a
nd
pogm
p
hic
propi n'QUi
. t y
are
t
he two
pr¡
n
cipal
d
et.e
~
m
in
a
n
ti
at
-
tendanee . < m e fact tha
t
s a
t
ali remai r k abl . e emerges - nam
·
ely
that
paternal
r - e J a t i v e s
are abau t p er cent more , numet'OU's in the
li
s ts th an n at ' e rnal relat ives .
S ín
ce th is i
s
tr
ue in s p i 1 e
of
the
fact
f h
a
t the
r$l
d eno e
s y s
t~ i s s till matril
O Q I J
than
p : a t r f
leea
l ,
may
be signif icant
A t
· th:e
v
ery lm st , ,
it
af f o fcb
demonstr .rtion the bi la
ter
al
cruuacter C l f
kinship
rec
í
p roc
i t i , e s :
.
(
K
lu : dh oh .n
,
t
9(iz . :
1 9.)
F
arther a l
o n
g . in
th
e same
art
ie l e : , K l u ck b
oh
n noted that ~ · M a n )
·
statemen
ts
ma
k e i
t
elear tbat there i s s
ocia
l press
u
re upen broth
e
rs and sís
t
ers, uncles
and
a .
unts, an
d o ther re l
a :
t i
v
es o
f
the
p ati
ent
. to a
i
: d
by
th
eir
presenee
and
gi
fts
food a
nd · mon:ey t ' "
1
2
0
)
. "
Beeeming a singer is p
rob:ably th e
p
r
i n
cipa
l mecha-
n
i
& m , fo , r the
"
circul a :
ti
o n of the e
l ite '
( in the P aret1an sense ] in Nava . jo s _ o c i e t y as
w h
e le
" 1 21 ).
In seetíon
,
as , o thtí
d
escrip tions
a
b
o u.t N a v a j o ceremomal p at·
teros.,
K l
liek h ,ohn
r ~
ferred : t : o
s
orne
in:
div
i
d
t1al cases,
~ i s t s p eo p
l e presen
t
at
eer
-
em
on
ill
s
h
ad w i
tn
ess
ed
. · Ot for w h . i : c h
h
e ,
h
ad
obtaine ' d i
nforma
t
i
on
~ a .
nd
i t is
e
lear
tha
t
he
is
descti '
bing p a
tt
ems
fo
r
w h í
e
h
h
e
ha
s a gr
ea
t
d
ea
l
data
.
A
t
some p o ints
his
g,enet;a
l:i:zations
appJy
to
a
particular
se
t
Na.v.a
j
o
e
eremonials
to
w hich h e had aeeess (
th e geogr
ap hic
and ti
me
range of
thes
e
m tlle
tials
is
·uncl
ear
) ; ,
bu
t
a
. t o ther
p o
i
n
ts hi
$
gener:aJizations are
clear
ly i
nten
d ed to
appl
y to
Na\' a j { ' )
soci:ety as
a w h
ol
e . N e n etheless,
w e
do not llave much : d
i
f ll eu
lty i .
m a
g
i
n
-
i
ng
th
e data
th
at
wouJ
d
be re le v 1 1 n t
fnr
t
he g
eneralizations
h e
made .
Th
c e
data
i
n th
ose
passages
i nvolve beh a
v ia
r
that any normally
competent a
1 1
thro p
o
l ~
o . g : i s t
or other
o
bseJV
er
sho
u
l
d
be
ab
le
to
r
eport
fa
i
riy
a
cc
u
r
a t : e l
y
. There
would
seem
to
no p
to b
lems
a : bo u t tbe defin ¡
it
i
ons
of ternts . and the logic of explana
. .
AN'l" HROPOLO
C
JCAL
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32 ANTHI
O
POLOGI
C
AL
R
E
S
. E
A R C
H
assumed Úom th e beginning
.
that there m ight sorne
v
arí
a
tion amo ng males
i
n
Terrone
r
eprd to atti:tu:des
sn
d beJieís and
that
hís data gat
ha
ing shou
l
d
reflect such variation. researeh method
s
included a struetured interview
techruque:J wruch compares
favora
bl
y B
anfield
' s
use the . s tmetured Th
e-
1 na
t
ic
A p p e
r
ception
Test
M
i
llers
amoral
fdm.iliml
se
a
.le
eentained
tw e
l
ve
item1
,
whicl\ he admin istered
o
'
~
n 1 .alc esíd
en
ts
.
of the v il)a¡e
. .
.
r.anged
in age
f fom seventeen . to s< C Y e n t y y ears , ; . , theít ooeup at ions r~nged from ag ri
eultut:a
l
anti unsklJIIed industrial labore
r
s,
.
thro:ugh sk
il
led laboreri sm - a ll farmers and
shop owneu, :
t
o clerical, technical and
professiona
l worke rs '" (ib i .d .• p. )2'. 5 }
.
O f di
e t we l
i
v
e
basie qudti
ons
that MiJler
a
· sked, there w e - r e a f e w s :
ta
t .
emenb
'
lhat p er
e,ent
of his infonnants agreed Sorne
s
tat
em
enb
w e
re
awr
oved
abwt
s
o
µ e t
- c
ent
c : I ,
tbe
m e
n, and ene
s
tateme
nt
a
pp
roved
h)
r
J
la"·-
mt~me
n
t ·
.
, .
.t,.
: . h · . • . 1 ,. d · 1 -- ~ h e
hs
J .l . . . .~ ~ · ·
- c e
. m tal
wtuc
. :soun .
.M:
" ·
_ _
.
a 1 ;
m01~
a
- - o .
familism ,
'1'here
are
times when
a h : a
. s to
do
t:hat m ,rght
hwt
a
fello
w towtWman
i f
i t woold
hel
p h
is
famJly ~
' i t
The
T e r r o ne
se
were
di
.
vided
about hall and batí in responding to the ·
f
allowing: "There are times when i t is
necessary for
a father
to
e
h e . a t
er swin
dle
the
o
thers
a
little\»
CO'ntrat
Banfid d ,
who u
s
ed the res'ults the
s
tructured r
esearch
i n
·
strum~nt
t
o
m
a
k e generaliiation
: s
about
whole
oom
·
rnunity,
MilJer
~
s
data
d..
-~ .
•
· ,
. a r .
¡
a · L . .
•
• _ : e . :
er
n
u•~ ~ . _
- . . . \ " ;
me range varta Wtm n
0
1 e commun ty matte:r m uc1Jc.."1
S .
el 1 te : ~1. . has .
-
~
h
1
r
é
_ at«a to amota :ammftn . · · n
u1c · .
· .
_ ts m
t · ese rt u ts · ete
ts
no J U ttitieation
S . a •
t . . . . - ... - - . ,
. "- ' - ..
il
O
. or ·
u 1 e s
e souun:tn
u
c
"'°e. 1
. r - 1 1 ,
1 ve s t .
_ .
rms
· .
~
.
amaraJ
fa
milistic
ethos
. Wh
i
le a few men in the c o m m · unity did endorse most of
the
stat-ements
. that
w c
re i .ntended to measute
th.is
e t h ( ) $ , , m an
y
m 1en not
respondas
f h e . y
s.huul
d have iftheybe l i e v e . d in the ethos ~
and
s
o
me
w e r e .
stt 'ongl
y
op
posed to
lhe
sentim:ents ·
apresse
d i
n
·
t
he
am
o
ral-{am ilism s
cale.
There ar e >
eowse
t aspecls M il)er 's researc 1 h th ,
a ·
t can
er
i tic ized . One
can quest ion . the meanin¡ the
k ey
ítems in
his sea.l
e
fo r peopJe in southern
lta.ly
. and his s.ample informants
was
not strlc
~ l y :
ramlom that a question
about
ib
rcpresentativeness can
bt
even . though bis
sam p
ling is
much
more i
m p
ressiv e than the typical case in ethnographic reporting . N :
o
t
hing in
M il
lets researdl
can satisfy '
U S ~
io o ut
the
causal force
th
is cons
tella:tion
b e 1
i
efs . _ ,but his m o re relined study usan u n:ders
ta
ndin¡ the range
of
va ·ti .
at
i
on
i
n a
v er
y
com
pl
ex
dom
a
in
of
idea
s,
.
rather
t
han a
htbeling
of an
come
munity
o
:
r an enti : r e culture as adhering to a p articular un ifo rm traditional
'
tl"ait.
There a , re so
t
ne
s.imilar
if i
es
hetween the Ban1ie ld -M
i
ller
••deb
a
t
e'' on amora
l
fam .
ilism and
the
earl
ier mu . c h better known
R
edfield-Lewis d isagreem
e
n ts
.
I
n eac h case the foous i . s on
cornmunity
stud i
es ag
. ricultum
l p o
pulati
.
o n
sf .and
the e f h n o g m p h e rs intended to
pr
5nt
s
ome rather bll'aad gene~aliz ations , about
life
st)f
le
md
. ethos
.
In
sn
me r
s ~ . t l1ough, there is marked
impto
veinettt
f r
o m
the
earl
i
er
to lhe
lat
e
r
exa
mpl.e
.
(
W
e
must
k
e
ep
i
n
m
i
nd
,
ho
w
ev
er
*
th a
t w e d
o
not
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d
D~
..J t:.
1
d..
' r o m _ e u1e : e " W l & .
an
uie
dispu
t
es
concaning
th
e
inte1pretatio n
. rl P ueblo cu
l
tn-re,
it
a :p p ears th a
t
antl 1 ro-
polo gi
s
ts need to develop research mdhods
tha
t p rotect the researdh 1
e
rs Íf om th e i r
aw n 1
mh
lectiv · ea5
sumpt i
o ns
,
a -
nd
va
l
ue
ju d g me n b
. Contrary toseme earl
i
e : r opin ·
.
- -
iens
; t
_ raining in
amhr
op o :
l o m r dees
oo
t
rid t
h
,e in
v
e&tigator eenscícu
s and un-
o:omcious
cu
ltural '
biaa
, but
meth
o c lOl• ica l training
can
provide m m m i
-
mizing the reseaichets
·
pason
al
hiaRS
b
y
means
sy
- s m m a : t i c
,
o : b i e e . t i
6
c a b l e
r~rdl too ls
,
.
Q ua
. rrtilieati (ln
aa
d statisti~
a
l a:n
al
y sis may a
í
d significand y in o bjecüfy . ing
an
-
th
r :
opo l
ogica]
research, bnt a n
1
ost impottant f irst step ·
towa
. rd r igo rous methodol-
1
1
• • _:e
ogy J lC S in caraui U ci:trution me
lOCUS
researc
1
1
. ,
wtt specit1cat1o:n _
' , e
empirical o:bsetvati.on
s
.
th
at w il
l
be used as ev í de ace for
th
e p t o p o s i . .
tions lo
t e S : t e d
, .
The ml thod
ologiea
l
requirements suggest-ed
l
here
d
o not in the least suggeat
t
hat .
an thro p
ol
ogj
.
sts
giv
e up
the
time-t e s :tcd
general
preeedures ·
participant
ob..
servation and informa l interviewing . These
tr
a c l i t i < J n : a l , anthropalogical rech ~
tt iqu .a
a
re ind
ispen
sa l ble
for
identify.in
¡
the si
gniñeant
ques tionB .
á
s welJ as
for
f l n d i 1 1 g out how these qu
es
tions can be stuuied i n
,
of the loca
l
s
etting
. The
intuitive obsavations the
sens
. i t ive6
d . d w o r k e
r ar , e
essentia1
the general tasb
mth ropolog ieaJ resear~ pamcul
a
rly i n the d i s e Q V , e rf
signi6
cant pattero
,
s in
.
e 1
1
l
tuml .
be
havior . Once the anthr
opol
ogist bqi . ns
la
y
of s
i¡niñea11t
c u _ l . .
tu
r . a l
relationshi
p
s
th~ough
.
i
nt
u :
i
ti
ve
h
u
o c . h C $ ,
the
next
asent
i
al
step
i s to
devi
s
e
meaos to test and
verify
th ese hunches through
s
ystematized research routioes.
The archempirici
s :
t
Srr
Fmneis B
a c - o :
n 1 observ . ed :
let men piase th
e
m sd v .
es as the
y
w
ill
io
ad m iring arrd
a1mos
t a
.
dot
ing
the
hu
man
mi:nd
•
. cettain
: that asan
unev
e : t 1
rt1irro
.r d
)st
n
rts
the
ray s o f ,
o . b j : e c ts a :
coo
idms
to
¡ 1 5 o w n
f i g w
1
r e
and
se e t i < >
n :
>
ti te
mind
- w
i
t
r
«-eiv
es
i
m _ p r
as
i
o n
s
ol
ob : i
«
ts
tbrough
the sense. oannot
be tru
sted to 1 repon them tru ly, but in its n . o ti
o
m
m
~es its
wi:th
·
t.he
th
i
n .g
s
.
t9'o:
t
:..
)
3 6 A :NTHR
OPOLOGJ
C A
L
ltESEARC
H
d
eser
ip ti
v
e
s : u p pnrtin
g:
evidmce,,
bu
t they w e - 1 e not p
.
r:esented
01 researebed
in
a
mmner pern1itting
falsification
. In genera l, I a ~ s i
6
cation i " S not possiible if w e do
:
not defuie o e r 'lerms and
m
ake elear fue
b
aric elem
,
ents in eu r theor.
etiea
l slate-
ments
.
T he tasb anthrQp olasi
1
cal research,
then
,
,
in.elude
th
e
dev
e
lopment
of
clearer siandards
fot
poten.tia falsification -
i
1
n
clu
ding
, the possibiliti
1es
r
ep
li
c .
a - .
tion
by o th er
person
¡
w h o may not na
v e m
uch
fandness
and
emotionail co
n-
cem abeut our theoretic
,
a ] i deas
a s
w e have.
7/25/2019 Anthropological Research. the Structure of Inquiry - Pertti J. Pelto and Gretel H. Pelto
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