Another One Bites the Dust - Illinois Wesleyan University
Transcript of Another One Bites the Dust - Illinois Wesleyan University
Undergraduate Review Undergraduate Review
Volume 12 Issue 1 Article 3
2000
Another One Bites the Dust Another One Bites the Dust
Chad R. Maxwell '02 Illinois Wesleyan University
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Another One Bites the Dust By Chad R. Maxwell
H e bit the dust. Most individuals are familiar with this colloquial
phrase, or maybe just Queen's song ''Another One Bites the
Dust." Although commonly connected with death,
this phrase
gains an entirely
new meaning when one thinks about literally "biting the dust." The
practice of biting dust or eating dirt has existed since the days
of homo halibus.
Scientifically speaking,
the practice of eating dirt is called
geophagy. Eating dirt is practiced in almost every country throughout the
entire world and
has
been proven to have some health benefits. In addi
tion, geophagy has significant meaning and symbolism within each culture.
Considering
these generalizations,
it seems odd that the medical community terms geophagy as a form of pica. Pica stems from Latin and refers to "a
bird that
eats everything, a
magpie." Today, however, pica is a medical term
that
means "an
abnormal appetite for substances that are not fit to eat" ("Pica" websters). This classification of geophagy is not only odd, but also
incorrect. Through a chemical and biological study of geophagy it will be shown that dirt is not only
edible, but can have health benefits. An exami
nation of the
practice's historical
and cultural context will reveal that
geophagy is not at all perverse. Thus, in proving geophagy normal and establishing the edibility of dirt, the medical term "pica" will be proven
inaccurate and false.
Geophagy: History
The discovery of a non-indigenous white clay next to the prehistoric
remains of homo halibuJ at Kalambo Falls, Zambia supports the idea that
the practice of eating dirt can first be recorded as far back as 2.5 million
years ago: "Tens of thousands of years before the birth of clay crafts, this
ancient hominid
clearly
had a relationship with clay" (Whole Earth). In
addition
to the fact
that clay craftsmanship had yet to exist, two other rea
sons point toward homo halibus as a geophagist. First, because the clay is
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I The Undergraduate Review ! not indigenous to the area of Kalambo Falls, it must have been carried
there by an ancient homo halibus. Secondly, it is this very clay which is consumed by modern earth-eaters.
However, historical documentation of the term geophagy did not occur until much later. Aristotle first used the term geophagy in 300 B.C.
(Danford). As early as 40 B.C., the eating of dirt was introduced among the Greeks to fight sickness and disease. The ancient Greeks and Romans,
especially Diocorides, believed that the clay had special medicinal powers. Ancient priests would obtain the clay from caves on the island of Lemnos.
After acquiring the clay, it was mixed with goat's blood, pressed into pellets or
lozenges, and then sealed with the figure of a goat. This product was
called tierra siglata or "sealed earth." The tablets later became very popular in Rome after Galen, a Greek philosopher and physician, visited Lemnos
and returned to Rome with
20,000 of the goat lozenges. After Galen's return, the healing and anti-poison effects of the terra siglata were sought
after for many years to come (Frate).
Geophagy is not limited solely to the Greeks and Romans, though. Around
1000 A.D., earth-eating in Europe was identified as a common
habit among children and was thought abominable. Avicenna, the Arab physician and philosopher, detested geophagists and attempted to whip the
habit out of those who practiced dirt eating. He stated: "they should be abandoned
to the grave" (Frate 1). In the sixth century AD., Aeituse
observed and documented the practice of geophagy among pregnant women in Greece. In the early 1800's, David Livingston noted that
geophagy, also called safUra in African communities, was common among the pregnant women in African tribes. During the mid-1800's when the
slave trade increased, the practice of eating dirt was carried across the sea to Jamaica, the West Indies, and the Americas. Slaves infected with hook
worm-a parasite that "hooks"
onto the intestinal lining of its host, feeding off digested foods as they pass-ate the clay to alleviate gastric pain (Abrahams 66). Most research on geophagy indicates that the practice has
no racial, temporal. or geographical boundaries, suggesting that geophagy is
widespread. In modern human sociery, this practice is most common
among the world's poorer or more tribally oriented people, the greatest portion of whom are pregnant black women (Frate 2).
Geophagy: ChemicalAnalysis
In order to recognize the possible health benefits of consuming clay, it is important
to understand its chemical properties and composition.
Through understanding
geophagy chemically to eat." Clays are formed
by the gradual degr most commonly connected with sedimentary
marine sediments in addition to various soils. boundaries. Where there is soil, there usually
clay are dependent upon the environment in Depending on
the weather conditions, such;
sure, etc. and the composition, made from d from the surrounding environment, clays will
fering structural compositions and properties
Major clay groupings include kaolin, mont a1lophane. The structure of clay is based on tv
talline shape-resulting from the organization drons in hexagonal networks, giving clay alar
ry to bind and exchange metals because of the yl
ions and oxygen in the tetrahedron struCrul
Frate discovered ten elements that were consis rate samples: silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium ganese, copper, cobalt, and chromium. Spositc
sium, iron, and silicon to be essential element element needed by the body. Thus, if iron is i
could be an important source of famine food. found in clay include vanadium and trace am,
soils, however, concentrations of all elements I
and calcium were relatively low (Aufreiter). TI clays is created by two of its common e1emem
to the silica-aluminum ration, which also take structure of clays, clays may absorb water and called the colloidal properry of clay (Sposito Lj
"Kaolinitic and montmorillonitic clays aresumed
by humans" (Wiley 532). The former
aluminum and silicon,
and it can only absor~ external surface. Conversely, montmorilloniti water, and organic molecules into the inner I
tion and structural properties of clay are the benefits of geophagy.
Geophagy: Biological Analysis
As proven through the aforementioned stt 2
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Maxwell
Kalambo Falls, it must have been carried bus.
Secondly, it is this very clay which is
aters.
entation of the term geophagy did not occur ;t
used the term geophagy in 300 B.C.
:., the eating of dirt was introduced among rld
disease. The ancient Greeks and Romans,
:i that the clay had special medicinal powers.
the clay from caves on the island
of Lemnos. s mixed with goat's blood, pressed into pellets
iVith the figure
of a goat. This product was earth." The tablets later became very popular
~ philosopher and physician, visited Lemnos
:0,000 of the goat lozenges. After Galen's
lOison effects
of the terra siglata were sought
(Frate).
Jlely to the Greeks and Romans, though. jng in Europe was identified as a common
lS thought abominable. Avicenna, the Arab
~tested geophagists
and attempted to whip the ,ced
dirt eating. He stated: "they should be
.te 1). In the sixth century A.D., Aeituse .e
practice of geophagy among pregnant
Iy 1800's, David Livingston noted
that 11
African communities, was common among
:an tribes.
During the mid-1800's when the ctice of eating dirt was carried across the sea to
i the Americas. Slaves infected with hook;5" onto
the intestinal lining of its host, feed
r pass-ate the clay to alleviate gastric pain h on geophagy indicates that the practice has
aphical boundaries, suggesting that geophagy man society, this practice is most common
more tribally oriented people, the greatest rlt
black women (Frate 2). sis
possible health benefits
of consuming clay, it is
chemical properties and composition.
Through
understanding geophagy chemically,
one will realize that it is "fit to eat." Clays are formed by the gradual degradation of rock; this process is
most commonly connected with sedimentary shales, mudstones, and marine sediments in addition to various soils. Clays have no geographic boundaries. Where there is soil, there usually exists clay. The properties of
clay are dependent upon the environment in which they are found. Depending on
the weather conditions, such as temperature, location, pres
sure, etc. and the composition, made from elements found within the clay from the surrounding environment, clays will be produced which have differing structural compositions and properties.
Major clay groupings include kaolin, montmorillonite, halloysite, and allophane. The structure of clay is based 0:1 two fundamentals: their crys
talline shape-resulting from the organization of silicon-oxygen tetrahedrons in hexagonal networks, giving clay a large surface area-and the abili
ty to bind and exchange metals because of the dense localization of hydroxyl
ions and oxygen in the tetrahedron structures (Sposito 43). In 1964,
Frate discovered ten elements that were consistently present in three separate samples: silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, titanium, potassium, manganese, copper, cobalt, and chromium. Sposito's research also found magne
sium, iron, and silicon to be essential elements in clays. Iron is an important element needed by the body. Thus, if iron is in chemical form, then clay
could be an important source of famine food. Other nutrient elements found in clay include vanadium and trace amounts of strontium. In testing
soils, however, concentrations of all elements except iron, aluminum, silicon and
calcium were relatively low (Aufreiter). The most important property of
clays is created by two of its common elements, aluminum and silicon. Due to the silica-aluminum ration, which also takes part in determining the
structure of clays, clays may absorb water and organic compounds. This is called the colloidal property of clay (Sposito 43).
"Kaolinitic and montmorillonitic clays are those most frequently consumed
by humans" (Wiley 532). The former clay is made up of mostly
aluminum and silicon,
and it can only absorb organic compounds to their external surface. Conversely, montmorillonitic clays may absorb cations,
water, and organic molecules into the inner layers of the clay. The absorption and structural properties of clay are the catalysts for the biological
benefits of geophagy.
Geophagy: BiologicalAnalysis
As proven through the aforementioned structural and chemical analysis,
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the most important properties of clay are its colloidal properties-the absorption of water, organic materials, and the exchange of cations. Several
health benefits are based on these properties. First, clay may be used as an anti-diarrhea medication. Diarrhea occurs when food substances and liquids travel roo quickly through the intestine. This quick progression does not allow the body adequate time to absorb the water from the digested foods. When kaolin clay is eaten, its colloidal properties enable it to absorb
the excess water found in the body, food, and intestines, thus curing the diarrhea. In fact, kaolin clay is a primary ingredient in many modern anti
diarrhea medicines, such as Turns, Maalox, and Rolaids-hence the name Kaopectate (Ashenbach 87). Furthermore, clays can cure diarrhea by slowing the digestion progress, which gives the body more time to absorb water from the digested substances. This process again relieves diarrhea.
A second health benefit of geophagy is that clays can supply minerals and ions that the body requires to sustain its electrochemical balance. Just
as clay reduces transit time in the intestines allowing more water to be
absorbed, the clay also allows for more minerals and vitamins to be
absorbed by the body as well. This may be why many resort to eating clay during periods of starvation. Proteins and liver glycogen reserves are used
up during starvation, and most bodies become chemically out of balance. Geophagy can preserve this delicate electrolyte balance (Aufreiter). Furthermore, the cation-exchange properties of clay will allow for the
unnecessary minerals in the body to be absorbed by the clay, while the clay can also potentially give up the minerals and ions the body needs. For example, clay can supply the body with calcium while absorbing zinc or iron. Similarly, it can absorb iron while giving the body aluminum, a non
nutritive element; the converse is also rrue. Thus, the net effect of clay ingestion on mineral status depends on what other foods or nutrients are
present in the gut. Clearly, clays do have the ability and potential to aid the body's nutritional status.
Other
biological benehts exist from eating clay
as well. As the Greeks and Romans knew, clays have the ability to trap organic and non-organic toxins in their structure. For example, mercury atoms can be trapped in clay
through an io!) ,- h[i~:." \\I£h potassium, magnesium, or calcium. While the clay traps poisonous and possibly deadly substances, it gives the body ele
ments it can use, such as potassium-a requirement for every muscle contraction. Clays have also been proven to absorb and thus prevent the absorption of aflatoxins, mold toxins, lethal plant toxins, such as digoxin (a cardiac
glycoside), drugs such as chloroquine, and some bacteria (Wiley 536). After
these toxins are absorbed into the body, they ~ body, rendering them harmless. Thus, eating ( one's mineral nutrition depending on the cure
the body and stomach; be used as an effective reduce or eliminate secondary compounds or, absorbed by the mucosal cells lining the intest
One of
the most interesting biological
aspl pregnant female. Katz and Wiley proposed, "
out the course
of pregnancy confers multiple course of pregnancy" (Wiley 537). Clay may or third trimesters. When eaten in the first tr
ins that are tartogenic, or catalysts of abnorm same time, clay suppresses the common symI nausea and vomiting. In the second trimester clay can supply essential nutrients to the mot
One of the most important
of these nutrient! for the development of strong fetal skeletons.
um supplementation through clay may
also r, induced hypertension. Clay eating during pr~
toxins; and thus, prevents the developing chil addition, it may increase appetite and nutrier above. Furthermore, in pregnant women whc to toxins from cravings, as well as non-pregn: protecrive coating within the digestive tract rI
from damage by toxins (Wiley 540).
Wiley and Katz support the calcium-suppl analysis of non-dairying tribes in Africa versu
of geophagy
among pregnant women. They ~
Geophagy during pregnancy should be that do not practice dairying or do not
abundance or lack of d~iry products in in different populations is likely to mall
in calcium consumption. In addition, p based almost exclusively on plant foods ulations) may profit from other qualitie
to adsorb toxic secondary plant compo'
Although they found that the times, such as and
versus death, at which tribes ate clay we
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Maxwell
; of clay are its colloidal properties-the rlaterials, and the exchange of cations. Several lese properties. First, clay may be used as an
rrhea occurs when food substances and liqh the intestine. This quick progression does
:ime to absorb the water from the digested
ten, its colloidal properties enable it to absorb body, food, and intestines, thus curing the s
a primary ingredient in mariy modern antilms, Maalox, and Rolaids-hence the name
urthermore, clays can cure diarrhea by slowlich gives the body more time to absorb water This process again relieves diarrhea.
f geophagy is that clays can supply minerals es to
sustain its electrochemical balance. Just the intestines allowing more water to be for more minerals and vitamins to be
This may be why many resort to eating clay Proteins and liver glycogen reserves are used
,st bodies become chemically
out of balance. elicate electrolyte balance (Aufreiter). ange properties of clay will allow for the
,ody to be absorbed by the clay, while the clay le
minerals and ions the body needs. For
body with calcium while absorbing zinc or iron while giving the body aluminum, a non
se is also true.
Thus, the net effect of clay epends on what other foods or nutrients are
ays do have the ability
and potential to aid
xist
from eating clay
as well. As the Greeks and ability to trap organic and non-organic toxins
e, mercury atoms can be trapped in clay 1 potassium, magnesium, or calcium. While the
:ibly deadly substances, it gives the body ele lSsium-a
requirement for every muscle con, proven to absorb and thus prevent the absorps,
lethal plant toxins, such as digoxin (a cardiac
roquine, and some bacteria (Wiley 536). After
these toxins are absorbed into the body, they are simply excreted from the body, rendering them harmless. Thus, eating dirt can significanrly affect
one's mineral nutrition depending on the current quantities of minerals in the body and stomach; be used as an effective diarrhea medication; and
reduce or eliminate secondary compounds or other toxins that may be absorbed by the mucosal cells lining the intestines.
One of
the most interesting biological aspects
of geophagy affects the pregnant female. Katz and Wiley proposed, "Clay consumption through
out the course
of pregnancy confers multiple benefits throughout the course of pregnancy" (Wiley 537). Clay may be eaten in the first, second,
or third trimesters.
When eaten in the first trimester, clay traps dietary toxins that are tartogenic, or catalysts of abnormalities, for the embryo. At the
same time, clay suppresses the common symptoms of pregnancy such as nausea and vomiting. In the second trimester, as pregnancy nausea ends,
clay can supply essential nutrients to the mother and the developing ferus. One of
the most important of these nutrients is calcium, which is critical
for the development of strong fetal skeletons. In the third trimester, calcium supplementation
through clay may also reduce the risk of pregnancy
induced hypertension. Clay eating during pregnancy also absorbs harmful toxins; and thus, prevents the developing child from being harmed. In
addition, it may increase appetite and nutrient absorption as explained above. Furthermore, in pregnant women who are particularly susceptible
to toxins from cravings, as well as non-pregnant women, clay can form a protective coating within the digestive tract that then protects mucus cells
from damage by toxins (Wiley 540).
Wiley and Katz support the calcium-supplementation argument in their analysis of non-dairying tribes in Africa versus dairying tribes and the rates
of geophagy
among pregnant women. They hypothesized:
Geophagy during pregnancy should be most common in populations that do not practice dairying or do not consume dairy products. The
abundance or lack of d~iry products in the diets of pregnant women in different populations is likely to manifest itself in marked variation
in calcium consumption. In addition, populations subsisting on a diet based almost exclusively on plant foods (e.g., many non-dairying pop
ulations) may profit from other qualities of clay, including its ability to adsorb toxic secondary plant compounds. (Wiley & Katz 536)
Alrhough they found that the times, such as pregnancy, versus weddings, and
versus death, at which tribes ate clay were highly different, they did
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discover that 60% of the dairying populations scored "very few or no pregnant women practicing" while 76% of the non-dairying populations of
pregnant women reported "regular and consistent earth eating." This implies that clay is a source of nutrients during pregnancy due to the limit
ed exposure of non-dairying populations to calcium-rich foods.
Although geophagy has many proven health benefits, it can also have negative health consequences. Parasitic infections can occasionally occur depending
on the regions from which the dirt is extracted. Geophagists in America, who are in the delta regions of the Mississippi, as Frate has
pointed out, seem
to have higher levels of these infections (Frate "Holmes County"). Most problems with earth eating, however, stem from a gener
al abuse
of the practice. To illustrate, when one consumes an unorthodox amount of
clay it can impact or block the colon, which, if not quickly
treated, can lead to death. Additionally, a fierce consumption of dirt may lead to a disruption in the balance of potassium (Whole Earth 41). Severe
disruption in potassium levels, called hypocalcaemia, may lead to heart failure and eventually death. In 1964, Mengel identified that geophagy
"may cause sluggishness, mental insensibility, profound muscular weakness, and lassitude" (471). Yet, the negative consequences of geophagy are
irrelevant when one puts them in perspective with any other food product. Of course, eating 3 pounds of dirt will be harmful to the body just
as eating 3 pounds
of candy will make one sick, but people still eat candy.
Furthermore, by principles of osmosis, clay can rob iron and other nutrients from the body and disrupt equilibrium. Thus, if the clay has
lower iron levels than the stomach and body in which it is digested, then it will take up iron and replace it vi:l ion exchange with another mineral, pos
sibly a non-nutritive element. This iron deficiency may lead to anemia.
The absorptive effects
of clay can also be dangerous. When eaten, the clay can absorb water from the body and expand giving a false sense of "being
full." Although this is an excellent benefit to fight the early stresses of starvation, continued abuse may lead to dehydration or possibly malnutrition.
Anorexics will sometimes use the "false sense of being full" property of clay to
the point where geophagy becomes an addiction. This abuse of
geophagy leads to dehydration, malnutrition and possibly a form of anorexic suicide (Whole Earth 42). Again, one must remember that eating
anything may have unavoidable consequences, such as cavities, heart failure, and scurvy. Thus, the consequences of geophagy must be taken "with
a grain of sa!t."
Geophagy & Culture
Now that clay has been proven fit to eat, practice is not abnormal. An analysis of why
dirt can show why geophagy is not so extrao "Geophagy is not developed individually thrl
is learned" (7). For a habit
to be taught then behind the lesson. Among several possibilitie major motivations or reasons as to why peop
One of
the most common reasons for
geo tures believe that to eat the earth is to transfc
of the earth
to their body. They consider cla) almost a sort of edible prayer. In Eweland, G
clay is called "the eye" and is prepared in the bolizes longevity, good health, and well beinl
The egg enters the body and blesses the
WOIT
and fertile
as the earth. In Guatemala, the he show another combination of religion and g(
been formed from the springs and quarries SI shrine since before the arrival of Christ. "No
making, buying, blessing, or eating the holy, faith" (Whole Earth 41). A similar type clay i:
Central America. These cakes are white and; clay items are obviously symbolically chosen whiteness symbolizing purity that cleanses th eaten and celebrated in connection with the 174). Geophagy makes its debut at wedding~
clay figurines are given as bridal gifts. As in I broken and eaten during pregnancy (Aschen'
Perhaps, too, the religious significance ofone reflects upon Christian beliefs. When CI
of his blood was shed onto the ground. Alth
ago, the symbolic value of being a part ofCI
eating the clay upon which His blood once I Furthermore, clay is connected to Christiani.
. himself-"and the Lord God formed man 0: breathed into his nostrils the breath oflife.. eating dust or clay, that from which he was •
with God and the life-living elements which
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Maxwell
ring populations scored "very few or no preg= 76% of the non-dairying populations of gular
and consistent earth eating." This Fnutrients during pregnancy due to the limit>opulations to calcium-rich foods.
any proven health benefits, it can also have . Parasitic infections can occasionally occur m which the dirt is extracted. Geophagists
elta regions of the Mississippi, as Frate has gher levels of these infections (Frate "Holmes
th earth eating, however, stem from a generlustrate, when one consumes an unorthodox : or block the colon, which, if not quickly
fditionally, a fierce consumption of dirt may dance of potassium (Whole Earth 41). Severe
Is, called hypocalcaemia, may lead to heart
In 1964, Mengel identified that geophagy
ual insensibility, profound muscular weak:t, the negative consequences of geophagy are
m in perspective with any other food prodnds of
dirt will be harmful to the body just
will make one sick,
but people still eat
s of osmosis, clay can rob iron and other disrupt equilibrium. Thus, if the clay has mach and body in which it is digested, then it
it vi;). ion exchange with another mineral, pos. This iron deficiency may lead to anemia.
, can also be dangerous. When eaten, the clay )dy and expand giving a false sense of "being
ellent benefit to fight the early stresses of star-lead to dehydration or possibly malnutrition.
= the "false sense of being full" property of clay becomes an addiction. This abuse of
m, malnutrition
and possibly a form of h42). Again, one must remember that eating hie consequences, such as cavities, heart fail
msequences of geophagy must be taken "with
Geophagy & Culture
Now that clay has been proven fit to eat, it is necessary to prove that the practice is not abnormal. An analysis of why cultures and individuals eat
dirt can show why geophagy
is not so extraordinary. Frate declares, "Geophagy is not developed individually through biological processes but
is learned" (7). For a habit to be taught there has to exist a motivation
behind the lesson. Among several possibilities, there are primarily seven major motivations or reasons
as to why people eat dirt.
One of
the most
common reasons for geophagy is religion. Many cultures believe that to eat the earth is to transfer the ferrility and fruitfulness
of the earth to their body.
They consider clay a blessing from withinalmost a sort of edible prayer. In Eweland, Ghana, for example, kaolinic
clay is called "the eye" and is prepared in the shape of an egg, which symbolizes longevity, good health, and well being in Ewe culture (Vermeer 57).
The egg enters the body
and blesses the woman, making her as bountiful and
fertile as the earth. In Guatemala, the holy clay tablets of Esquipulas
show another combination of religion and geophagy. These tablets have been formed from the springs and quarries surrounding the Esquipula
shrine since before the arrival of Christ. "No stage of the process--mining, making, buying, blessing, or eating the holy clay tablets-is unattended by faith" (Whole Earth 41). A similar type clay is sold in another part of
Central America. These cakes are white and are called tierra santa. These clay items are obviously symbolically chosen and named by color-the
whiteness symbolizing purity that cleanses the soul. The tierra santa is then eaten and celebrated in connection with the Black Christ Festival (Hunter
174). Geophagy makes its debut at weddings as well. In India, detailed clay figurines are given as bridal gifts. As in Ewe culture, these figurines are
broken and eaten during pregnancy (Aschenbach H6).
Perhaps, too, the religious significance of earing dirt may be seen when one reflects upon Christian beliefs. When Christ died on the cross, some
of his blood was shed
onto the ground. Although this happened centuries ago, the symbolic value of being a part of Christ and his sufferings through
eating the clay upon which His blood once flowed may still exist. Furthermore, clay is connected to Christianity through the creation of man
himself-"and the Lord
God formed man of the dust of the ground. And breathed into his nostrils the breath of life... " (Gen.2.7). Hence, through
eating dust or clay, that from which he was created, man is able to connect with God and the life-living elements which produced him.
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Cultures may also use clay for its medicinal properties, just as the Greeks and Romans did. The first pharmaceutical value of clay stems from
its structure. The crystalline composition of clays can trap poisonous particles
or deadly bacteria and parasites. African people recently brought ro
America through the slave trade made use of this trapping property to cure hookworm and prevent infection and typhoid that may stem from the parasite (Laufer). Still other cultures harness clay's ion-exchange properties to
cure metal poisoning, such as that from mercury. Clays are also a wellknown anti-diarrhea medication and can relieve gastrointestinal discomfort and pain (Hunter 182). More recently, however, "day j~ eaten in Uganda
as a perceived cure for AIDS" (Abrahams 68).
Geophagy is culturally valuable and normal in other ways beyond those
connected with religion and medicine. For example, clay is commonly used as a remedy for nostalgia. Frate describes how it is common for a
black woman of the South to send the daughter, who has moved away from her birth city, clay from her original home. This reminds the daugh
ter of her family and the place where she grew up, relieving her possible anxieties about being away from the places and people she loves. Clay is a
communication medium in this case. The use of days as relief from nostalgia may also be found in Siberian tribes. The Siberian people once carried
small balls of earth on their nomadic journeys. They ate them along the way;
the taste reminded them of home (Whole Earth 42). African slaves
were geophagists for a similar reason. They ate clay to become part of the earth, so that when they died, they would return to their homeland. This
form of nostalgic relief is very similar to the theories proposed in Sidney Mintz's book, Ttzsting Food, Tasting Freedom. In the case of slaves, eating
dirt may have been a way to become freer or ro live in the liberation of memory and death, rather than the per~ecution and oppression of their current time.
Other
reasons for soil consumption are
of nutritional or physiological value. Soils are chosen by cultures based on location, color, flavor, softness,
and plasticity. The soils are said to have a variety of flavor from sour and sweet ro salty and chalky (Abrahams 66). After being chosen, the soil is
prepared in a number of ways. Some cultures eat it raw; others bake it and eat it with salt and vinegar. Some even smoke the flavor from the clay. Clay
has some nutritional benefits as a famine food, including its potential as a source for calcium and iron. The Ainu people of Japan recognized this
potential and had a special recipe for clay-lump soup (Whole Earth 41). Clay may also be seen as a food substitute. For example, in 19th century
Sweden, soils were mixed with flour to pm used fine kaolinic clays as a butter substitUi
Clay is most commonly used in conjun or as a food additive. Through the structur,
clay, certain foods that would normally
be edible. The Aymara of Peru harness these d
they create a "neutralizing clay dip for feral poisonous night shade family" (43). Those
of acorns also incorporate the use
of clay al consumers use clay to neutralize normally i within the nut, thus creating a nutritional,
clay. Within the last century, soil still funct
bread to create a longer sensation of fullne!
Many cultures believe that clay not only increases beauty. Just as the mud mask is n
ofWestern society in rejuvenating their
ski when digested, the beauty and the fruits of
exterior of the body. Dirt also provides bea Paralleling today's American society, thinne desirable and beautiful body shape amongs
They ate soil, known
as ampo, in order to thin stemmed from the false feeling of fuliJ
looking thin and frail was at this time high
Conclusions
To review, geophagy has been proven to supply vital minerals such as iron, calcium:
consumer or to a developing fetus. Clay is it can rid the body of harmful heavy met
can protect the body from bacterial and p rhea, relieve gastrointestinal pain, and det Furthermore, clay eating is not at all abno
from the United States, India, and Mexi practice geophagy; its boundaries are non
to which clay consumption is practiced re The
cultural significance behind geoph of its ordinary nature.
Without a doubt, 0
dietary, medicinal, cosmetic, psychologic symbolism behind this ancient practice.
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I
Maxwell
for its medicinal properties, just as the first pharmaceutical value of clay stems from
:omposition of clays can trap poisonous partiJasites. African people recently brought to
ide made
use of this trapping property to cure tion and typhoid that may stem from the parlres harness clay's ion-exchange properties to
•that from mercury. Clays are also a well-ion and can relieve gastrointestinal discomfort
~ recently, however, "clay
i:i eaten in Uganda , (Abrahams 68).
luable and normal in other ways beyond those medicine. For example, clay
is commonly a.
Frate describes how it is common for a
send the daughter, who has moved away · her original home. This reminds the daugh
:e where she grew up, relieving her possible om
the places and people she loves. Clay is a
hiscase. The useof clays as relief from nostal~rian
tribes. The Siberian people once carried
lOmadic journeys. They ate them along the 1 of home (Whole Earth 42). African slaves
r reason. They ate clay to become part of the I,
they would return to their homeland. This y similar to the theories proposed in Sidney rasting Freedom.
In the case of slaves, eating
become freer or to live in the liberation of Ian
the penecurion and oppression of their
sumption are of nutritional or physiological ltures
based on location, color, flavor, softness, lid
to have a variety of flavor from sour and lrmams 66). After being chosen, the soil is
'so Some cultures eat it
raw; others bake it and :ome
even smoke the flavor from the clay. Clay
•as a famine food, including its potential as a The Ainu people of Japan recognized this.
:cipe for clay-lump soup (Whole Earth 41). ,od
substitute. For example, in 19th century
Sweden, soils were mixed with flour to produce bread. German workers used fine kaolinic clays
as a butter substitute (Aufreiter 296).
Clay is most commonly used in conjunction with other food products or as a food additive. Through the sttucture and chemical composition of
clay, certain foods that would normally be poisonous or unbearable become
edible. The Aymara of Peru harness these detoxification properties of soil; they create a "neutralizing clay dip for feral potatoes which belong to the poisonous night shade family" (43). Those cultures that eat large quantities
of acorns
also incorporate the use of clay as a food additive. These acorn consumers use clay to neutralize normally indigestible tannic acids found within the nut, thus creating a nutritional, non-toxic food source through
clay. Within the last century, soil still functioned
as an additive in Sweden's bread to create a longer sensation of fullness (Hunter 190).
Many cultures believe that clay not only increases fertility, bur also increases beauty. Just as the mud mask is now popular among the women
of Western society in rejuvenating their skin, some cultures believe that
when digested, the beauty and the fruits of the earth will appear on the
exterior of the body. Dirt also provides beauty in another way-thinness. Paralleling today's American society, thinness was considered the most desirable and beautiful body shape amongst the Javanese women of 1895.
They ate soil, known as ampo, in order to grow thin; in this case, feeling thin stemmed from the false feeling of fullness. In the Javanese culture, looking thin and frail was at this time highly regarded (Abrahams 73).
Conclusions
To review, geophagy has been proven to have health benefits. Soil can supply vital minerals such as iron, calcium, and potassium to a primary
consumer or to a developing fetus. Clay is also a natural detoxifying agent; it can rid the body of harmful heavy metals and poisons. In addition, it can protect the body from bacterial and parasitical infections, cure diarrhea, relieve gastrointestinal pain, and deter nausea due to pregnancy.
Furthermore, clay eating is not at all abnormal. Cultures allover the world from the United States, India, and Mexico, to Africa, Europe, and Japan
practice geophagy; its boundaries are non-existent. Thus, the sheer extent to which clay consumption is practiced reserves its place in normal society.
The cultural significance behind geophagy
is at least as convincing it terms of
its ordinary nature. Without a doubt, one cannot deny the religious,
dietary, medicinal, cosmetic, psychological, and physiological value and symbolism behind this ancient practice,
-------------_........._------------------_.....'_.-""-'
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Maxwell '02: Another One Bites the Dust
Published by Digital Commons @ IWU, 2000
12
The Undergraduate Review
So, if
another one bites the dust, then
is it correct to say that he is suffering from Pica? As stated, pica is defined as "an abnormal appetite for
substances that are not fit to eat." With the proven benefits of geophagy, dirt is definitely fit to eat. In addition, geophagy has been shown to be
normal through the exploration of its limitless practice and the plethora of cultural importance that it holds. Thus, geophagy is not to be considered a
form of pica, but rather a deep-rooted, global culinary tradition, with infinite cultural meaning and significance.
WORKS CITED
Abrahams, Peter Wand Julia A. Parsons. "Geophagy in the Tropics." The
GeographicalJournal.
Mar. 1996. v162.
nl. 63-73.
Ashenbach, Joy. "Eating Earth is Normal-At Times." The TOronto Star.
National Geographic News Service. 23 Aug. 1987, sec. Ed.: H6.
Aufreiter, S.; R.G.V Hancock; WC Mahoney; A. StamboIIic-Robb; K.
Sanmugadas. "Geochemistry and Mineralogy of Soils Eaten by
Humans." InternationalJournal 0/Food Sciences and Nutrition.
Sept. 1997. v48. n5. 293-306.
Danford, D.E. "Pica and Nutrition." Annual Rev. Nutrition. 305-320.
Frate, Dennis A. "Last of the Earth Eaters." The Sciences. Dec. 1984.
-. Geophagy: A Dietary Practice in Holmes County, Mississippi.
Holy Bible. New International Version. Grand Rapids, Zondervan
Publishing House. 1984.
Hunter, JM. Geophagy in Africa and in the United States: A Culture
Nutrition Hypothesis. Georgr. Rev. 63. 170-195.
Laufer, Berthold. Geophagy. Chicago: Field museum of Natural History,
1930.
Mengel, C.E.; WA. Carter; and E.S. Horton. "Geophagia with Iron
Deficiency and Hypokalemia. "Arch. International Medicine. 1964.
465-474.
Mintz, Sidney. Timing Food, Tizsting Freedom
websters American Dictionary "Pica." College
Whole Earth.
"Eating Earth." Spring 1999.
~
Wiley, Andrea S. and Solomon H. Katz. "Ge
Hypothesis. " Current Anthropology. J
546.
Sposito, G. The Chemistry o/Soils. New Yor1
1989.43-68.
Vermeer, D.E. "Geophagy Among the
Ewe (
10
Undergraduate Review, Vol. 12, Iss. 1 [2000], Art. 3
https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/rev/vol12/iss1/3
Maxwell
dust, then is it correct to say that he is sufca is
defined as "an abnormal appetite for
:at." With the proven benefits
of geophagy, lddition, geophagy has been shown to be
In of its limitless practice and the plethora
of Ids.
Thus, geophagy is not to be considered a
p-rooted, global culinary tradition, with infilificance.
A Parsons. "Geophagy in the Tropics." The
Mar.
1996. v162.
nl. 63-73.
1 is Normal-At Times." The TOronto Star.
News
Service. 23 Aug. 1987,
sec. Ed.: H6.
; W:C Mahoney; A. Stambollic-Robb; K.
.emistry and Mineralogy of Soils Eaten by
'lalJournal ofFood Sciences and Nutrition.
293-306.
:rition." Annual Rev. Nutrition. 305-320.
Earth Eaters." The Sciences. Dec. 1984.
~tice in Holmes County, Mississippi.
IVersion. Grand Rapids, Zondervan
)84. ica and in the United States: A Culture
Georgr. Rev. 63. 170-195.
:hicago: Field museum of Natural History,
nd E.S. Horton. "Geophagia with Iron
lkalemia. "Arch. International Medicine. 1964.
~-----
Mintz, Sidney. Tasting Food, Tasting Freedom. Boston: Beacon Press, 1996.
websters American Dictionary "Pica." College ed. 1997.
Whole Earth.
"Eating Earth." Spring 1999. 41-42.
Wiley, Andrea
S. and Solomon H. Katz. "Geophagy in Pregnancy: A Test
Hypothesis. "Current Anthropology. Aug-Oct. 1998. v39. n4. 532
546.
Sposito, G. The Chemistry ofSoils. New York: Oxford University Press,
1989.43-68.
Vermeer, D.E. "Geophagy Among the
Ewe of Ghana." Ethnology. 55-70.
13""' --"'-k.••._.".......
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Maxwell '02: Another One Bites the Dust
Published by Digital Commons @ IWU, 2000