Anomalistic Psychology

Extrasensory Perception, psychokinesis,

haunted houses.

YouTube - Only Fools And Horses

Sickness And Wealth Part 3

AO1: Pseudoscience Pseudoscience: It has been argued that parapsychology is

a pseudoscience. That is it does not follow as rigorous research methods as some of the other psychologists.

AO1: Pseudoscience Lacks Falsifiability: Paranormal psychologists claim the

phenomenon does not happen around sceptics therefore when people try and disprove the existence of unusual activity paranormal psychologist say just because it didn’t happen this time does not mean it doesn’t exist

Absence of self-correction: Ignoring empirical scientific evidence against their beliefs

Burden of proof: Lies with the sceptics. Just because someone doesn’t see it doesn’t mean it does not exist.

AO1: PseudoscienceReliance on anecdotal evidence: Individual case studies.

Lack of peer review: Pseudoscience avoids, when it can, peer reviews.

Lack of controlled replicable research:Studies conducted by non-believersHave not been able to replicateParapsychologist’s work.

Richard Wiseman Interview -PsychExchange.co.uk - Resources, -Ideas, Inspiration - Free Psychology -Teaching Resources & Videos

AO1: Theory Construct

Lacks explanation of theory:

Most scientific research looks

at the how and why of research;

paranormal psychology lacks an

explanation of how phenomenon

works.

Ability to change: In

Psychology if you have to accept

the Null Hypothesis you readapt your

theory in parapsychology there

has been no change over the centuries.

AO2: Accreditation

The American Association for the Advancement of Science allowed the Parapsychological Association to join as fully affiliated member giving parapsychology accreditation

AO2: Scientific Status It is difficult to evaluate a whole genre of a

philosophy on the terms of scientific content.

Therefore the Journal of Parapsychology and the Parapsychological Association were researched to see if they were

more of a pseudoscience.

Evaluation: In some cases

they were more of a science

than regular psychology

AO2: Respectable Research

Mousseau found that articles that were peer reviewed were better than mainstream science as they reported all results including negative results and not just positive results.

Although she also found; only 43% of research used empirical data and

24% used experimental methods which was a lot lower than mainstream research.

AO2: Three important issues

1: People change a lot of money for psychic activities

2: As a society we should

always question what

3: Finding creditable

research will help to improve

the value of parapsychology.

i.e acupuncture is now accredited

AQA Questions

1 (a) What are the main characteristics of pseudoscience?(5

marks)    1 (b) Evaluate the scientific status of parapsychology

(10 marks)

  1 (c) Discuss issues of reliability and validity of research into

parapsychology. (4+6marks)   1 (d) Discuss issues of pseudoscience in the study of

anomalous experience. (5+10marks)

2 (a) A researcher wanted to test the ability of a known ‘psychic healer’. Ten volunteers suffering from chronic back pain were selected through newspaper adverts. The volunteers were all given a questionnaire which rated their belief in psychic healing and another questionnaire which rated their levels of pain. They were then randomly assigned to either a treatment group or a control group. Afterwards, all the volunteers filled in the pain questionnaire again. The researcher found that there was no significant effect on pain relief as a result of psychic healing. Answer the following questions, using your knowledge about research into psychic healing.

  (i) The researcher wanted to know whether there was a correlation between belief

in psychic healing and improvement in pain ratings. What statistical test could the researcher use? Justify your answer. (2 marks)

  (ii) Outline one ethical issue in this study and suggest how the researcher could

have

dealt with it. (3 marks)

  3 Explain what is meant by pseudoscience. (5 marks)

 

Learning Objectives

Describe the Ganzfeld Technique for researching ESP

Construct criticism using the sheep-goat effect

Evaluate the methodology used in the Ganzfeld technique

Ganzfeld Studies of ESP

Do we as human possess any abilities beyond that of our

5 senses.

The Ganzfeld Method Parapsychologist use the Ganzfeld method to prove the existence

of ESP.

Two participants in two different

rooms. One has a picture the

other lies on a couch and talks

into a machine. Impartial judges

then analyse the tape and the

picture to see if there is any link

between the two.

Criticisms The Problems: The Results: there are as many anti as there are pro results

= Low reliability. Investigators who believed ask more question giving participants a greater chance of getting it correct.

Methodological problems: Security, poor soundproofing

statistical analysis: subjective therefore Investigator bias

Random presentation Of pictures to be communicated

Sheep-Goat effect: Schmeidler split participants into believers and non-believers, showing that non believers did a lot worse than believers.

Sargent (1979): It has been argued that Sargent made errors in his methodology. He is unwilling to show his data to his critics and therefore his results have been discredited.

Psychokinesis:

Macro PK- large items are bent/levitatedWorks by moving an object from the outside

Micro PK- When the inside of an item is effected,

stronger methodology

Macro PK Most research looks at individual

case studies of people who demonstrate Psychokinesis however very few have been able to demonstrate their talents under controlled conditions

Uri Geller: Is generally well respected. However, Randi demanded he demonstrate his talents on a TV program and Uri was unable to perform.

uri geller - Google Videos

Micro PK The electronic coin flipper:

Schmidt (1969) discovered a good methodological way to gain positive results when influencing dice throws.

He created a random event generator (REG) and asked people to influence the flip of a coin so that more heads than tails were seen.

Meta Analysis Studies Nelson and Radin looked at 832 experiments by 68

investigators and found a small but significant effect.

Stevens asked participant to control the path of a laser beam through a computer and found support for the existence of PK.

Lack of Control

Well Controlled studies used at least two researchers, true randomisation of targets and independent recordings of targets.

Hansel found that positive results came from research that lacked control, and used small sample sizes

While research that had negative results applied high control over variables in the study and had lots of participants.

A02: Evaluation Parapsychologists complain the controls expected of

them are higher than those for main stream psychology.

Abelson claims that

extraordinary

phenomenon requires

extra evidence as it is

so far removed from

mainstream thought.

AQA questions 4: A class of psychology students plan to study

ESP. Outline methodological issues that they need to be aware of and suggest how they might deal with these (8 marks)

5: During a public demonstration of ‘psychic powers’, a psychologist witnessed what appeared to be the ability of one person to read the thoughts of another. Explain how the psychologist could use the Ganzfeld procedure to investigate this apparent ability. (6 marks)

AQA Questions

6: The ganzfeld is a technique used to investigate extra-sensory perception (ESP). Outline and critically evaluate findings from ganzfeld studies. (6 marks + 10 marks).

7: Discuss methodological issues in the study of psychokinesis. (4 marks + 6 marks)

8: Outline and evaluate the Ganzfeld technique as a way of investigating ESP. (4 marks + 4 marks)

Psychic Healing

Psychic Healing and Mediumship

Lesson Objective:

By the end of the lesson you will be able to:

Outline one piece of research supporting psychic mediumship.

Outline one piece of research criticising psychic mediumship.

Outline evaluation points for these research studies.

Back ground to Illness

1: There is always fluctuation in the healing process.

2: Our bodies heal on their own

3: The Placebo effect

Support for Psychic HealingWirth (1990) conducted a

controlled lab study on participant with wounds. Half got healing the other half were placebo. No one knew which group they were in.

The Miracle Study: Wirth also was involved in a field experiment. Women who were prayed for increased fertility over those that weren’t.

Research Against Psychic Healing

Lyvers (2006): looked at a Australian TV show were he discovered Healing made no significant impact in reducing pain. However he found a correlation between believers and pain reduction.

Rosa discovered that Healers were unable to feel the energy in their hands, when they were restricted from seeing where her hand was.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mNoRxCRJ-Y0&feature=related

Evaluation for Healing Determinism: True science is carried out by

scientist not mediums, 1/ no connection with reputable institutions and 2/ no peer reviews.

Wirth’s work was scientific however he was unable to replicate his results. A colleague withdrew his support in the study. Wirth was convicted and sentenced to 5 years in prison for fraud and the author Cha was accused of plagiarism. (flamm 2005)

The Placebo affect: Success is due to a belief in psychic healing instead of an actual ability to heal.

Psychic Mediumship

Support for Psychic Mediumship

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q3zooEOxWdo The Psychic Twins Terry and Linda Jamison

The scole report (Keen et al 1999)Captured on film over 500 experiments showing flying object & voices.

Schwartz et al (2001) tested 5 mediums and found they made accurate statements 80% of the time.

Criticism of Psychic Mediumship

Wiseman (2003) Found even though people knew it was fake

they were still take in by mediumship

Wiseman and O’KEEFFE (2005)5 mediums gave reading for 5 sitters, Sitters found that reading for other people were more appropriate than the ones for themselves.

Evaluation Cold reading: A medium first makes

general statement and then used the sitters replies later in the reading to convince them of authenticity.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xswt8B8-UTMDerren Brown Interview (1/6) - Richard Dawkins

Schwartz used students in his study and found because they did not have as many deaths in their lives the mediums questions were not relevant to them.

Hines (2003) believes that many mediums to make money will stalk their sitters to find evidence to show their powers of awareness.

AQA questions

9: Discuss what research into exceptional experience has shown us about psychic mediumship. (4 marks + 6 marks)

10: There has not been a question directly in psychic healing in past exams.

Out of Body Experiences

Out of Body Experiences

Out of body experiences and Near-death experiences. Lesson objective:

By the end of the lesson you will be able to; Outline two different types of OBEs & NDEs

Describe a physiological study of OBEs.

Describe psychological and paranormal explanations for OBEs & NDEs.

The Science of Out of Body Experiences YouTube - Broadcast Yourself.#v=B-mrL7fhWi0&feat

ure=related

Out of Body Experience

Natural occurring OBE Green (1968) Case studies Para somatic = see another body Asomatic: No sense of other body

Artifically induced OBE Alvarado (1982) conducted lab

research using relaxation and hypnosis

Participant had to say what was in the other room.

Evidence was week. YouTube - Virtual out-of-body ex

perience

Physiological studies

Early studies by Blakemore showed that during OBEs subjects were definitely awake and not dreaming.

Stimulation of the temporal-parietal junction using transcranial magnetic stimulation can create OBEs where as stimulation of other areas of the brain does not (Blanke 2005)

Evaluation

Case studies, very subjective.

No sceintific evidence

Reported by people who are already paranormal believers

People who have OBE also score high on the prone to fantasy scale and hypnotisability.

Ehrssen demonstrated that you can create the illusion of having an OBE

Natural Occuring NDEs 20% of heart attack patients

report having had NDEs (fox 2006)

Ring interviewed 100 people who has had NDEs

60% reported a sense of peace.

33% reported leaving their bodies. 25% reported entering

a tunnel

Nelson (2006) studied 55 NDEs and 55 controls. Of those who had NDEs, many experienced a sensation of falling and had REM intrusions – the brain is awake but has signs of dreaming.

Artificially induced states

Both Ketamine and hypoxia (lack of oxygen) cause NDE states.

They cause a flood of the neurotransmitter glutamate which causes neuronal death so the brain creates a protective blockage.

Neurological explanations

It is argued that endorphin released at the time of pain or stress cause euphoria and detachment

It has also been shown that although some areas of the brain have shut down the brain stem which stimulates REM sleep is activated

Evaluation

OBE Difficult to test natural occurring + low validity for artificially

induced Out Of Body Experience Video

Our sensery perception is effected and we compensate by using our memories of ourselves. We then project those images on our perception

NDE Paranormal state NDE

support the existence of an afterlife. This is a non scientific statement as it is non falsifyable.

Neuroscientific theory: They argue that “the dying brain hypothesis”

Activity:

Discuss the following questions in small groups then present your arguments back to the class.

1. Could OBEs and NDEs just be dreams while awake?

2. Is the research methodology used valid or reliable?

3. What adaptive function could NDEs have for the individual?

4. If we can induce NDEs does this dismiss the possibility of them being really psychic in nature?

5. Are NDEs and OBEs biological or psychological phenomena?

AQA questions

11: Outline and evaluate psychological research into belief in out-of-body experiences and/or near-death experiences. (4 marks + 6 marks)

12 Discuss what research into exceptional experience has shown us about out-of-body experience. (4 marks + 6 marks)

Personality Factors

Lesson Objectives

Identify the questions from the paranormal belief scale

Describe internal and external locus of control

Explain the link between at least two personality types and paranormal beliefs.

Personality Factors Neuroticism: look at life

negatively: People use fantasies to escape negative thoughts and distance oneself from negative reality. ( Eysenck)

Williams looked at 300 Welsh school children and found a positive correlation between neuroticism and paranormal beliefs

AO2

When looking at the paranormal belief scale a lot of the superstition questions are negative “Black cats bring bad luck”

It may be a correlation between negative occurences in the PBS.

Wiseman and Watt found a positive correlation between negative superstition and neuroticism but not positive superstition and neuroticism.

Personality Factors Extraversion: Has a need for extra

stimulation, and is also able to adapt to knew situations.

Honorton et al; did a meta analysis and found a strong positive correlation between the two variables.

Locus of control: Relationship between external locus of control and paranormal belief.

Schizotypy: Tendency to have hallucinations and disordered thinking. Link found by Irwin and Green (1999)

Personality Factors

Fantasy Proneness Fake Séance, believers

stated that a table was moving even when they knew the whole séance was fake, more likely to get carried away

Suggestibility: More easily deceived Hergovich found correlation between hypnotise and paranormal belief scale

Evaluation of Personality Neuoticism and schizotype:

Auton argues that is a mistake to portray

paranormal belief with abnormality.

Definition of schizophrenia is belief of

magic and superstitions. Also correlation

between self actualisation and paranormal

beliefs.

Locus of control: Evidence showing link between external

and believers. Low in reliability.

AQA questions

1 3: Harry had a dream last night about his aunt Susan. She emigrated to Canada years ago and he has not heard from her for three years. This morning, he received a letter from his aunt saying that she was going to visit. He thinks that he might have psychic powers.

1 4 Discuss how Harry’s anomalous experience can be explained by personality factors. (6 marks)

AQA questions

13 What has research shown about personality factors underlying anomalous experience? (5 marks)

  Leon wore a green T-shirt when he sat a mock GCSE exam and got an

unexpectedly good result. Since then he has always worn the same T-shirt when he has had to sit an exam. This morning he is feeling distressed because he cannot find his T-shirt and he has an A-level psychology exam today. Abbie, Leon’s friend, cannot understand why he is so upset. She has worked hard and revised thoroughly and does not feel that she needs a T-shirt or anything else to get her through the exam.

14: Suggest how personality factors might explain why Abbie does not have anomalous beliefs. (5 marks)

Superstitious Behaviour and Magical thinking?

Superstition Superstitions are beliefs

that are not based on reason or knowledge. OCD http://animatedminds.com/the_films/over_and_over__and_over__again/

Behavioural – operant conditioning Skinner looked at pigeons who displayed strange behaviour before being fed.

Evolutionary- type one and type two errors.

Cognitive – Lack of control

Behavioural – operant conditioning Skinner looked at pigeons who displayed strange behaviour before being fed.

The pigeons

developed random

behaviour i.e. one

started repeatedly

turned anti-clockwise

as a ritual in the

that the behaviour would proceed food.

Evaluation for behaviourist

Staddon and Simmelhag Studied birds and found that ritualistic

behaviour happened before they were reinforced with food.

Matute found that participant developed a ritual behaviour in the hope they could stop a loud nose as a form of superstition. They assumed there was cause and effect when non existed

type one and type two errors

Type one error is when we think there is a link between events however the evidence is not strong enough = a superstition is created.

Magical Thinking

Evolutionary approach Paranormal believes seem to be innate as they are reported all

over the world in a wide variety of cultures.

Adaptive: Less

questions, reduced worry

over the meaning of life.

This then means more

time to focus on productive

life and maximising

reproductive ness.

Evaluation of Adaption

It is the believe that is adaptive

and not paranormal abilities.

If it was the abilities then those

with them would have reported

positive experiences.

These abilities would have been

selected and be more prevalent.

McClenon (2002) discovered that

students reported more negative

than positive experiences

Psychodynamic approach Defence Mechanism: Help us feel that we have some sort of

control over our anxieties

Sense of control: Watt et al (2007)

found a link between negative

childhood experiences and

paranormal beliefs.

Abuse and fantasy proneness:

Childhood trauma leads to

fantasies of escape = paranornal belief.

Evaluation of Psychodynamic

There is support for our need for control.

During the gulf war belief in superstition

rose as Iraqi missiles increased.

Wiseman and Watt argue that

paranormal beliefs are a positive way

of adapting to difficult situations.

Most people find childhood trauma

difficult to accept, those who

experience it might open the door

to other possibilities.

AQA questions

(iii) ‘It is interesting why, even today in the modern age of science and technology, some people still believe in psychic healing.’

Discuss factors underlying belief superstitious behaviour and magical thinking healing. (5 marks + 5 marks)

Coincidence and Probability Judgement

Coincidence

1: Think of three situations which appear

linked but which could just be coincidence.

2: Is there a link between those who make probability misjudgement and coincidence?

Probability misjudgement: Believers know less about the significance of probability.

ilIusion of causality: A Co-incident is when two things happen at the same time.

People who believe in the paranormal see more links even when they are not there.

Biological Evidence High levels of

Dopamine have been

found to correlate

with linking events

and believers in

paranormal activity.

When non believers were given the drug L-dopa (which increases dopamine) they say more faces/words, when there was nothing there.

General cognitive ability

Intelligence: It has

been argued that

Believers are less

intelligent than

non-believers.

Gray found that non

believers scored less on

a reasoning test than believers

Evaluation of Intelligence

General cognitive ability: It was found that intellectual people reading New Scientists were open to the phenomenon of ESP

Linking distantly related materials: Believers

are creative and this is not negative.

Probability misjudgement: Musch and Ehrenberg (2002) linked probability knowledge with intelligence. May not be a separate categories

AO2: An adaptive significance

Evolutionary theory: We see

a link between 2 thinks which

may help us survive. We

avoid accepting the Null

hypothesis

There is no correlation

between 2 things as a type

two error might be fatal.

i.e. Eating wild mushrooms will be linked with death.

Homework

“Even if paranormal phenomena

do not exist, paranormal

experiences do, as surveys have

shown a considerable number of

people report experiences which they interpret as paranormal “

Discuss the cognitive factors underlying paranormal beliefs (10 Marks)

1: State the point

2: Provide evidence for the claim.

3: Explain its significance

The Synoptic Toolkit

Debate Free will and Determinism:

People are either free to structure their behaviour or it is determined by external/internal forces. Deterministic people are not responsible for their behaviour. i.e biological

approaches

Reductionism: Complex phenomena are reduced to simple explanations. They miss out a lot of important information.

The Nature/Nurture debate: The result of genetics vs the result of experiences during life. There is however often a combination of

both

Issues Gender bias: Men and

women are very different and behaviour for one group might not be the same for the other

Culture Bias: Psychology more often that not represents the

culture of the west.

Ethical issues: Socially sensitive issues. Is it ethical to produce results that are undesirable from the point of view of one group of people.

Approaches The biological

approach: Looks at the physical body.

S = easy to test scientifically.

W= reduces complex behaviour to a simple function

The cognitive approach: Looks at our thought processes.

S = Easy to test scientifically. W = lacking social motivational and

emotional factors

The evolutionary approach: We have adapted behaviour to enhance survival.

S = it is able to explain behaviour that might not work for us today W = It fails to acknowledge cultural influences.

Approaches The behavioural

approach: All behaviour is learned

S = They provide clear predictions which are easy to test.

W = Does not

include the

higher

thought

processes,

emotions or expectations

The psychodynamic approach: Our behaviour is a combination of our drive/desire and our morals.

S = It incorporated the unconscious mind.

W = It is not

Truly scientific

As it is difficult to

Falsify.