ANNUAL 2003 OFTHECROATIAN ACADEMY OFENGINEERING · 2014-04-30 · management(EOM), • Information...

ANNUAL 2003OF THE CROATIAN ACADEMY

OF ENGINEERING

��

��

��

EditorDra�en Anièiæ

Zagreb, 2003

Edited by:Croatian Academy of Engineering28, Kaèiæeva 10000 ZagrebCroatia

President:Zlatko Kniewald

Editor:Dra�en Anièiæ

Editorial Board:The Presidency of the Croatian Academy of Engineering

Reviewers:Darko AgiæDra�en AnièiæMirta BaranoviæMladen LovreèekAndrija PragerJosip SeèenNikola SolariæBranka Zovko-Cihlar

Technical editor:Vladimir Pavliæ, GRAPA

Printed by:ITG, Zagreb

ISSN 1332-3482Annual 2003 of the Croatian Academy of EngineeringAnnu. Croat. Acad. Eng.

��

The Croatian Academy of Engineering is a non-profit association of prominent scientists in thefield of technical and biotechnical sciences which promotes technical and biotechnical sciences, bringstogether scientists and stimulates the co-operation of scientists in various technical, biotechnical andnon-technical professions in order to initiate the more efficient scientific and economic developmentof Croatia.

Akademy is member of the the CAETS – The International Council of Academies of Engineeringand Technological Sciences, Washington, D.C., USA.

The goals of the Academy include:– achieving a leading status as a creative multi-disciplinary association of engineering professions– making an efficient and high quality contribution to the development of technical and bio-technical sciences and to the transfer of technical knowledge important for the development andprogress of the Croatian economy and for the benefit of people

– promoting the safe and useful application of technology, and protecting the environment andpeople from the wrong use of technology

– promoting professionalism and responsible behaviour with high ethical standards.The Academy had today 98 regular and associate members, 67 collaborating members and mem-

bers in the status of honorary members, member-emeritus and member-friends. They are organisedin thirteen Departments, eight Premanent Boards and three Centers. Research Centers of Academyhave the purpose to tranfer latest scientific achievements into practice and co-operate with industry.Supporting members of the Academy are 33 faculties and high schools in the field of technical andbiotechnical sciences and many research institutes and firms.

In the Annual 2003 eight papers covering different technical and biotechnical fields are puiblishedrepresenting members' scientific interests. This publication is the sixth from the establishing of theAcademy (five previous were published in 1994, 1997, 2000, 2001 and 2002) and the fourth one pub-lished in English language.

* * *

Akademija tehnièkih znanosti Hrvatske osnovana je 1993. kao neprofitna, neovisna udruga istak-nutih znanstvenika iz podruèja tehnièkih i biotehnièkih znanosti koja se bavi promicanjem tehnièkih ibiotehnièkih znanosti, okupljanjem i poticanjem suradnje znanstvenika razlièitih tehnièkih, bioteh-nièkih i netehnièkih struka i podupire djelotvoran znanstveni i gospodarski razvitak Hrvatske.

Akademija je èlan Meðunarodnoga vijeæa in�enjerskih akademija i akademija tehnoloških znanosti(CAETS – The International Council of Academies of Engineering and Technological Sciences, Wash-ington, D.C., USA).

Ciljevi su Akademije:– biti vodeæa kreativna i multidisciplinarna udruga znanstvenika in�enjerskih struka– doprinositi razvoju tehnièkih i biotehnièkih znanosti i prijenosu tehnièkih znanja va�nih zaprobitak i napredak hrvatskoga gospodarstva i dobrobit ljudi

– zagovarati sigurnu i korisnu upotrebu tehnologija, zaštitu okoliša i ljudi od njihove neprikladneprimjene

– promicati profesionalizam i odgovorno ponašanje uz visoke etièke norme.Akademija danas ima 98 redovitih i izvanrednih èlanova, 67 èlanova suradnika te èlanove u

statusu poèasnih èlanova, èlanova-emeritusa i èlanova-prijatelja. Oni su organizirani u trinaest Odje-la, osam stalnih odbora i tri Centra. Posebno organizirani istra�ivaèki Centri prenose najnovija znan-stvena dostignuæa u praksu ostvarujuæi tako suradnju s industrijom. Podupiruæi èlanovi Akademije su33 fakulteta i visoke škole iz podruèja tehnièkih i biotehnièkih znanosti te više znanstvenih instituta igospodarskih tvrtki.

U Godišnjaku 2003 objavljuje se osam radova iz razlièitih tehnièkih i biotehnièkih podruèja kojipredstavljaju presjek znanstvenih interesa èlanova. Ovo je šesti godišnjak od osnivanja Akademija (petprethodnih objavljeni su 1994, 1997, 2000, 2001 i 2002) a èetvrti koji se objavljuje na engleskomjeziku.

Dra�en Anièiæ

��

Foreword

Krešimir Fertalj and Damir KalpiæBuilding of an Insourcing Information Technology Expert Team as a Success Factorfor Information System Development ................................................................................................. 1

Nedjeljko Franèula and Miljenko LapaineGeodesy in Croatia from 1878 to 2003 ............................................................................................. 13

Davorin MatanoviæHow to Optimise the Use of Coiled Tubing in Drilling Process .................................................... 29

Jure Radiæ, Zlatko Šavor and Goran Pu�World – Renowned Contemporary Croatian Bridges ....................................................................... 35

Nikola Ro�iæSoft Communication and Information Systems................................................................................ 41

Zorislav Soriæ, Marko Pršiæ, Franjo Veriæ, Milutin Anðeliæ, Tomislav Kišièek and Josip GaliæQuay on Sava River at Slavonski Brod currently under construction...........................................55

Mate SršenEvaluation of Pavement Performance and Current Requirements of MotorwayMaintenance and Rehabilitation in Croatia...................................................................................... 65

Vilko /iljakState of the Art in Engineering of Printing and Graphic Art........................................................ 71

�� !�"!#�!��$�� !��"��%#��!��$&�� '!()��!��#%#�!#!*�$$��!�#$��!"��!��"��%#��!*'��%!��+��)%��

Krešimir Fertalj and Damir Kalpiæ

Some issues related to the transformation of a traditional information system(IS) service department into a modern team-based information centre are discus-sed. The process of transformation comprises human resources analysis, investi-gation of possible ways of transformation, proposal of a new organization and con-stitution of development teams (DTs). A study done for a large state-owned com-pany, carried out in practice as part of the initial strategy plan, is presented andused as an example. The study also deals with practical experience in IT staff edu-cation and training performed as a part of joint IS development. An on-site systemanalysis was carried out by the customer’s developers and guided by outsourcedconsultants. In parallel to the system analysis, the developers were educated andtrained to become information analysts and system designers. During develop-ment, the developers were guided by the consultants and educated to develop andmaintain the system being produced.

, -#�� +��+��

,., �&� ��

The authors (in further text FER) lecture atundergraduate and graduate study the coursesrelated to computer science and industrial engi-neering. They participate in development of in-formation systems for administration and indus-try as project leaders, consultants, designers andprogrammers. They also organize specificcourses and workshops.

At the beginning of the nineties, FER de-veloped a source code generator together with anoriginal software development method, based oniterative generation of prototypes and on ma-nual coding of sophisticated functions (Fertalj etal., 1999). The tool was used internally to accom-plish the projects for external customers. Se-veral projects were completed in this way, suchas:

• Software to support the employment officemanagement (EOM),

• Information system for production plan-ning of automobile parts (ISPAP),

• Information system for student adminis-tration (ISSA),

• Information system for technical mainte-nance (ISTM),

• Application to handle the register of scien-tists (ROS),

• Software to support the selling ofencyclopaedia editions (SEE).

,.� �&� ��'

During middle nineties (starting 1995), FERwas collaborating with the Department of Infor-mation Technologies of an important Croatianministry (Ministry). The Ministry was foundedonly a couple of years earlier and the Depart-ment consisted of a few developers, with the aimto create software for human resources (HR)management. The developers wrote some appli-cations but after a while, it was recognized thatthey had produced a set of “islands”, which dif-fered among themselves in nearly every aspect.As the need for an information system was grow-ing, the local staff recognized the necessity foroutsourcing in leadership and organization oftheir IS development project. The Ministrywanted to reduce its dependency on any informa-tion system outsourcer, so the Department em-ployed more developers but also established thecooperation with FER.

At the time the project was starting, the De-partment already had counted fifteen employeesincluding the chief of Department and twoclerks. Only a few employees were considered asdevelopers with some practical experience. Themajority had no academic education. The restwere newcomers with degrees in computing andmechanical engineering (3 employees), econom-ics (2 employees) and law (1 employee), all ofthem without any prior professional experience.

The applications had been developed on PCplatform by using various development tools:Clarion (the central system), MS-Access, FoxProand Paradox. Those applications were widely

Annual 2003 of the Croatian Academy of Engineering 1

used despite their weaknesses. They had to bereengineered and transferred from Novell net-work to UNIX-INFORMIX platform.

,.� �&� ��%)#�'

In 1998, FER joined a project, which was ne-gotiated after an invitation for bids related to pre-paratory activities to establish a modern integralIS within a large state-owned Croatian company(Company). The Company had suffered heavilyduring the war period in Croatia (1991-1995) andwas still hardly recovering. FER team acquiredthe contract with the principal professional aim tore-establish an eminent information technology(IT) team within the Company. In the seventies,such a team had existed but due to unfavourablecircumstances during the last decade, it has beenpractically annihilated. Most of the competentprofessionals have left for better jobs and nearly ahundred IT related people with obsolete or inade-quate skills had remained.

Originally, the IT department was organizeda couple of decades ago and had remained orga-nized as a traditional electronic data processingcentre (DC). In its attempt to develop an optimaltransformation strategy, FER performed ananalysis of human resources and an inventory ofIT resources (Fertalj & Kalpic, 2001). Briefly,the key results of HR analysis were as follows:

• The department engaged 79 employees outof possible one hundred. The employeeswere dispersed into groups covering partic-ular business areas, such as basic activity,accounting, and so forth.

• Only a 30% of all employees (24) were con-sidered as developers.

• 33% of all employees were engaged as oper-ators (9 employees), data preparation staff(11 employees) and staff being in charge ofrunning the applications (6 employees).

• Nearly one-half of the staff (46%) had aca-demic education.

• Although there were over 30 engineers(39%), only a minority (9%) was educatedin electrical engineering or computing.

• The Department was experienced in IT im-plementations, but in obsolete technolo-gies.

The inventory comprised hardware, operat-ing systems, and database management systems,programming languages, development tools, util-ities and applications. The archaic technologywas widely recognized and it was classified as:

• Old hardware.• Old-fashioned and non-standard operatingsystems.

• Old-fashioned databases and data retrievalsystems.

• Obsolete programming languages and tools.• Development tools associated with hard-ware.

• Inadequate applications.

� /#' �� %)��+�%��

The primary question was what such organi-zations can do to improve the structure of theirhuman resources. Can this be achieved by em-ployment of additional staff? What would be thecosts? How long would it take? Knowing the fi-nancial and organizational situation of the cus-tomers, and having in mind that a local labourmarket cannot respond adequately, FER sug-gested the following:

Primary short-term objective must be to re-tain existent employees and provide that they ac-quire operative useful knowledge in modern in-formation technologies. In parallel to that, themechanisms for attracting, educating and pre-serving of professionals must be established. Fill-ing of the unoccupied working places should bepostponed.

Within a short term in which the developmentof transitional applications had been planned,bringing in of new developers might cause thewell-known effect: “Adding manpower to a latesoftware project makes it later” (Brooks, 1982).

�., �� #��0�� &� ��+��)��

FER proposed to the Ministry and to theCompany to re-organize developers and to formdevelopment teams (DTs) of the following mem-bers: a team manager, a development leader(technical lead), a system analyst/designer, theprogrammers, a database administrator and asystem engineer. The classification of DT mem-bers is based on activities and jobs to be done.The distribution of roles to particular persons, aswell as the number of members can depend on aparticular project and on available human re-sources. For example, the development leadermay simultaneously play the role of a system an-alyst. The team can include many programmers.The role of the database administrator and thesystem engineer may be assigned to the sameperson. This model of team organization wasproposed considering possible subsystems of anew global information system, its technical fea-sibility and the encountered deficiency of theavailable IT professionals.

The basic concept of re-organization is thatthe process of transformation must be adjusted

2 Annual 2003 of the Croatian Academy of Engineering

to the customer. The transformation must in-sure normal continuation of running develop-ment projects and maintenance of existent appli-cations. Thus at the beginning of the transfor-mation, forming of the teams can be carried outonly functionally. Formal redefinition of theirworkplaces can be postponed, to become the partof a broader company restructuring and only af-ter the development teams have achieved somepractical results.

�.� �� #��0�� &� ��1��+��)��

The staff not engaged in development and/orthe staff working on workplaces that would beclosed after the transformation (e.g. traditionaloperators), can join the development teams. Pre-liminary evaluation and selection of such em-ployees can be done within the Department. Afterthat, potential developers take appropriatecourses. A more sophisticated evaluation and finalselection of novice developers can be done in col-laboration with course lecturers after the courses,and it will be based on the individual performanceof each course participant. After the selection andeducation of novice developers is over, selectedpersons join the development teams. The remain-ing staff can join the teams to support end users.

Part of the staff can form a team for techni-cal support (TST) to help the users about hard-ware (e.g. personal computers), system softwareand software utilities. This team should prefera-bly be formed of younger employees with sometechnical prior knowledge and skills.

Another team can be formed to educate theend users in commercial software and applica-tions. The main tasks of the application supportteam (AST) would be education of end users incomputer literacy, tutoring of end users in usingthe software and ad hoc (on-call) support of endusers whilst using the applications. This teamshould be formed of the remaining employees, af-ter the completion of development teams, and inparallel to the TST constitution.

�.� ��

Consulting should be planned as part oftraining and support for both the managementand the developers. Whatever the possible waysof system development are, the counselling mustbe planned at least for development of transi-tional applications, for development of the newinformation system, and for IS management.

During the period of initial strategy, the con-sultants can have a significant impact on theCompany attitude to systems development. Theconsultants should point out to various ap-proaches to system development (Hoffer et al.,

2001; Maciaszek, 2002; Whitten et al., 2000;Watts, 1989; Willcocks & Lacity, 1998). The con-sultants should suggest the best approach for thecustomer. The consultants should also offer thesupport for the approach they suggest.

�.2 �&� ��#� ��$#�� " �� #""

The transfer of knowledge should proceedthrough appropriate IT courses. A good evalua-tion and selection of IT staff can be performedduring these courses, which would complete theconstitution of aforementioned teams. The edu-cation of IT staff should start with IS fundamen-tals, database modelling, standard operating sys-tems and standard programming languages.

Initial education of development teamsshould be planned with respect to activities hav-ing the highest priority for the Company. For ex-ample, few years ago it was the solving of Y2Kproblem. Generally, it can be assumed that inter-nal development teams can be engaged in adapt-ing the existent applications, which will becomea part of the new IS. It is important to form op-erable teams as soon as possible. Thus, the ini-tial education of developers should cover:

• particular operating system (e.g. Unix),• database modelling and structured querylanguage (SQL),

• particular database management system(DBMS),

• particular development language and tool(programming language and interactive de-velopment environment, CASE tool),

• a general-purpose programming language(e.g. C).

The courses in operating system, DBMS andprogramming language can be carried out afterthe decision about purchasing of particular soft-ware has been made. The courses can take placeeven before the purchase, if the course deliverersalready dispose with the required software.

• Education of supporting teams can consistof the following:

• Taking the courses in operating system, of-fice automation and optionally, in pro-gramming tools.

• Getting acquainted with new applicationsprior to installation of applications.

• Preparation of materials (end user docu-mentation, lecture notes) guided by outerlecturers or consultants.

• Delivering the courses and offering ofad-hoc support to end users, under instruc-tions and guidance of outer lecturers orconsultants.


�.3 ��1�� $#�� * $��$��

The customer’s employees form a DT, man-aged by team manager. An outsourced imple-mentation leader temporarily joins the team.The outsourcer is obligated to counselling, plan-ning and control. As a steward, he is also theleader in creating the learning context and thelearning culture (Agarwal et al., 1997). The edu-cation is divided into steps:

• Initiation: The DT is formed and the ini-tial education starts with appropriate cour-ses.

• Activation: The DT members master thechosen programming language. The DT be-comes operational.

• Iterative generation of software: Pro-totypes are generated and tested repeat-edly. The developers get acquainted withdifferent parts of software.

• Manual coding: Implementation leadercodes the functions for a pilot process. Af-ter that, the developers implement sophis-ticated functions. The implementationleader inspects the code, observes the prog-ress of each developer and instructs the de-velopers.

• Testing and documentation: The DTmembers perform unit testing and integra-tion testing, and write technical documen-tation and user documentation. The imple-mentation leader additionally instructs thedevelopers and hands over his/her respon-sibilities to the DT members.

At the end of implementation, the whole DTperforms a system test. A group of pilot end us-ers joins the team and performs alpha test andbeta test. Until the end of the project, the teamwill be educated enough to take over further de-velopment and management of the IS. If neces-sary, some external consultative help may begiven to them, particularly when the next life cy-cle of software starts.

�.4 5�� '��% #�#�'�� #��

If the customer is an organization that em-ploys developers, they can form a project team(PT) that would perform an on-site system ana-lysis and design, guided by outer consultants.During that process, the developers are educatedto become system analysts. The process of jointanalysis and design would be as follows:

• Organization of work: The PT is formedand informed about the process and ac-tions that will take place. The consultantsintroduce IS terminology, present the mod-elling principles, methods and techniques,

develop a framework and design the datacollection protocol. Plenary meetings of PTand consultants are organized periodically.On the meetings, PT reports the accom-plished work and receives informationabout the state of the project and aboutthe plans for the near future. The consul-tants answer the questions. The teammanagement, advised by the consultants,gives instructions for further steps.

• Analysis preparation: A couple of sys-tem analysts are assigned to every organi-zational unit to be observed. Each unit del-egates a key person (coordinator), whotakes care of the interaction between ana-lysts and end users. After that, a cycle ofmeetings takes place. Every meeting in-volves management of the observed unit,the coordinator, the team managementand the consultants. The unit managementgets acquainted with project goals, infor-mation technology capabilities and possiblebenefits. The participants establish theircommitment (Watts, 1989).

• Information gathering: Instead of per-forming standard interviews and on-siteobservation, system analysis is performedby on-site inhabitation of the analystswithin the observed units. The inhabita-tion is temporary and takes about onemonth. The analysts spend some time (e.g.half of their working time) in all segmentsof the unit, visiting the segments in atop-down sequence.

• Feasibility study: In the second phase,the survey is expanded to the more de-tailed feasibility study. The consultants en-courage the analysts to express the prob-lems, to document their findings, recom-mendations and conclusions, and even topropose restructuring of the organization.Proposal for a new system, a developmentplan and a realization schedule are devel-oped simultaneously. The PT members areguided to produce the logical models of anew system and to become system design-ers. Choice of a standard method may helpto complete the task.

� �#�� $��)��

�., �&� ��'

�� !�"��

The DT was formed within the Departmentof Information Technologies. The team consistedof a team manager, a system engineer who was


also a database administrator and of eight pro-grammers. Two FER consultants, Kalpiæ andFertalj participated in the project as outsourcers.Kalpiæ was the project leader and Fertalj was incharge of technical lead during construction.

The project started in October 1995. It wascompleted within a year and a half of effectivework (without taking holidays into account), insummer 1997. However, some short consultingand correspondence through e-mail was contin-ued during the period of making the DT inde-pendent of outsourcers. Chart 1 presents theworkload of the consultants during the whole pe-riod of collaboration between the Departmentand FER.

Kalpiæ and Fertalj did the system analysisand design together. The system analysis wascarried out through a sequence of interviewswith end users and software professionals withinthe house and by document flow analysis com-bined with on-sight inspections. The evaluationof the existent applications was done in parallel.Kalpiæ wrote the requirement specifications andFertalj reverse engineered existent databasesand produced a new, integrated data model.

At the end of the system analysis and design,initial education of developers took place. Initia-tion and activation were done in the first quarterof 1996. In March and April, a sequence ofcourses was delivered: operating system UNIX,standard SQL combined with elements of rela-tional database theory and the programming lan-guage INFORMIX-4GL. The construction took

about a year. Prototype generation was repeatedfor three times.

FER did a review of the system in spring1998, inspecting the database structure and thesource code and interviewing the users in orderto check their satisfaction with the system. Thecourses in SQL and INFORMIX -4GL were deliv-ered to the advanced users and developers fromother parts of the Ministry, in the last quarter of1998.

Table 1 represents the distribution of FERactivities. Team management included on-siteinstruction of the DT through participation incoding, testing and documenting the system.


C h a r t 1 – FER workload during IS development

T a b l e 1 – Distribution of FER activities during ISdevelopment

Activity Workload[h]

Relativeworkload

Team management 838.50 34.60%

Analysis and Design 434.75 17.94%

Meetings and Discussion 348.50 14.38%

Off-site coding 311.25 12.84%

Courses and Training 213.00 8.79%

Project management 142.75 5.89%

Miscellaneous 135.00 5.57%

Total 2423.75 100.00%

Building of software libraries, preparation oftemplates for source code generation and codingof some specialized program modules and utili-ties was done off-site.

The Table 2 shows an approximate size ofthe system that was developed over the databasethat contained 131 tables, 459 attributes and 228foreign keys.

��#��$��%��&��%&��$��&

Some observations and problems are pre-sented from the point of view of Fertalj, the im-plementation leader.

Curiosity: Curiosity was the dominant be-haviour during initiation and it was manifestedby questions such as: “What are the characteris-tics of the programming language we are goingto use?” and “What is the source code genera-tor?” Fertalj provided accurate and useful infor-mation to the DT members.

Criticism: Criticism and suspicion charac-terized the activation. The developers have hadalready acquired certain knowledge, but theywere not capable to put it into a correct context.Typical questions: “Why…”, “Can … be…?”,“The language I used before had…”, “Howto…?” Fertalj had to be outspoken and sincere toestablish the mutual trust.

Euphoria: After the source code of the newsystem was generated, new sensations arose, likefeeling of well-being and exaggerated relaxation(“Now it is easy…”, “There is not much left to bedone!”). That was one of the crucial moments,because it could lead into leisure. One developereven said: “Leave it as it is. It is already goodenough for our end users.” Fertalj respondedpromptly and explained to developers that thereal work was just about to begin.

Consternation: The start of manual codingwas followed by confusion caused by misunder-standing of the database structure and by thevolume and complexity of the generated sourcecode (“It is not as easy as it looked at the firstglance.”). Only a careful assignment of the tasksand dynamic planning of the activities could

keep the project going on regularly, until the de-velopers acquired full control over the system.

Apathy: The period of manual coding wascharacterized by despair (“I have tried every-thing, but nothing works!”) and easygoingness(“Take it easy, until it's done”, “It will be com-pleted somehow.”). Fertalj was convincing thedevelopers that the problems will not disappearand that the project must continue on schedule.Fertalj was also giving an example by solving themost complicated problems. Occasionally he waspretending that the problem was not as complexas it seemed. Participative methods are inher-ently manipulative anyway (Wilson, 1993).

Self-importance and Self-esteem: Partic-ipation is ego enhancing (Wilson, 1993). Ex-pressed self-importance and self-esteem (“We dideverything by ourselves!”) arose at the end of thecoding. To Fertalj that was a sign that heachieved a success in stimulating the team toparticipate in control over the development. Atthe same time, the developers were not aware oftheir partial incompetence. They tended to takecareless actions and tried to implement handysolutions.

Dependence: During the period of makingthe DT independent, the DT members showedlack of self-confidence. They intended to keepFertalj in charge for activities, thus to keep shar-ing the responsibility. There was no other wayout but to complete the transfer of the responsi-bilities from Fertalj to the team manager whobecame the manager of the IS.

��'�$��(&$&��&$ �� %��$��$��&(&��

After the HR system was a success, the ITDepartment became the IT Division. The man-agement decided to develop information systemfor the whole Ministry. As some developers hadleft in the meantime, and some developers had tomaintain and enhance the existent system, Divi-sion management recruited some employeesfrom other divisions to help accomplish the job.Some additional people were hired.

Kalpiæ and Fertalj joined the project teamthat consisted of the team management (a teammanager and a co-manager) and sixteen ana-lysts. FER workload is presented in Chart 2.

System analysis and global system designwas done in four months, between September1999 and December 1999. During the first twomonths of 2000, FER consultants and the IT Di-vision management were writing the proposal fora new IT division organization, based on the ISfeasibility study that resulted from joint systemanalysis and design.


T a b l e 2 – The developed system

Systemcomponent

No. ofcompo-nents

No. ofsource

code lines

Sourcecode

size (KB)

Source code file 400 250.000 8.200

Screen form 170 10.000 300

TOTAL 570 260.000 8.500

The initial organization of work and prepara-tion for the analysis was done during the firsttwo months. An FTP server was established overthe common file system directory. It served as arepository of information being collected anddocuments being produced and it was used forthe exchange of materials between the consul-tants and the system analysts. Plenary meetingsof PT and consultants were organized weekly.Two system analysts were assigned to each ofnine organizational units that were observed.Each unit delegated one coordinator. The bestamong analysts were assigned simultaneously totwo organizational units.

The most of the on-site education was per-formed during information gathering and writingof the feasibility study in November and Decem-ber. At the beginning of that phase, some coursesabout system analysis and design were delivered.During the on-site inhabitation, the analysts werespending 2-3 hours per day within the observedunits. The inhabitation took 5 weeks. During thatphase, the analysts were guided and trained:

• to discover the substance and the essenceof the organization,

• to distinguish important from unimportantmatters and facts,

• to collect the information required to pro-pose a new system design,

• to identify the critical success factors,• to recommend viable solutions to the prob-lems,

• to overcome the misleading ideas of “ex-pert” end users,

• to identify and socialize with the personnelwithin the departments, estimated to becrucial in the implementation phase,

• to avoid non-productive interaction and in-terference, thus to avoid “copy & paste”syndrome.

The analysts were trained to draw data flowdiagrams and to create conceptual data models.They were also instructed to overrule the rigidmethodology recipes in order to match the actualproblems, requirements and the real needs.

FER’s help in writing of the project docu-mentation and in preparation of the project pre-sentation was affective at the end of 1999. Thefinal document had over 250 pages. Model of thesystem comprised nearly 30 context diagramsand about 400 global data classes. The oral pre-sentation to the top-level management consistedof 100 slides.

�.� �&� ��%)#�'

FER had believed that only an investment inCompany’s own IT professional staff could solvethe Company’s problems in long run. Some man-agers placed their hopes in acquiring of sophisti-cated worldwide well-known and expensive ERPsoftware. FER team strongly objected. The para-digmatic situation in the Company was that“they had excellent rules, but these rules couldnot be obeyed”. The main reason was the notori-ous lack of money. The Company had to adapt toit and even pay for it an additional price.

FER suggested the IS development to becompletely under control of the Company ITstaff, with necessary purchases limited to sys-tem, database and office automation standardsoftware and to some very specific highly special-ized professional software. The rest of software,comprising the support for the Company basicactivity, representing the Company professionalexpertise, should be developed predominantly byown staff, including some outer consulting assis-tance. This software would be in permanent de-


C h a r t 2 – Workload of the consultants during jointsystem analysis and design

T a b l e 3 – Distribution of FER activities during jo-int system analysis and design

Activity Workload[h]

Relativeworkload

Meetings and Discussion 163.50 30.40%

Courses and Training 146.00 27.15%

Feasibility Study 120.25 22.36%

Information Gathering 42.00 7.81%

Miscellaneous 30.00 5.58%

Organization of work 23.75 4.42%

Analysis preparation 12.25 2.28%

Total 537.75 100.00%

velopment and change because a significant busi-ness process reengineering lay ahead. At thetime of the project, no one could tell how thisreengineering would proceed and how would itfinish. FER perceived the IS as an appropriatetool to enforce the Company restructuring. Onthe contrary, even an ideal off-the-shelf acquiredsoftware solution would fail because the gap be-tween the current status and the target status,supported by such an ideal solution, would be in-surmountable.

�� )*��&�&

FER developed a curriculum in which everycourse takes at most one working week, as pre-sented in Table 4. The curriculum defined thecourse code and title, potential groups of atten-dees (e.g. management, programmers, etc.), pre-

requisites, duration and short description. In ad-dition, the list of potential course providers wascreated. The curriculum was divided to domainsof knowledge (Gorgone and Gray, 1999; IEEEand ACM, 2000; SECC, 2000). The standardsand guidelines to be followed in delivering thecourses were defined.

��)*��$��

A preliminary plan of education was createdhaving in mind the existent department struc-ture, the running projects, the available time andthe expected IS development. The plan encom-passed instruction in several areas that, as webelieved, were essential for starting the top pri-ority activities. Due to the pragmatic circum-stances, the plan could not cover all employeesand all subjects, which would be required to ac-


T a b l e 4 – The proposed courses

Code Title Duration Code Title Duration

C01 Databaseadministration 24 hours / 4 days C44 Internet/Intranet

technologies 16 hours / 2 days

C02 Fourth generationlanguage 24 hours / 4 days C51 Office automation

package 30-40 hours / 5-7 days

C03 CASE tool 15-30 hours / 3-5 days C52 Use of networkservices 15 hours / 3 days

C11 Management by ISand IS management 8 hours / 1-2 days C61 Computer Aided

Design 40 hours / 5-7 days

C12 Informationtechnology trends 4 hours / 1 day C62 Graphical information

systems 40 hours / 5-7 days

C13 Strategic informationsystem planning 12 hours / 2-4 days C63 Practical operational

research as required

C14 Enhancement of largesystems 18-30 hours / 3-5 days C71 MS Windows operating

system 10-12 hours / 2 days

C21 Information systemsdevelopment 30 hours / 5 days C72 MS Windows NT

operating system 30 hours / 5 days

C22 Project planning anddevelopment 15 hours / 3 days C73 Unix operating system 30 hours / 5 days

C23 Development tools andenvironments 12 hours / 2 days C74 Unix operating system

administration 30 hours / 5 days

C31 Conceptual datamodelling 18 hours / 3 days C81 Structured

programming 30 hours / 5 days

C32 Relational databasedesign 24 hours / 4 days C82 Data structures and

algorithms 30 hours / 5 days

C41 LAN technologies 16 hours / 2 days C91 PC basedprogramming tools 30 hours / 5 days

C42 Structured cabling inlocal area networks 8 hours / 1 day C92 Object oriented

programming 30 hours / 5 days

C43 LAN switching 8 hours / 1 day C93 Web programming 30 hours / 5 days

complish the successful IS development. There-fore, the education was planned to continue afterthe initial set of courses, in parallel with IS de-velopment and according to reasonable prospects.The courses were planned for staff groups ac-cording to knowledge areas, as shown in Table 5.

Technical support team and application sup-port were supposed to carry out education of endusers that is related to computer literacy and useof applications. Outer specialists were supposedto transfer a special knowledge that is requiredin particular business areas.

Finally, FER proposed the activities thatcould forward the introduction of new applica-tions and improve implementation and use of theapplications, such as distribution of an internalbook of regulations about the deportment of us-ers, writing or rewriting the complete technicaland user documentation and writing the briefreference to applications and their features.

2 �� +��)%��

2., �&� ��'

The Ministry is still facing the need for de-velopment of a global information system. Devel-oping the IS for such a complex and large organi-zation as this Ministry, is one of the most de-manding tasks in the country. The success thatwas achieved during development of the HRmanagement IS, and later during the analysisand design of the global IS, can be explained by

the relative youth of the developers and by theirmotivation for professional and institutional pro-motion. Such motives can be insufficient for along-term development of the global IS. Afterachieving the operable knowledge, some of theMinistry computing experts were attracted bymore interesting and more lucrative jobs in pri-vate sector. This trend will continue if the Minis-try does not undertake the appropriate mea-sures. Some of the measures can be as follows.

The IT service department should subscribeto relevant domestic and foreign journals andmagazines. The department members shouldtake part in presentations of IT products andshould visit the IT fairs in order to keep in-formed about the state of the IT market and ITtrends. Attending the presentations and fairs canbe considered as a part of additional rewardingsystem. The Department members should bestimulated to attend conferences in order to beinformed about the developments in the profes-sion. Attending the conferences can be condi-tioned by writing contributions about concreteproblems and solutions related to the IS of theMinistry. Good and perspective workers shouldget scholarship for undergraduate or postgradu-ate study. In return, such employees would beobligated to stay with the Ministry for sometime.

Finally, the IT service department could betransformed into a budgeted, but results-drivenAgency, which would become a preferred sup-plier for the Ministry. At the same time, thisAgency would be allowed to offer its services on


T a b l e 5 – The proposed plan of education by courses

Preliminary education plan

Is de-sign

Databa-ses

Prog.langua-ges

DBad-min.

Operatingsystems and ser-

vers

Networks andcommunications

Officeautoma-tion

C21 C03 C32 C31 C02 C91 C01 C72 C73 C74 C93 C41 C42 C43 C44 C51 C52

IT managers 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

IS designers 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 4

Programmers 27 27 27 27 27

System engineers 6 3 3 3 6 6 6 6 2 2 2 2

Network engineers 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Database administrators 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Technical support team 6 6 6

Application support team 6 6 6

Total 70 19 19 52 52 46 46 10 12 12 12 12 5 5 5 5 12 12

Number of groups 2 2 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

the market. This can solve multiple problems –how the Ministry can focus only on its core busi-ness, how to stimulate its IT staff properly andhow to assure the necessary commitment of theIT staff and maintain and widen their deep un-derstanding of the Ministry-specific problems.

2.� �&� ��%)#�'

The suggested activities were presented tothe Company Executive Board in written and inoral form. The proposal was accepted as a prop-erly completed job. The next step was merely dic-tated by the World Bank as the only financialsource because the Company had neither ownmoney nor sufficient local support. It turned outthat an international bidding to supply the ISwas issued. FER objected to that, but it appearedthat no other solution was in sight. FER had notparticipated in any further activity regardingthat. According to available information, an ex-pensive solution was considered for purchase,but the State did not give guarantees so the bid-ding failed.

After a change in management, the Companysigned another contract with other consultants,having a similar purpose as FER had. FER is notaware about the outcome. The management haschanged again, for a couple of times. It is worthnoting that the described project was already thethird similar project in sequence so the time andmoney have been wasted repeatedly and theCompany still faces the same problems. Most re-cently, bidding for another similar project wasannounced and Kalpiæ, while presenting his newoffer, had the opportunity to tell the new man-agement that he would not participate unlesssome real actions, affecting the Company wouldbe undertaken. Allegedly, his presentation hasbeen favourably accepted…

3 ��$��

In both cases complex organisations had tobe computerised. We strongly believe that solv-ing of such problems cannot be completely dele-gated to any outsourcer. Internal expertise andactive participation of insiders are indispensablein order to control the developments, while theoutsourcers may offer help in all the develop-ment, exploitation and maintenance phases. In-troduction of an information system is also areengineering task and therefore the active in-volvement of top management and professionalswithin the organisation is required. The idea ofbuying a complete existing solution may appearvery attractive to the management but it canhardly succeed. A serious problem in Croatia is

how to stimulate properly the IT professionalswithin the State administration and State-ownedcompanies. Large payments to foreign consul-tants are regarded as normal, although they areoften incompetent and not aware of the localconditions.

The issue of motivation is also important.The principal interest of the top managementshould be the success of their institutions, whatdoes not appear to be always the case. Invest-ment to domestic expertise if it would be compa-rable to the costs of providing so called“world-renown” solutions would pay off withlower ownership costs and higher competitive-ness which can be provided only through propri-etary expertise.

It is normal that the top management ofState administration and State-owned institu-tions is highly correlated to those political par-ties that are currently in power. However, oneshould differentiate between politically assignedpositions and professional expertise. Profession-als should not be affected by political changes, inorder to provide continuous expertise and devel-opment. Political parties, living on tight budgets,tend to award their meritable members by ap-pointing them to better paid management posi-tions, regardless to their actual competence.Within the same institutions a number of suchpersons are appointed and as a rule, they belongto different coalition parties. It seems that theytend to block each other as the reflection ofstrives within the coalition. In the foreseeable fu-ture, Croatia will be ruled by coalitions. It wouldbe maybe a good idea to dedicate complete politi-cally assigned management of a single State in-stitution to a single party. It would be much eas-ier for the voters to compare and evaluate theirrelative performance.

4 ��"��$��

(1) Agarwal, R, Krudys, G. & Tanniru, M. (1997).Infusing learning into the information systems or-ganization, European Journal of InformationSystems, 6(1), 25-40.

(2) Arthur, L.J. (1992). Rapid Evolutionary Develop-ment – Requirements, Prototyping & SoftwareCreation. John Wiley & Sons.

(3) Beynon-Davies, P. (1995). Information systems‘failure’: the case of the London Ambulance Servi-ce’s Computer Aided Dispatch project. EuropeanJournal of Information Systems, 4(3), 171-184.

(4) Boehm, B. (1988). A Spiral Model for Software De-velopment and Enhancement, IEEE Computer,21(5), 61-72.

(5) Brooks, F.P. (1982). The mythical man-month.Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.


(6) Fertalj, K., Kalpic, D. & Mornar, V. (1999). A Soft-ware Development Method Based on IterativePrototyping. World Multiconference on Systemics,Cybernetics and Informatics, Proceedings 2,83-90.

(7) Fertalj, K., Kalpic, D. & Hadjina, N. (2000).On-the-Scene Education of Information Techno-logy Staff. “Challenges of Information TechnologyManagement in the 21st Century”, May 21-24, 2000,Anchorage, AK, USA, Idea Group Publishing,Hershey, USA, ISBN 1-878289-84-5, 942-943

(8) Fertalj, K. & Kalpic, D. (2001). On the Transfor-mation of Traditional IS Service Department intoa Modern IS Centre: A Case Study. Proceedings of2001 Informing Science Conference, Cohen, Eli(Ed.). Krakow, Poland, 2001.

(9) Gorgone, J.T. & Gray P. (Eds.) (1999). MSIS 2000– Model Curriculum and Guidelines for GraduateDegree Programs in Information Systems. Asso-ciation for Computing Machinery – Association forInformation Systems.

(10) Hoffer, J.A., George, J.F. & Valacich, J.S. (2001).Modern Systems Analysis and Design. PrenticeHall College Div.

(11) IEEE & ACM (2000). Computing Curricula 2001 –The Joint Task Force on Computing Curricula.IEEE Computer Society – Association for Compu-ting Machinery (Draft).

(12) Kaasb###ll, J.J. (1997). How evolution of infor-mation systems may fail: many improvements ad-ding up to negative effects. European Journal ofInformation Systems, 6(3), 172-180.

(13) Kalpic, D., Baranovic, M. & Mornar, V. (1995a).Case Study Based on a Multi-Period Multi-Crite-ria Production Planning Model. European Journalof Operational Research 87, Elsevier Science B.V.,Netherlands, 658-669.

(14) Kalpic, D., Baranovic, M. & Mornar, V. (1995b).Two-Period Production Planning and Simulationby Linear Programming with Multiple Objectives.Proceedings of 18th International Conference on

Computers & Industrial Engineering, ICC&IE'95,Shanghai, China, October 25-27, 1995, 339-343.

(15) Kalpic, D., Fertalj, K. & Mornar, V. (2001). Anal-ysis of Reasons for Failure of a Major InformationSystem Project. BITWorld 2001 Conference Pro-ceedings, Kamel, Sherif (Ed.), CD-ROM, ISBN 0905304 36 5. Cairo: The American University inCairo, 1-8.

(16) Maciaszek, L. (2002). Requirements Analysis andSystem Design: Developing Information Systemswith UML. Addison Wesley Higher Education.

(17) Orman, L. (1989). Evolutionary Development ofInformation Systems, Journal of ManagementInformation Systems, 5(3), 19-32.

(18) Poulymenakou, A. & Holmes, A. (1996). A contin-gency framework for the investigation of informa-tion systems failure, European Journal of Infor-mation Systems, 5(1), 34-46.

(19) Pressman, R.S. (2000). Software Engineering: APractitioner's Approach, McGraw Hill.SECC – Software Engineering Coordination Com-mittee (2000). SWEBOK Guide to the SoftwareEngineering Body of Knowledge – A Stone ManVersion. Joint IEEE Computer Society – ACMCommittee.

(20) Sommerville, I. (2000). Software Engineering.Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

(21) Watts, S. H. (1989). Managing the Software Pro-cess. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

(22) Whitten, J.L., Bentley, L.D. & Dittman K.C.(2000). Systems Analysis & Design Methods.McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

(23) Willcocks, L. P. & Lacity M.C. (1998) (Eds.). Stra-tegic Sourcing of Information Systems: Perspecti-ves and Practices. John Wiley & Sons.

(24) Wilson, W. D. (1993). Prototyping – a Techniquefor Participative Information Systems Design,CIT – Journal of Computing and Information Tec-hnology, University Computing Centre, Zagreb,1(4), 236-242.


Krešimir FertaljDamir Kalpiæ, collaborating member, Croatian Academy of EngineeringComputer Science GroupDepartment of Applied MathematicsFaculty of Electrical Engineering and ComputingUniversity of Zagreb, Unska 3, 10000 Zagrebe-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

��'!��!��#��#!"��%!,676!��!��

Nedjeljko Franèula and Miljenko Lapaine

In 2003, the Croatian Engineers Association with Croatian Geodetic Society, asone of its 27 members, celebrates 125 years of existence. In this occasional paper,the contribution of geodesy to the society in the past 125 years is explained. It de-scribes the history of Croatian Geodetic Society, the organization of geodetic ad-ministration in Croatia, basic geodetic networks, geodetic surveys, geodesy in civilengineering, geodetic companies, science, the school system, publishing activities,acknowledgements and awards. The paper ends with the reference to the futureprospects.

, ��$��

Geodesy belongs to technical sciences andalso to natural sciences, and can be divided intofour main branches: cartography, photogram-metry, maritime, satellite and physical geodesy,and applied geodesy. Although these branchesare relatively independent, each of them has alsosomething in common with the others.

Geodetic surveying or shorter only surveyingcan be defined as acquiring, processing and pre-senting data by geodetic methods. The most fre-quent ways of collecting data in geodetic surveyare direct collecting – measuring with geodeticinstruments and indirect collecting – measuringimages. The following methods of acquiring geo-detic data are usually used: orthogonal method,polar method or tacheometry, terrestrial and ae-rial photogrammetry, remote sensing, levelling,trigonometric level determination, global posi-tioning systems (GPS) etc.

In processing the data, geodesists regularlyuse computers, and in mathematical processingof measured data they usually apply principlesand methods of mathematical statistics, theoryof errors and adjustment calculus. The gathereddata are then processed further and become partsof various geoinformation systems. The surveyresults are presented mostly on maps, and that isthe reason why cartography is a branch of geo-desy.

� ��#��#� ��$ *�$��'

On March 2, 1878, 125 years ago, a group of35 Croatian professionals and experts foundedthe Klub in�inira i arhitekta (The Club of Engi-neers and Architects), the predecessor of today'sCroatian Engineers Association. Ever since, theAssociation has existed and operated continually,and today it unites 27 professional associations

and societies with about ten thousand engineers.One of these 27 members is the Croatian Geo-detic Society (URL 1).

The first organized joint appearance of geo-detic professionals on the territory of the formerYugoslavia was the one that happened at thefounding assembly of all Yugoslavian geodesistsheld in Zagreb on February 11, 1919, when theAssociation of Surveyors was founded. In Janu-ary of 1932, a congress of all geodetic profession-als in the country was held in Belgrade. The con-gress unanimously decided to eliminate all exist-ing associations and to establish the Associationof Surveyors and Geodesists (Milaèiæ 1959).

After the World War II, the first geodeticcore for community work was founded in Zagreb,as a section of geodesists within the scope of theSociety of Engineers and Technicians in Zagreb.The Geodetic Section constituted in 1946 trans-formed into the first Society of Geodesists ofCroatia in 1952. The name Association of Geo-detic Engineers and Surveyors of Yugoslavia wasadopted at the second congress of geodesists ofYugoslavia in Ohrid in 1957 (Jankoviæ 1977).Therefore, the Society of Geodesists of Croatiachanged its name in 1957 and coordinated itwith the name of Yugoslav geodetic society, andhas been known as the Association of GeodeticEngineers and Surveyors of Croatia. At the elec-tive conference held in Poreè in 1978, on the oc-casion of the third meeting of Croatian geode-sists, a new Society's constitution was created,and hence, the Society changed its name to theAssociation of Societies of Geodesists of Croatia(Bo�iænik 1984a).

At the extended session of the presidency ofthe Association in Zagreb on November 12, 1991,the Association of Societies of Geodesists ofCroatia was separated from the Association ofGeodetic Engineers and Geometers of Yugosla-via. Since that time, until the founding assemblywas held on May 25, 1993, the preparations were


made for the final transformation of the Associa-tion of Societies of Geodesists of Croatia into theCroatian Geodetic Society (CGS, Bo�iænik 1993).One of the most important tasks of the Societysince its foundation in May 1993 has been forCroatia to become a member of the InternationalUnion for Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG). Thepresident of the Society, K. Èoliæ was responsiblefor the admission of Croatia into the Union atthe General Assembly in Boulder, USA in 1995(Èoliæ 1993).

The Society has nine permanent professionalCommittees and two sections: the Section forCartography and the Section for Photogram-metry and Remote Sensing. The Section for Car-tography has been very active in its work. One ofSection's main goals was the admission ofCroatia into the International Cartographic As-sociation (ICA), which occurred at the 10th Gen-eral assembly in Barcelona in September 1995,at the time of the 17th International Carto-graphic Conference. At that conference, and atthe 19th conference in Ottawa in 1999, the Sec-tion for Cartography presented national reports.The Section for Photogrammetry and RemoteSensing has also been active. It organized themeeting 100 years of Photogrammetry in Croatiain Zagreb in 1998 as one of the coorganizers to-gether with the Scientific Council for RemoteSensing and Photointerpretation of the CroatianAcademy of Sciences and Arts. The Section forPhotogrammetry and Remote Sensing is a fullmember of the International Society for Photo-grammetry and Remote Sensing (ISPRS) andwas, in collaboration with the State Geodetic Ad-ministration, the local organizer and the host ofthe meeting of Workgroup 3, Commission VI ofthe ISPRS, which was held in Zagreb in 2003.

The Croatian Geodetic Society and its prede-cessors organised of many scientific and profes-sional meetings (congresses, conferences, sympo-siums), both national and international. Someproceedings from those meetings are mentionedin the chapter 8.3.2. The Croatian Geodetic Soci-ety also publishes Geodetski list journal (seechapter 8.3.3).

Since the Section for Cartography of the Cro-atian Geodetic Society gathered not only geode-sists, but also other professionals dealing withcartography – geographers, foresters, agrono-mists, geologists and many others – the membersof the Section initiated the foundation of theCroatian Cartographic Society. It was founded in2001 (URL 3). At the 21st international carto-graphic conference in Durban in 2003, the Cro-atian Cartographic Society presented Croatiaand prepared the national report.

�., �&� �&#%8�� " ��#��#� ��$&��$�� #�� +��

Animated by the Croatian Engineering Asso-ciation in 1993, the Croatian Geodetic Societybegan working on the creation of two laws: onereferring to licensed engineers and the other tothe engineering chamber. The intention was to,after more than half a century, recreate the com-plete arrangement of professional relations inengineering, on the model of our Europeanneighbours. The first idea about unique profes-sional laws was soon transformed, and the archi-tects, civil engineers and geodesists co-ordinatelycontinued with the creation of their professionallaw, each of their own.

The Law of the Croatian Chamber of Archi-tects and Engineers in Civil Engineering took ef-fect on April 11, 1998. The founding session ofthe professional class of geodesy engineers washeld on September 18, 1998, and the first (found-ing) session of the Chamber was held on Decem-ber 12, 1998 (Kri�aj 1999). As many as 625 geo-detic professionals have been entered into theRegister of Licensed Engineers of Geodesy up tothe present day.

� �&� �� #��0#�� " ��$ *��+�$�� #��#

Geodetic operations of larger extent in Yugo-slavian Kingdom were carried out by the Minis-try of Civil Engineering, the Ministry of Traffic,the Ministry of Military and Navy, and the Mini-stry of Agriculture and Waters (Vidojkoviæ 1936).The cadastral works were carried out by the Ca-dastral Section of the Ministry of Finances.

After the World War II, the Government ofthe Federal National Republic of Yugoslavia(FNRJ) decided to found the Main Geodetic Ad-ministration, as an independent and leading in-stitution for civil geodetic administration, di-rectly subject to the Government of FNRJ, andto found independent geodetic administrations atgovernments of national republics. The basictask of geodesists of that time were geodetic, as-tronomic and geophysical works in order to pro-duce technical and economic plans at basic scalesof 1:5000 and 1:10 000, the topographic map atthe scale of 1:25 000, as the base for solving sci-entific, technical, economic and military prob-lems (Struèni geodetski savet 1947).

Geodetic works on national survey in Croatiahave been organized by the Geodetic Administra-tion since 1952, and the survey has been carriedout by Geodetic Administration offices for trian-gulation and levelling, offices for new survey


(and land consolidation) of the land and (commu-nity) district cadastral offices. Other geodetictasks needed by large companies, whose activi-ties were connected to the Earth's surface, weremostly carried out by geodetic departments ofthose companies. Two institutions were dealingwith geodesy in Zagreb: Cadastral Office foundedin 1929, and, after the World War II, the cityGeodetic Bureau, which was formed by the sur-veyors' section of the city Civil Engineering Of-fice (Lovriæ 1994).

Until the adoption of constitutional amend-ments into the Constitution of Socialist Federa-tive Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRJ) in 1971, i.e.until the creation of new Constitution of SFRJ in1974, the federation was authorized for the fol-lowing geodetic tasks: basic geodetic works, de-tailed land survey, production of geodetic plansand maps, and land cadastre, as well as the gen-eral organization of geodetic service. This matterwas regulated in the same way in the wholecountry on the basis of federal regulations. Thework of the state administration within thescope of legal rights and duties of the federationwas executed by the Federal Geodetic Adminis-tration, which stopped operating in 1971. Theentire authority within the scope of geodetic ac-tivities was transferred to republics and prov-inces. The Republic Geodetic Administration be-came the authority (Dutina 1986).

In the new Croatian state, the state geodeticadministration had the title Administration forGeodetic and Cadastral Tasks at the Ministry ofCivil Engineering and Environment Protection(Gojèeta 1993), and in 1995 it became the StateGeodetic Administration (SGA). The SGA per-forms administrative and professional services inthe fields of geodesy, cartography, cadastre andphotogrammetry, and is concerned with cadas-tral and geodetic-spatial system informatization,official state cartography (1:5 000, 1:25 000,1:50 000, 1:100 000, 1:200 000), geodetic docu-mentation, real estate statistic data, spatial unitsand facility networks, and geodetic and cadastretasks referring to the state border.

According to the new Regulation of the Inter-nal Organization of SGA, which was adopted bythe Croatian Government in 2001, the SGA con-sists of the Central Office in Zagreb and districtoffices. It employs 1293 persons at the moment.

The State Survey and Real Estate CadastreLaw has been applied in Croatia since March 1,2000 (URL 4). One of its important regulationsand novelties is the foundation of a new institu-tion for geodetic works of interest for the Repub-lic of Croatia, titled the Croatian Geodetic Insti-tute (CGI). The CGI is a public institution with

its headquarters in Zagreb. The Republic ofCroatia is its founder, and its rights as a founderwill be realized by the Government of the Repub-lic of Croatia. The CGI is a non-profitable insti-tution intended to perform public works. The fi-nancing and the resources are covered by thestate budget of the Republic of Croatia. Thework of the CGI is going to be supervised by theSGA, and its activities are going to be plannedand realized according to the several year workprogram suggested by the SGA and approved bythe Croatian Parliament and the Government ofthe Republic of Croatia (Ro�iæ 2000).

2 �#��$ ��$ ��9�

An irreplaceable role in the development ofgeodesy and other geosciences comes from theestablishment and modernization of basic geo-detic networks, which are the basis for other geo-detic tasks, for practical or scientific purposesalike. The basic geodetic networks are: astro-nomic-geodetic network, trigonometric network,the precise levelling network and highly accuratelevelling, and the basic gravimetric network (Bi-lajbegoviæ 1997). There are brief retrospectionsof the trigonometric and levelling networks andthe geoid of Croatia following in the text hereun-der.

2., �� %��$ ��9

The first triangulation tasks in the area ofCroatia were carried out between 1810 and 1816.They were carried out by Austrian Military-Geo-graphic Institute in Vienna in order to define the1st order triangulation network. Until the begin-ning of the World War I, a detailed trigonometricnetwork was developed in the area of Croatia(Geodetska uprava NRH 1953). At the end of theWorld War I, the 1st order triangulation networkin the Croatian area was not complete andunique (Adamik 1949). The development of Yu-goslavia brought up the problem of defining andadopting a single projection, in which the wholetrigonometric network of the entire state areashould have been calculated. The problem was fi-nally solved in 1924, and the Gauss-Krüger pro-jection of meridian zones was chosen.

The 1st order triangulation network inCroatia is based on 13 Laplace points and con-tains 77 points altogether, determined duringthe period 1850-1954. The 2nd order network,which was established from 1933 to 1961, con-tains 470 points. In the third basic levelling net-work, there are 1843 points, and in the thirdsupplementing levelling network, there are 1670,with the total of 4583 points in the third level-


ling network. The network of 4th order geodeticpoints contains 23 781 points. Hence, there is atotal of 28 854 trigonometric points in Croatia,which means that one basic network point ap-pears at every 187 hectares (Bo�iænik 1984b).

Application of GPS surveys in Croatiastarted in 1990, when the Faculty of Geodesybought Astech GPS devices. A series of GPS sur-vey campaigns was organized: CROATIA-91,TYRGEONET-91 etc. (Solariæ et al. 1996).

Contemporary methods of satellite geodesy,primarily GPS (Global Positioning System), havebecome a routine method in establishing all or-ders of geodetic networks at the end of the 20thcentury (Bilajbegoviæ et al. 1991). The first stepsin connecting Croatia into the unique EuropeanReference Frame (EUREF) were taken afterCroatia had become a member of UN at the be-ginning of 1992. In the summer of 1993, thefoundations were laid for an international GPS--campaign in the Republic of Croatia and the Re-public of Slovenia titled EUREF'94. A total of 10points at the territory of Croatia, being at thesame time the 1st order trigonometric points,were definitely accepted. The observations wereperformed from May 30 to June 3, 1994 (Èoliæ etal. 1996).

Participation in the large internationalgeodynamic project CERGOP, in which 12middle European countries participate, is alsovery important for Croatia. The Brusnik pointwas included in the project in 1994, the HvarObservatory in 1996, and GPS stations Dubrov-nik and Osijek in 2000. Geodynamic projects ofCRODYN-94, 96 and 98 should also be men-tioned (Èoliæ et al. 1996).

A project titled The Restoration of 2nd OrderTrigonometric Network and the Establishment ofHomogenous Field in Croatia was initiated inthe Republic of Croatia. The project was sup-posed to revise 2nd order trigonometric networkand use all trigonometric points suitable forGPS-surveys in the GPS-point homogenous field10�10 km. The surveys of the whole territory of the

Republic of Croatia have been realized up to the pres-

ent days.

A homogenous field of permanent geodeticpoints was established for the larger cities in theRepublic of Croatia, by using GPS-technology atthe average distance of about 500 meters. Theprojects for the following cities have been fin-ished: Vara�din, Karlovac, Prelog, Sisak, Osijekand Ivanovac, Ðakovo, Split, Plitvièka jezera,Krapina, Zabok, Èakovec, Nedelišæe, Samobor,Kri�evci and Zagreb (URL 4).

Pillars of one of the longest calibration basesfor examining and calibrating electro optical dis-

tance-meters were built in 1982 near VelikaGorica. All types of distance meter errors can beexamined on that base (Solariæ et al. 1992). Thebase was surveyed precisely with Mekometar ME5000 in 1988, and in 1996 it was connected withthe base in Munich, and through it with otherbases in the world (Solariæ et al. 2000).

2.� ��+�� 9

Comprehensive general geometric levellingwas performed on the territory of today's Repub-lic of Croatia during the period 1875-1973. Be-sides the so-called Austrian precise levelling, lev-elling traverses and networks were mostly madeduring the period 1946-1973. After the so-calledsurvey of the 2nd highly precise levelling of theformer Yugoslavia was completed in 1973, therewas no continuation of the systematic generallevelling survey. Complementing parts of the lev-elling network were completely dependent on theheight system of the former Austro-HungarianMonarchy until the beginning of 1994. The com-prehensiveness of the task and the documenta-tions on the territory of Croatia illustrate the to-tal number of 468 levelling traverses with about23 000 bench marks. Bench marks form the ma-terial basis of the height system which served itsfunction for about 130 years, and it still servesfor solving different professional and scientificgeodetic tasks (Ro�iæ, Feil 2003).

On the basis of terrain revision of all level-ling traverses and networks on the territory ofthe Republic of Croatia, gathered during the pe-riod 1994-2000, a detailed review of bench markpreservation was produced. The terrain revisiondetermined the preservation of 10 785 or 46%bench marks, 8728 or 37% destroyed benchmarks, unavailability (mostly mines) of 743 or3% bench marks and 3331 or 14% bench markswere not found. On the basis of this data and acomprehensive analysis, Ro�iæ and Feil (2003)conclude that a new cycle of systematic work onthe height system would be required during theupcoming period, in order to remove the defi-ciencies of the existing one and to improve thequality, reliability and promptness of the heightsystem to the appropriate contemporary scien-tific-professional level.

2.� � ��#�� %�� " �&� ��" �&� ��)�8��$ �" ��#��#

Although efforts have been made in the fieldof determining the surface of the geoid in theseareas thirty years ago (Muminagiæ 1971), firstmore detailed calculations weren't undertakenuntil Croatia became independent. In 1992, thefirst solution for the North-Western Croatia was


published, and it was based on astro-geodetic de-flections of the vertical, and one year later, thefirst gravimetric geoid for the whole country ap-peared. Significant progress was realized in Aprilof 1998, when the new model of the HRG98geoid was presented at the 23rd General assem-bly of the European Geophysical Society in Nice.The modification HRG98A was presented thesame year in September at the 2nd Conference ofthe International Gravimetric Commission andthe International Geoid Commission in Trieste.Those were geoid surfaces for Croatia absolutelyoriented, whose internal accuracy in the largestpart of the area is ±1-2 cm to maximally ±5 cm onthe edges. A new detailed surface of the geoid ofthe Republic of Croatia, called HRG2000 was cal-culated during 2000. At the end, it should bementioned that the real verification of quality ofthe new surface of the geoid has not been under-taken yet, through some independent control,e.g. with the help of new GPS/levelling data (Ba-šiæ 2001).

3 ��$ *��+�'

Geodetic survey is defined as gathering, edit-ing and representing data by geodetic methods.The most important types of geodetic survey arethe cadastral survey, the topographic survey andthe hydrographic-geodetic survey.

3., �#�#��#� ��+�'

The cadastral survey was used, and is stillused as a source for founding and maintainingland cadastre or real estate cadastre and landregister book. On the territory of Croatia, a partof the former Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, thecadastre survey was being carried out in the19th century. The so-called pure cadastre in-come, as an objective taxing criteria started tak-ing effect. It was dependent on three factors: theland size, the quality of the land, and the cropsgrowing on it. Special cadastre institutions,linked to the ministries of finance, were con-cerned with determining this data for each landparcels, i.e. via land cadastre structure. In orderto determine the area of each parcel, the cadas-tre institutions had been executing systematicland surveys, from 1818 to 1880 (Macarol 1968).

The first land cadastre revisions in Croatiahad been carried out in Dalmatia as early as1873. It was not until 1929 that the first cadas-tre offices were founded in the former Yugosla-vian Kingdom, and they were somewhat similarto the today's type of organized geodetic servicein the state administration. The land cadastre al-

most faded out with its weak tempo during theperiod of the World War II.

According to the data from the State Geo-detic Administration, the number of sheets andhectares and the percentage depending on thesurvey type is: graphic survey (34 783 sheets;4 449 543 hectares; 78,4%)), orthogonal surveyand tacheometry (4705 sheets; 152 278 hectares;2,7%), photogrammetry (6219 sheets; 275 352hectares; 4,9%) and land consolidation (10 116sheets; 797 001 hectares; 14%). There is a totalof 55 823 cadastre plan sheets in Croatia (Fig.1), covering the total area of 5 674 174 hectares.It can be concluded from these data that only21,6 % of Croatia has contemporary numeric sur-vey, and the rest has graphic survey from the19th and the beginning of the 20th century. Outof all cadastre plan sheets, 12 679 sheets are inbad condition, and 6647 sheets are in very badcondition (URL 4).

Cadastre survey data do not present a clearpicture of the state that the real estate cadastreand the land register book in Croatia are in. Thelargest problem is their lack of coordination. Thetwo records are so intensly uncoordinated that itpractically disables their economic usage, whichcan not be compared to any other transitioncountry, not to mention the Western Europeancountries (Gojèeta 1997). Besides, 232 out of3307 cadastre communities have no land registerbook at all. The land register books were re-newed in 625 cadastre communities, but it wasnot the case in 1952 communities (URL 4).


F i g . 1 – A segment of the cadastre plan

At the beginning of 2002, the State GeodeticAdministration's program of state survey andreal estate cadastre made itself a goal to vecto-rize all 55 823 cadastre plan sheets until 2010.Within the scope of the CRONO GIP I project(Croatian-Norwegian Geoinformation Project),with Norwegian financial support of 9.5 millionkunas, a State Geodetic Administration's processline for scanning and vectorization of cadastreplans was established. In the past 14 months,since the line has been established, 4000 cadas-tre plan sheets and 3500 Croatian base mapsheets at 1:5000 have been scanned. The basicgoal of the whole project is to make the cadastredata available to users in a simple and modernway, and to facilitate their maintenance (Bosi-ljevac 2003).

At the end of 2002, the State Geodetic Ad-ministration initiated a project of putting in or-der land books and real estate cadastre. For thispurpose, the Republic of Croatia and the Inter-national Bank for Restoration and Developmentcreated a loan contract. The goal of the recom-mended project was the construction of an effi-cient land administration system in order to con-tribute to the development of an efficient real es-tate market. The total area of the territory rec-ommended for renovation, corrections and co-or-dination of land book and cadastre data in thescope of the project comes to about 250 000 hecta-res (about 5% of the total Croatian territory), en-compasses about 1.05 million parcels, and theproject in that area would benefit 360 000 peo-ple, including about 110 000 real estate owners(Marjanoviæ 2003). In the end, let us point outthat the cadastre and the land book merged intoa united information system is one of the largestinformation systems in many countries. InCroatia, such a system would contain data about22 779 351 land parcels (URL 4).

3.� ��)� �#)&�$ ��+�'

Croatia used to be a part of Austro-Hungar-ian Monarchy, and then later, from 1918, a partof Yugoslavia. At the time, no state geodetic in-stitution, which would be exclusively concernedwith topographic-mapping activities, topographicand photogrammetric surveys, and the produc-tion and publishing of topographic maps, wasfounded in Croatia (URL 4). The only kind ofmap which was produced in Croatia at that timewas the State Base Map at the scale of 1:5000,whereas the topographic maps had been pro-duced, until 1918, at the Military-Geographic In-stitute in Vienna and then later at the Military--Geographic Institute in Belgrade, for militaryand civilian purposes alike.

In the 1920s, there was a good topographicmap in the newly-founded Yugoslavia made bythe Military-Geographic Institute in Vienna atthe scale of 1:75 000 for the areas of Croatia,Slovenia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Duringthe period 1929-1933, the Military-GeographicInstitute from Belgrade carried out content reno-vation for those areas and created originals atthe scale of 1:50 000 from the Austro-Hungariansurvey. For the rest of Yugoslavia (Serbia, MonteNegro, Macedonia), the Military-Geographic In-stitute performed a topographic survey at thescale of 1:50 000 during the period 1920-1933. ASpecial Map of Yugoslavia at the scale of1:100 000 in polyhedral projection was produced.The prime meridian was the one in Paris. Themap consisted of 197 30'�30' size sheets. The map

has also been published at the scale of 1:50 000 since

1931. A topographic map at the scale of 1:200 000 was

produced from 1945 to 1951. The basic source for the

map was the Special Map at the scale of 1:100 000,

which was revised in 1946.

The next topographic survey of the formerYugoslavia was carried out from 1947 to 1976.This survey was at the same time the first inte-gral survey of Yugoslavian territory. A topo-graphic base map of Yugoslavia at the scale of1:25 000 was produced on the basis of that sur-vey (Fig. 2). The map was produced in threeGauss-Krüger projection systems on the basisof Bessel's ellipsoid. The Greenwich meridianwas chosen as the starting one. On the basisof that map, topographic maps at smallerscales, i.e. 1:50 000, 1:100 000 and 1:200 000,and general topographic maps at the scales of1:300 000 and 1:500 000 were produced (Fran-èula 2000).


F i g . 2 – A segment of topographic map at the scale of1:25 000

In order to produce new topographic map inCroatia after it became independent, new aero-photogrammetric surveys started. Data process-ing was carried out using digital methods in or-der to not only produce a map, but also to pro-duce a quality topographic data basis for the cre-ation of an information system and a digital re-lief model (URL 4).

As it was already mentioned, the only topo-graphic map to be produced in Croatia up to1991 under the authority of Croatian adminis-tration was the Croatian Base Map at the scaleof 1:5000. 8514 out of 9821 sheets were producedfrom 1954 to 2003 (Landek 2003).

3.� �� #)&�$1 ��$ ��+�'

The Austro-Hungarian navy was among thefirst in Europe to establish a hydrographic ser-vice in the Croatian part of the Adriatic (1860),which is still active today, constantly perfectingresearch methods and survey technology.

The Hydrographic Institute of the Republicof Croatia in Split performs research, develop-ment and professional tasks connected with thesafety of sailing in the Adriatic Sea, hydrogra-phic-geodetic survey of the Adriatic, maritimegeodesy, design and production of charts andnautical publications, oceanological research, theresearch of submarine geology, and publishingand printing tasks.

The hydrographic department of the Hydro-graphic Institute of the Republic of Croatia isconsidered with the geodetic survey of the nar-row coastal and island belt and it revises and up-dates the changes on the coast itself. It also per-forms a complex hydrographic survey alongsidecoastal and island shallow sea area and in theopen maritime space inside the internationalnavigable ways. The Hydrographic Institute hastreated about 1000 hydrographic originals atvarious scales so far.

The cartographic activities of the Hydro-graphic Institute encompasses the designing andthe production of navigational charts (Fig. 3),plans, schemes and representations in maritimepublications in analogous or digital form (URL 5)which are needed for the maintenance of thesafety at sea and uninterrupted navigationthrough a certain area.

4 ��' �� +��

Geodesy is applied in nearly all of its aspectsin the process of designing and building struc-tures. That is why surveying and geodetic workhas to be entrusted with very experienced profes-

sionals. Besides the knowledge of basic geodeticdisciplines, they also have to posses a consider-able experience in all geodetic tasks, and theyhave to be familiar with the problems of relatedprofessions, for which the geodetic base and top-ographic data are given. In many cases, it is ne-cessary to know the construction processes andthe organization of the work-site in order tocarry out geodetic tasks successfully.

Geodetic bases for designing and projectingare maps and plans at various scales, dependingon the character of the project and the designingphase, and digital relief models. Maps and planscan be standard products of geodetic service, atcertain scales and of certain contents. But, theycan also be specially produced with certain con-tents and precision for a particular purpose. Geo-detic basis consists of points placed and stabi-lized in the field with their positions in spacemathematically determined by their co-ordinates(y, x) in a particular projection system, and byheight H (elevation) with respect to a certainlevel.

The project worked out in detail on geodeticbasis is set out in the field referring to positionsand heights, on the basis of the set out elements,and depending on the chosen method.

Various geodetic control surveys are exe-cuted during the process of construction activi-ties and after they have started. These surveysshould ensure the object construction regularityaccording to the shape and the size given in theproject. After the construction has been com-pleted, geodetic control surveys monitor the ob-ject's shape and size changes, which can becaused by external influences (Jankoviæ 1968).


F i g . 3 – A segment of a chart

Geotopographic tasks in tunnel design andconstruction are among the most complicatedand responsible geodetic tasks in civil engineer-ing. These tasks can be divided into two parts.The first part consists of above ground tasks,which precede designing processes, and it encom-passes preliminary task for the main project. Thesecond part of geodetic tasks encompasses above--ground tasks intended for determining the geo-detic basis in order to calculate the set out ele-ments, geodetic tasks in tunnels, e.g. setting outtunnel routes and objects under the Earth's sur-face during the construction period, and con-struction control. These geodetic tasks are veryimportant: the construction regularity and thebreaching security with required precision de-pend on them.

Contrary to other buildings, hydrotechnicalstructures have certain specific qualities, becausemost hydrotechnic objects are exposed to waterpressure. The geodesists have an important rolein designing, building and controlling of hydro-technical structures, because such structures willoften change geographic relations in space andsuffer from deformations (Jankoviæ 1966).

7 ��$ ��%)#��

Currently, there are 427 physical and legalpersons in Croatia who have State Geodetic Ad-ministration's consent for performing state sur-vey and real estate cadastre tasks (Krpeljeviæ2002). The activities of (as far as we know) fivelargest geodetic companies in Croatia are de-scribed briefly hereunder:

Company for Photogrammetry Inc. Zagreb,one of the most important institutions of Cro-atian geodetic activity, not only because of thequantity of performed geodetic tasks, but alsobecause of its pioneer role which it has had inthe adoption and application of contemporarytechnologies in the profession for more than 40years, since its foundation in 1961, and the de-velopment of geodetic service in Croatia. Thecompany is technically and professionally capa-ble of carrying out all geodetic, photogrammetricand cartographic tasks, like: designing and set-ting up of geodetic control networks, detailed ca-dastral and topographic surveys, meeting theneeds of engineering designing and geodeticmonitoring of constructions in civil engineeringand economy, producing topographic and the-matic maps. The Company for PhotogrammetryInc. employs about 70 employees, mostly engi-neers and geodetic technicians, and it consists ofa technical and a financial-general department.The technical department is divided into two sec-

tors – the survey sector and the processing sector– including field and specialized working units –teams. The tasks connected with field geodeticsurveys, cadastre, and GPS surveys are carriedout in the survey sector. All photogrammetrictasks, digital data processing, and the productionand finalization of maps and plans are carriedout in the processing sector (URL 6).

Company for Geodesy Inc. Osijek is a com-pany with over 50 years of business tradition inthe field of geodetic, informatics and photo-grammetric applications. It constantly works onthe implementation of recent technologies in itsactivities. In 1997, two two-engine airplanesadapted to fast and economic spatial data collect-ing in digital form were acquired. Due to con-temporary highly sophisticated geoinformationequipment and professional personnel, this com-pany accomplished numerous and prominentprofessional activities and projects, attendancesat conferences in Croatia and abroad, and got aseries of awards and acknowledgments. Impor-tant professional activities are the projects ofmap production, land arrangement, geodetic con-trol of civil engineering, hydrotechnic and trafficobjects, renewal projects etc. All these projectsare supported by the GIS and CAD technologies.The Company applies the newest optical andelectronic survey instruments, as well as remotesensing devices (URL 7).

Company for Geodesy Inc. Rijeka founded in1952, still operates successfully today. When theInstitute was founded, it was primarily con-cerned with cadastral survey, cartography, indu-strial geodesy, orthophotomap production, andtoday again it mostly carries out cadastral sur-vey, but now in order to renew land registerbooks. More than 200 000 hectares of new ca-dastral survey were produced for the purposes ofthose tasks. The Section for Photogrammetryperforms all types of photogrammetric mappingand data gathering for the purposes of cadastre,projecting and producing topographic maps bydigital methods. Other priority activities includedigital relief model production and digitalorthophotomap production. Cartography is rep-resented in the production of the Croatian BaseMap at the scale of 1:5000 in analogous and digi-tal form. Over 1000 sheets have been made sofar, covering 700 000 hectares. The Company re-cently adopted the production of the topographicmap at the scale of 1:25 000 in digital form, and20 sheets of this map have been made on the ter-ritory of Istra, Rijeka and Dalmatia (URL 8).

Company for Geodesy Inc. Split was foundedin 1946 with the name Geodetic Company of theDalmatia District. Since then, it has changed itsname and internal organization several times.


Today it is organized as a joint-stock company, itemploys 60 professionals and contains a Photo-grammetry and Cartography Section and a Sur-vey Section, in the technical segment. Some ofthe Company's activities are: the restitution ofaerial and terrestrial photographs by digital andanalytic methods, GPS survey technology in ba-sic geodetic networks, road, bridge, and tunneldesigning, precise surveys via laser equip-ment/scanners, the production of topographicand thematic maps (TK 1:25 000, Croatian BaseMap 1:5000), the production of digital cadastreplans, the production of digital orthophotoplansand the production of geodetic projects as an in-gredient part of the main civil engineering pro-jects at highway construction.

Geofoto Llc., with its headquarters in Zagreb,started operating in 1993 as the first Croatianaerial survey service. Besides the aerial surveys,it is especially active in the field of digital cartog-raphy, analytic photogrammetry mapping, cadas-tral survey and the geoinformation system foun-dation. Geofoto has 30 permanent and 5 contractemployees, the most modern and the bestequipped photo laboratory, its own plane, a LeicaRC20 aerial survey high technology camera, twoanalytic stereoinstruments, a precise photogram-metry scanner, several digital aerial surveyworkstations, powerful informatics infrastruc-ture, international experience, and highly edu-cated young experts (URL 9).

6 *$��$�: ��$#�� #�� -�8��&�� $��+��

6., *$��$�

The first scientific projects and research fi-nanced by state institutions were done by theprofessors of the Faculty of Geodesy in Zagreb,after it became independent in 1962. The collab-orators of the Institute for Cartography at theFaculty of Geodesy worked from 1962 to 1966 onthe topic Determining the Transformation Ele-ments Between Projections and Coordinate Sys-tems of the Old and New Land Survey on theCroatian Territory. The head of the Institute wasB. Borèiæ, and the project was financed by theCouncil for Educational Work of Croatia. The In-stitute for Higher Geodesy of the Faculty of Ge-odesy worked from 1970 to 1975 on the topic Ob-servation of Earth's Artificial Satellites. N. Èu-braniæ was the head, and the project was at firstfinanced by the Federal Fund, and from 1971 bythe Republic Fund for Scientific Work. Duringthe period 1971-1975, the collaborators of the In-stitute for Cartography of the Faculty of Geodesyfinished the largest part of the work on the pro-

duction of the Multilingual Cartographic Dictio-nary, which was published in 1997. The collabo-rators of the Institute for Higher Geodesyworked on the topic Astronomic and GeodeticDetermination of the Hvar Observatory Geogra-phic Co-ordinates during the same period.

The professors and collaborators of the Fac-ulty of Geodesy worked on two projects duringthe period 1976-1980. The first project, The Ba-sic Research in the Field of Geodesy consisted ofseven tasks (two more were added in 1979), andthe project co-ordinator was S. Klak. D. Srebre-noviæ was the co-ordinator of the second project,Surface Water Economy, which consisted of fourtasks (Franèula 1979).

Spatial Arrangement, Improvement and Pro-tection of Man's Environment is the name of theproject financed by the Ministry of Sciences,Technology and Informatics during the period1981-1986. The project included the task The Re-search of Basic Geodetic and Astronomic Param-eters with six subtasks.

The Ministry of Sciences, Technology and In-formatics financed six projects during the period1991-1995, and four projects from the field of ge-odesy during the period 1996-2002. The Ministryof Sciences and Technology has been financingsix projects from the field of geodesy since Au-gust, 2002.

State Geodetic Administration has financed anumber of scientific-professional projects duringthe past years, and those projects were carriedout by the professors and collaborators of theFaculty of Geodesy of the University in Zagreb.Three projects financed by the State GeodeticAdministration in 2000 are of special importanceto all future geodetic tasks in Croatia:

1) T. Bašiæ (head of the project): A Recom-mendation of the Official Geodetic Datumof the Republic of Croatia, University inZagreb – Faculty of Geodesy, Institute forHigher Geodesy, Zagreb, January-March2000.

2) Feil, N. Ro�iæ: A Recommendation of theOfficial Height Datum of the Republic ofCroatia, University in Zagreb, Faculty ofGeodesy, Zagreb 2000.

3) M. Lapaine (head of the project): A Rec-ommendation of Official Map Projectionsof the Republic of Croatia, University inZagreb – Faculty of Geodesy, Zagreb 2000.

6.� ��$#��

��+��(��,��&(

Martin Saboloviæ's textbook, ExercitationesGaeodeticae, published in Latin in 1775, is a


proof that geodetic education existed at the Uni-versity of Zagreb more than two centuries ago(Lapaine 2002). Besides, we know that first di-plomas were handed to young academicians whopassed obligatory tests in 1811, on the basis ofwhich they obtained their academic degrees andthe authority to work in Illyrian provinces as ge-odesists. In other words, we got our first threegraduate geodesists in 1811 (Maštroviæ 1964).

The Academy of Forestry at the Faculty ofPhilosophy, University of Zagreb was founded in1898. Geodesy was lectured there, as well as theother technical subjects. Professor EngineerVinko Hlavinka lectured it. Since the need foradequate education of professionals for regulat-ing proprietary relations, land community divi-sion, land consolidation, cadastre survey, etc.was constantly rising, a special Geodetic Course(Geodetski teèaj) was introduced at the Academyof Forestry in 1908, where professor Pavle Hor-vat held geodesy lectures after professor V. Hla-vinka had left in 1911. A geodetic course, whoseeducational basis was the same as plans and pro-grams of the geodetic studies at high schools inPrague and Vienna, was operating until 1920,when it was transferred to the Geodetic Depart-ment of the High Technical School, which wasfounded in the previous year. Professor PavleHorvat was still the head of geodetic education.The lectures of geodesy were realized at the HighTechnical School in Zagreb in eight semesters.There was also a Rural Engineering Department,which was merged with the Geodetic Depart-ment in 1923 after many discussions in theschool itself and in the professional public.

Important changes for geodetic educationwere made in 1926, when the High TechnicalSchool entered the University of Zagreb as theFaculty of Technique with appropriate sections.Geodesy was lectured within the scope of Geo-detic-Rural-Engineering Department. This De-partment was renamed to Geodetic-Rural Engi-neering-Technical Department in 1929. Two neworientations were installed at the Faculty ofTechnique at the end of 1946: Geodesy andLand-Improvement. Lectures according to thoseplans and programs have been held until 1948.The Land-Improvement orientation was can-celled in 1951.

One of the more important events in the de-velopment of geodetic education was the parti-tion of the Faculty of Technique in 1956, whenfour new faculties were formed from former de-partments. One of those faculties was the Fac-ulty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Ge-odesy, that remained as such until 1962. Duringthis period, education at the Geodetic Depart-ment was intensified by founding new educa-

tional and scientific units, introducing newcourses of lectures, nominating new professors,and acquiring tools and instruments. This led tothe foundation of the independent Faculty of Ge-odesy of the University of Zagreb in 1962. TheStatute was soon made. An important and newcharacteristic of the new Statute was the exis-tence of two orientations: Geodesy and Rural En-gineering (Jankoviæ 1970). According to the Stat-ute from 1966, it was possible to choose betweengeodetic and rural engineering studies duringthe second year of studying, with small differ-ences in their respective education plans. Agreater difference can be noticed in the thirdyear, while the lectures were completely sepa-rated during the fourth year. This type of in-struction has been carried out until 1985, whenthe Rural Engineering orientation was cancelled.

Later on, greater changes to the plan andprogram of geodetic studies were made in 1994.According to that annual course plan, the firstthree years of the studies are the same for allstudents, and in the fourth year there are threesubject-oriented fields of studies: EngineeringGeodesy, Photogrammetry and Cartography, andSatellite and Physical Geodesy. The name of theEngineering Geodesy field was changed to Engi-neering Geodesy and Spatial Data Managementin the academic year 2000/2001.

The Faculty of Geodesy decided to found thestudies for acquiring higher professional qualifi-cation in 1964 as an integral part of instructionat the Faculty of Geodesy, on the basis of severalyears discussions in the Association of CroatianGeodetic Engineers and Surveyors and initiatedby geodetic organizations (Petkoviæ 1980). Theregular studies for acquiring higher professionalqualification with the duration of five semesterswas introduced at the Faculty of Geodesy in1981, the last enrolled generation was the one in1995/1996, and the last students graduated fromthese studies in October, 2001.

Up to present days, 2005 students have grad-uated from the geodetic studies as engineers, and586 students have acquired the title BSc in geod-esy.

The postgraduate studies were introduced atthe Faculty of Geodesy in 1969, for four sub-ject-oriented fields: Geodesy, Photogrammetry,Cartography and Land-Improvement. The cour-ses started in the summer semester of the aca-demic year 1969/1970 with 30 students. Thename of the Land-Improvement subject-orientedfield was changed to Land-Improvement and Hy-drology in 1974. The names of the fields at theundergraduate and postgraduate studies werecoordinated in 1994, so from that year, three


subject-oriented fields exist at the postgraduatestudies: Engineering Geodesy (since the acade-mic year 2000/2001 Engineering Geodesy andSpatial Data Management), Photogrammetryand Cartography, and Satellite and Physical Ge-odesy. 73 students have received their MSc atthe postgraduate studies so far. Furthermore, 43candidates have achieved the highest degree –PhD so far (URL 10).

Geodetic subjects are also lectured at theFaculties of Forestry, Civil Engineering, Agron-omy, Architecture, and Mining, Geology and Pe-troleum Engineering of the University in Zagreb,and at the Faculty of Civil Engineering of theUniversities in Osijek, Split and Rijeka.

�� ,��$�*$ *�&*��&

In 1860, geodesy was lectured at the Econ-omy-Forestry High School in Kri�evci, textbookswere written, practical instruction was carriedout. The Economy-Forestry High School in Kri-�evci was at the high school educational level, soit was truly the beginning of institutional highschool geodesy teaching in Croatia.

A two-year surveying department wasopened at the Technical High School in Zagrebin 1928, but it was cancelled because of financialand other reasons in 1932. However, the depart-ment was opened again at the same school in1939, but this time titled the State High Techni-cal School in Zagreb. This time, it was a four--year course. The teaching at the geodetic highschool has been performed continuously since1939, only the school name and the duration ofcourses were changed. In December of 1946, theschool was renamed to the Federal TechnicalHigh School, and it remained that way until1948 when it was cancelled (as a federal institu-tion), and special technical high schools wereformed from its departments. The Geodetic De-partment became the Geodetic High School(Tehnikum), and the duration of teaching wasreduced to three years. In 1952, it was renamedto Geodetic Technical High School, and has beena part of the Civil Engineering High School Cen-tre since 1965. It has been an independent Geo-detic Technical High School since 1991. Thecourses lasted for five years during the period1954-1968, and after that up to present days,they last four years (Merkler et al. 1995).

The administration of the Civil EngineeringHigh School Centre in Osijek, noticing that therewas not enough geodetic personnel in Slavoniaand Baranja, decided to open a class of survey-ors. The first, experimental group of geometerswas enrolled during the school year 1976/77.There was a school reform during the next

school year, and it enabled the class to stay.About 30-35 students enrolled each year. Thesurveyor section has worked continually eversince. It acquired all needed geodetic instrumentsand tools during its first few years, so today it iscompletely capable of successful work. Today, itis organized as the Civil Engineering-GeodeticHigh School (Virgej 1998).

Geodetic technicians can also be educated atthe Civil Engineering and Agricultural Techni-cal High School in Rijeka, the Technical HighSchool in Pula, the Technical High School inSlavonski Brod and the Civil Engineering-Tech-nical High School in Split.

6.� -�8��&�� $��+��

��)��%��-&��$�&

The first practical geodesy textbook in Cro-atian, titled Geodesy, was published by V. Kö-röškenji in Zagreb in 1874. A textbook by F. Kru-�iæ, Practical Geodesy, was published in 1911.Textbooks Geodesy I, II and III by V. Hlavinkawere published the same year. P. Horvat's text-book, Lower Geodesy was published in 1920. TheBasics of Geodesy parts I and II by N. Neidhardtwere published in 1940 and 1941, respectively.Practical Geodesy by S. Macarol appeared for thefirst time in 1948, and three editions of it havebeen published by Tehnièka knjiga since 1954.The third edition was published in 1978, but thelatest text changes originated from 1961.

N. Èubraniæ, N. Neidhardt, M. Jankoviæ andS. Macarol made the Geodetic Handbook public,and it was published by the Nakladni zavod in1948. D. Benèiæ published the first part of histextbook Geodetic Instruments in 1971, and thesecond part in 1973. Školska knjiga also pub-lished his textbook Geodetic Instruments in 1990.Liber published V. Petkoviæ's textbook Electro-magnetic Distancemeters and their Applicationin Geodesy in 1975. N. Solariæ published thescript Digital Level Wild (Leica) NA2000 andNA3000 with Automatic Levelling Staff Reading(Height and Length) in 1994.

M. Jankoviæ is the author of five engineeringgeodesy textbooks. His Polygonometry was pub-lished in 1951, his Applied Geodesy in 1957 andhis Engineering Geodesy I, II and III in 1968,1966 and 1980, respectively. The first two bookswere published by Tehnièka knjiga, and thethird one by Sveuèilišna naklada Liber (SNL). B.Pribièeviæ and D. Medak are the authors of thetextbook Geodesy in Civil Engineering, and thetextbook was published by V.B.Z. Ltd. in Zagrebin 2003.


F. Kru�iæ published the first photogrammetrytextbook in Croatian titled Photogrammetry andthe Practical Part of Tacheometry in Zagreb in1897. V. Donassy published his first textbookPhotogrammetry I in 1958, and PhotogrammetryII was published the year after that. F. Braum'sfirst textbook, Elementary Photogrammetry, waspublished in 1970. F. Braum published eightmore textbooks dealing with photogrammetry,and the last published was the Orientation onStereoinstruments, which was published in 1991.

Stjepan Horvat published the first textbookin the field of mathematical and physical geodesyin 1931, titled State Survey – I (Practical Geod-esy, part II). The second part, State Survey – II(Practical Geodesy, part II) in 1932. Higher Ge-odesy II by N. P. Abakumov was published in1949. N. Èubraniæ published the Higher GeodesyPart I in 1954, and Part II in 1974. Gravimetryby S. Klak was published in 1962 and in 1975,and Geophysics in 1963, 1972, 1978 and 1984. A.Bilajbegoviæ, B. Hofmann-Wellenhof and H.Lichtenegger are the authors of the book BasicGeodetic Tasks – Contemporary Methods – GPS,which was published by Tehnièka knjiga in 1991.Satellite Geodesy II by _. Baèiæ and T. Bašiæ waspublished as an internal script of the Faculty ofGeodesy in 1999.

Elements of the Theory of Errors and theLeast Squares Method by S. Horvat was pub-lished in 1937 by the Association of the Studentsof the Faculty of Technique in Zagreb as the firsttextbook from the field of theory of errors andthe adjustment computation. N. Èubraniæ is theauthor of the textbook Adjustment Computation,which was published in Zagreb in 1948, and thesecond edition was published by Tehnièka knjigain 1958. The Theory of Errors with the Adjust-ment Computation by N. Èubraniæ was publishedby Tehnièka knjiga in 1967, and by Liber in1980. The textbook Theory of Errors and the Ad-justment Computation by S. Klak was publishedin 1982, and the second, improved edition waspublished in 1985. L. Feil is the author of histextbook Theory of Errors and the AdjustmentComputation Part I and II, which were both pub-lished by the Faculty of Geodesy, in 1989 and1990, respectively. Review Book and a Collectionof Exercises from the Theory of Errors and theAdjustment Computation by N. Ro�iæ was pub-lished in 1993.

In the field of cartography, Tehnièka knjigapublished B. Borèiæ's Mathematical Cartography(Map Projections) in 1955, and Liber publishedhis Gauss-Krüger's Meridian Zone Projection in1976. I. Kreiziger published his TopographicSurvey and Map Production and Reproduction in1962. P. Lovriæ published Map Reproduction in

1983 and General Cartography in 1988. N. Fran-èula published three internal scripts of the Fac-ulty of Geodesy: Digital Mapping in 1996, 1999and 2001, Map Generalization in 1997 and MapProjections in 2000.

The Croatian State Archive in Zagreb keepsthe text Lectures at the Geodetic Course in Za-greb, which were held in the third semester ofacademic year 1914/1915 by Hinko Veè. V. Mediæpublished two textbooks from the field of cadas-tre – Cadastre of Facilities in 1970, Elements ofCadastre in 1972 and two textbooks from thefield of land improvement – Land Consolidationin 1965 and Land Improvement, Part I 1978. In-ternal script of the Faculty of Geodesy Land Ca-dastre and Land Book by M. Roiæ, I. Fanton andV. Mediæ was published in 1999.

In the field of geodetic astronomy, N. P. Aba-kumov published Spherical Astronomy in 1949.P. Terziæ published the first edition of his text-book Spherical Astronomy in 1972. Three moreeditions were published, and the last one waspublished in 1990. Geodetic Astronomy II by thesame author was published in 1988.

In the field of geodetic calculations and infor-matics, B. Apsen, the author of many exercisecollections and mathematical review books, alsopublished the handbook Logarithmic Slide Rulein 1945, 1949 and 1952. The Handbook for Geo-detic Calculations Training was published by Z.Narobe in 1959 and 1974. M. Brukner publishedthe textbook Electronic Computers and Pro-gramming in 1972 and 1976, and ElectronicData Processing in 1984 (Miljaniæ 1961, Æaliæ1980, Cigrovski 1985).

The textbooks and scripts from hydrology,hydraulics, mechanics and mathematics are notlisted here because of space limitation.

��"�� *&��$� &

V. Cimerman is the author of the Atlas ofGeodetic Instruments, which was published byTehnièka knjiga in 1960. The first monograph onapplying remote sensing in geosciences was pub-lished in 1983 by V. Donassy, M. Oluiæ, and Z.Tomašegoviæ, titled Remote Sensing inGeosciences. M. Brukner, M. Oluiæ and S.Tomaniæ published the monograph Geographicand Land Information System (A MethodologyStudy) in 1993. INA-INFO published M. Bruk-ner's monograph GIZIS – Basics – Geographicand Land Information System in 1994.

The monograph Drawing in Science, whoseeditor is M. Lapaine, and which was published bythe Faculty of Geodesy in Zagreb in 1998 wasawarded the award of the Croatian Academy of


Sciences and Arts in the field of information sci-ences.

The Faculty of Geodesy published the pro-ceedings containing numerous monographs fromthe field of geodesy. 38 volumes have been pub-lished from 1965 to 1987 in the A Series – Pa-pers. 8 PhD theses were published in the B Se-ries – Dissertations. The C Series – Translationscontains four volumes, and the D Series – ExpertOpinions, Projects, Studies contains seven vol-umes (the sixth volumes consists of eight books).Two proceedings were published independentlyfrom these series:

The Proceedings of the Faculty of Geodesy,University of Zagreb on the occasion of the30th anniversary of its independent activities1962-1992, Zagreb 1992.

The Proceedings of the Faculty of Geodesy,University of Zagreb on the occasion of the40th anniversary of its independent activities1962-2002, Zagreb 2002.

The Croatian Geodetic Society is also an im-portant publisher of geodetic literature. Its pre-decessor, the Association of Societies of CroatianGeodesists organized several important profes-sional meetings and published proceedings. It isimportant to point out the Proceedings of theSymposium State Geodetic Base and Land Infor-mation Systems, Opatija, 1999, and proceedingsof two congresses on cadastre, organized by theCroatian Geodetic Society:

• The 1st Croatian Congress on Cadastre,Proceedings, Zagreb 1997.

• The 2nd Croatian Congress on Cadastre,Proceedings, Zagreb 2001.

The State Geodetic Administration of the Re-public of Croatia (SGA) has started publishingmonographs in the field of geodesy in 2001. Itpublished the monograph The Elements of Spa-tial Data Quality by S. C. Guptill and J. L.Morison that year, and it was translated to Cro-atian by D. Tutiæ and M. Lapaine who was alsothe editor. SGA has started publishing the Re-ports about Scientific-Professional Projects thesame year. The reports include all scientific andprofessional projects financed by SGA (see chap-ter 8.1).

��'��&

Vijesnik, the journal of the Association ofCivil Technicians of the Croatia and SlavoniaKingdoms, is the first professional journal inCroatia almost exclusively considered with geod-esy. Eight issues were published in Nova Gra-diška in 1914, and its editor was Jaroslav Šugh, acivil surveyor (Lovriæ 1994).

Geodetski list, the journal of the CroatianGeodetic Society, has been published for 57 yearswithout interruptions, and for 80 years all to-gether. The first issue was published in Zagrebin 1919, as Glasilo geometara. It changed itsname and the city in which it was published se-veral times until 1941. Several other journalshave been published at the same time, and someof them can be considered predecessors of today'sGeodetski list. These are primarily three jour-nals which have been published in Zagreb be-tween 1937 and 1946. Geodetski list has beenpublished from 1937 to 1941, with the exceptionof period 1938-39, Hrvatska dr�avna izmjera waspublished in 1942, and Agrarne operacije in1944. Geodetski list has been published in Za-greb with the same name continually since 1947(Franèula, Lapaine 1996).

All papers published so far in Geodetski listare registered in two bibliographies: The Bibliog-raphy of Geodetski list 1947-1990 (Franèula et al.1991) and The Bibliography of Geodetski list1991-2002 (Frangeš et al. 2003). There is also abibliography in digital form besides these twobibliographies. It is the GEOLIST program,which can be used for searching the databasecontaining the bibliography of Geodetski list forthe period 1947-2002.

The Association of Geodetic Engineers andGeometers has published Obavijesti from 1958 to1978, and it was dealing with social-professionalissues from the field of geodesy. Four issues werepublished each year.

The Faculty of Geodesy of the University ofZagreb has been publishing a scientific journal inEnglish – Hvar Observatory Bulletin since 1977.The magazine primarily consists of articles fromthe field of astrophysics. 209 authors from 32countries have had their papers published in theBulletin during the past 25 years.

The Croatian Cartographic Society startedpublishing the journal Kartografija i geoinfor-macije which is published annually in Croatianand English. The first volume was published in2002.

; �$9�� %�� #�� #��

K. Èoliæ was awarded the Baeyer memorialmedal at the Central Institute for Physics of theEarth in Potsdam in 1990.

The State Award for Lifetime Work in thefield of science was awarded to N. Èubraniæ(1975) and B. Borèiæ (1976). The State Award forScience was awarded to M. Jankoviæ (1974), D.


Srebrenoviæ (1974), F. Braum (1979), D. Benèiæ(1986), N. Solariæ (1994) and T. Bašiæ (2002).

The “Fran Bošnjakoviæ” Award of the Uni-versity in Zagreb for the year 2001 was awardedto M. Solariæ.

S. Horvat was the rector of the University inZagreb in 1945, S. Macarol from 1963 to 1966,and a vice-rector from 1966 to 1968.

S. Klak became a professor emeritus in 1996,and N. Solariæ in 2003.

N. P. Abakumov became a correspondingmember of the Yugoslavian Academy of Sciencesand Arts in 1948. J. Alaèeviæ became a full mem-ber of the Academy in 1950. N. Èubraniæ and F.Braum were members collaborators. K. Èoliæ be-came a full member of the Croatian Academy ofSciences and Arts in 1992.

P. Lovriæ and A. Bilajbegoviæ became associ-ate members of the Croatian Academy of Engi-neering in 1994. N. Solariæ and N. Franèula be-came its full members in 1998. M. Lapaine be-came a member collaborator in 1998, and theSecretary General in 2003.

The Grad Velika Gorica Photomap by S.Frangeš and Z. Biljecki was awarded the Awardfor Excellence in Cartography at the Interna-tional Cartographic Exhibition at the 19th Inter-national Cartographic Conference in Ottawa in1999. The Gornji Grad Photomap, a product ofthe Geofoto company, was awarded the sameaward at the world conference of the Interna-tional Cartographic Association held in Beijing in2001.

The Faculty of Geodesy of the University inZagreb was awarded the Josip Juraj StrossmayerDiploma for the most successful publishing un-dertaking in 1998 in the field of information sci-ences, for the Drawing in Science by M. Lapaineand a group of authors, M. Lapaine was the edi-tor.

,� �� -��)�$��+��

The changes which occurred in geodesy inthe past 40 years, and especially in the last de-cade, can be considered revolutionary with no ex-aggerations. They are connected with the devel-opment of electronic, satellite and computertechnology. The changes are so important andhuge that they also cause the changes in thenames of geodetic associations, journals, but alsogeodetic schools and the whole profession. Atfirst in Canada, then in Australia, and then inEurope, the term geomatics was introduced inplace of geodesy/surveying. Geomatics is a con-temporary scientific term for an integrated ac-

cess to spatial data acquiring, analysis, controland representation. The appearance of geomaticsmeans the integration of mathematical and phys-ical geodesy with photogrammetry, remote sens-ing, cartography, geographic and land informa-tion systems and multimedia communication.With the development of information, spatialand computer sciences, classical geodesy trans-forms from analogous into digital, from static todynamic, from off line data processing toreal-time data processing, from local approach toglobal. The term geoinformatics is often used asa synonym for geomatics, so it is indicated that ageodetic engineer is transforming into a geoin-formatician (Franèula, Lapaine 2002).

,, ��"��$��

Adamik, E. (1949): Osvrt na radove trigonometrij-ske mre�e I. reda na podruèju Jugoslavije, Geodet-ski list 8-12, 207-244.Bašiæ, T. (2001): Detaljni model geoida RepublikeHrvatske HRG2000, Izvješæa o znanstveno-struè-nim projektima iz 2000. godine, Republika Hrvat-ska, Dr�avna geodetska uprava, Zagreb, 11-20.Bilajbegoviæ, A. (1997): Trigonometrijska mre�a,Tehnièka enciklopedija, Sv. 13, Leksikografski za-vod “Miroslav Krle�a”, Zagreb, 196-203.Bilajbegoviæ, A., Hofmann-Wellenhof, B., Lichte-negger, H. (1991): Osnovni geodetski radovi – su-vremnene metode – GPS, Tehnièka knjiga, Za-greb.Bosiljevac, M. (2003): Prezentacija rezultata pro-jekta CRONO GIP I (Hrvatsko-norveški geoinfor-macijski projekt), Geodetski list 2, 129.Bo�iænik, M. (1984a): Povodom 30. godišnjiceosnutka i rada Saveza društava geodeta Hrvatske,Geodetski list 4-6, 131-139.Bo�iænik, M. (1984b): Stanje trigonometrijskihmre�a u SR Hrvatskoj, Geodetski list 10-12,245-256.Bo�iænik, M. (1993): Osnivanje Hrvatskog geodet-skog društva, Geodetski list 3, 261-262.Cigrovski, B. (1985): Bibliografija radova 1980-1985,Geodetski fakultet Sveuèilišta u Zagrebu, Zagreb.Èoliæ, K. (1993): Republika Hrvatska u èlanstvuInternacionalne unije za geodeziju i geofiziku(IUGG), Geodetski list 2, 165-169.Èoliæ, K., Bašiæ, T., Seeger, H., Gojèeta, B., Altiner,Y., Rašiæ, Lj., Mediæ, Z., Pribièeviæ, B., Medak, D.,Marjanoviæ, M., Prelogoviæ, E. (1996): Hrvatska uEUREF'94 i projekt CRODYN, Geodetski list 4,331-351.Æaliæ, B. (1980): Bibliografija radova, Geodetski fa-kultet Sveuèilišta u Zagrebu, Zagreb.Dutina, V. (1986): Status i organizacija geodetskeslu�be i struke u Jugoslaviji, Šesti kongres geodet-skih in�enjera i geometara Jugoslavije – Ulogageodetske delatnosti u dugoroènom razvoju Jugo-slavije, Savez geodetskih in�enjera i geometaraJugoslavije, Beograd, 29-51.


Franèula, N. (1979): Razvoj i organizacija znan-stveno-istra�ivaèkog rada na Geodetskom fakul-tetu Sveuèilišta u Zagrebu, Zbornik radova sa-vjetovanja o nauèno-istra�ivaèkom radu i obrazo-vanju kadrova u geodetskoj struci, Savez geo-detskih in�enjera i geometara Jugoslavije, Jajce,205-219.Franèula, N. (2000): Kartografske projekcije, Geo-detski fakultet, Zagreb.Franèula, N., Bo�iænik, M., Vuèetiæ, N., Petroviæ,S. (1991): Bibliografija Geodetskog lista 1947-1990,Savez društava geodeta Hrvatske, Zagreb.Franèula, N., Lapaine, M. (1996): 50. obljetnicaGeodetskog lista, Geodetski list 2, 115-131.Franèula, N., Lapaine, M. (2002): Buduænost geo-dezije, Geodetski list 1, 19-32.Frangeš, S., Lapaine, M., Lapaine, Mir., Franèula,N. (2003): Bibliografija Geodetskog lista 1991-2002,Hrvatsko geodetsko društvo, Zagreb.Geodetska uprava NRH (1953): Sastanak struè-nog savjeta Geodetske uprave NR Hrvatske, Geo-detski list 5-8, 210-233.Gojèeta, B. (1993): Aktualna nastojanja dr�avnogorgana u promicanju geodetske djelatnosti, bitnogèimbenika gospodarskog razvoja i planiranja u Re-publici Hrvatskoj, Geodetski list 4, 287-291.Gojèeta, B. (1997): Hrvatski katastar – Prošlost,sadašnje stanje, obnova i razvitak, Prvi hrvatskikongres o katastru, Zbornik radova, Hrvatsko geo-detsko društvo, Zagreb, str. 3-17.Horvat, S. (ed., 1943): Spomenica 1942.-1943.Tehnièki fakultet Hrvatskog sveuèilišta u Zagre-bu, Zagreb.Jankoviæ. M. (1966): In�enjerska geodezija, drugidio, Tehnièka knjiga, Zagreb.Jankoviæ, M. (1968): In�enjerska geodezija, prvidio, Tehnièka knjiga, Zagreb.Jankoviæ, M. (1970): Spomenica 1919–1969, Geo-detski fakultet Sveuèilišta u Zagrebu, Zagreb.Jankoviæ, M. (1977): Sjeæanje na osnivanje SavezaGIG-a Jugoslavije, Geodetski list 10, 248-250.Kri�aj, E. (1999): O osnutku Komore hrvatskih ar-hitekata i in�enjera u graditeljstvu, Geodetski list1, 49-53.Krpeljeviæ, Z. (ed., 2002): Geodetski informator 2,Dr�avna geodetska uprava, Zagreb.Landek, I. (ed., 2003): Katalog proizvoda 2003, Re-publika Hrvatska, Dr�avna geodetska uprava,Zagreb.Lapaine, M. (ed., 2002): Exercitationes Gaeodeti-cae, Geodetske vje�be, Hrvatsko geodetsko dru-štvo, Zagreb.Lovriæ, P. (1994): Geodezija u Hrvatskoj u 20. sto-ljeæu – Povodom 75. obljetnice osnutka Tehnièkevisoke škole u Zagrebu, Geodetski fakultet Sveuèi-lišta u Zagrebu, Zagreb.Macarol, S. (1968): Praktièna geodezija, Tehnièkaknjiga, Zagreb.Marjanoviæ, M. (2003): Projekt sreðivanja zemljiš-nih knjiga i katastra, Geodetski list 2, 129-132.Maštroviæ, Lj. (1964): Povijesni pregled školstva uZadru, Zadar, zbornik, Matica Hrvatska 487-526.

Merkler, D., Sliepèeviæ, T., Soldo, Z. (1995): Mono-grafija Geodetske tehnièke škole, Geodetska teh-nièka škola, Zagreb.Milaèiæ, D. (1959): Rad i delatnost Udru�enja geo-metara i geodeta Jugoslavije, Geodetski list 12,326-356.Miljaniæ, A. (1961): Geodetski bibliografski priruè-nik 1868-1960, Savez geodetskih in�enjera i geo-metara NR Srbije, Beograd.Muminagiæ, A. (1971): Ispitivanje realnog geoida uJugoslaviji, PhD thesis, University of Zagreb, Fa-culty of Geodesy, Zagreb.Petkoviæ V. (1980): Spomenica povodom 60 godinageodetskog visokog školstva na Sveuèilištu u Za-grebu, Geodetski fakultet Sveuèilišta u Zagrebu,Zagreb.Ro�iæ, N. (2000): Hrvatski geodetski institut, Geo-detski list 4, 293-294.Ro�iæ, N., Feil, L. (2003): Studija o obnovi i odr�a-vanju visinskog sustava Republike Hrvatske, Iz-vješæa o znanstveno-struènim projektima iz 2001.godine, Republika Hrvatska, Dr�avna geodetskauprava, Zagreb, str. 1-20.Solariæ, M., Bilajbegoviæ, A., Junaševiæ, M.,Ambroš, F., Cigrovski-Deteliæ, B., D�apo, M., Ivko-viæ, M., Heæimoviæ, _., Barkoviæ, Ð., Baèiæ, _., Po-dunavac, B. (1996): Pregled ostvarenih rezultatana znanstvenom projektu: Osnovni geodetski ra-dovi informacijskog prostornog sustava RepublikeHrvatske, Geodetski list 1, 29-39.Solariæ, N., Lapaine, M., Novakoviæ, G. (2002): Te-sting the precision of the precise electro-optical di-stance meter Mekometer Me 5000 on the Cali-bration baseline Zagreb, Surveying Review 286,612-626.Solariæ, N., Solariæ, M., Benèiæ, D. (1992): Projekt iizgradnja kalibracijske baze Geodetskog fakultetaSveuèilišta u Zagrebu, Geodetski list 1, 7-27.Struèni geodetski savet (1947): Zasedanje struè-nog geodetskog saveta, Geodetski list 2-3, 49-63.Vidojkoviæ, M. H. (1936): Geodetsko-geometarskapitanja kod nas, Geometarski i geodetski glasnik5, 396-405.Virgej, V. (1998): Osnivanje odjeljenja “geometar”u Graðevinskom školskom centru u Osijeku. U: D.Obradoviæ (ideja i realizacija), Geodetska školaOsijek 1976/77-1996/97, Geodetska škola Osijek,16-18.

,� �� #��

URL 1: Hrvatski in�enjerski savez (Croatian Engi-neering Association) – www.tel.hr./his (1. 9. 2003)URL 2: Hrvatsko geodetsko društvo (Croatian Ge-odetic Society) – www.geof.hr/hgd (1. 9. 2003)URL 3: Hrvatsko kartografsko društvo (CroatianCartographic Society) – www.kartografija.hr (1. 9.2003)URL 4: Dr�avna geodetska uprava, Zagreb (StateGeodetic Administration) – www.dgu.hr (1. 9.2003)


URL 5: Hrvatski hidrografski institut, Split(Hydrographic Institute of the Republic of Cora-tia) – www.hhi.hr (1. 9. 2003)URL 6: Zavod za fotogrametriju d.d. Zagreb (Com-pany for Photogrammetry) – www.zzf.hr (1. 9.2003)URL 7: HIZ – Hrvatski informatièki zbor (Croa-tian Information Ttechnology Society), Bilten broj2/1998 – www.hiz.hr/bilten2.html (1. 9. 2003)

URL 8: Geodetski zavod Rijeka d.d. (GeodeticCompany Rijeka) – www.gzr.hr (1. 9. 2003)URL 9: Geofoto d.o.o., Zagreb – www.geofoto.hr(1. 9. 2003)URL 10: Geodetski fakultet Sveuèilišta u Zagrebu(University of Zagreb, Faculty of Geodesy) –www.geof.hr (1. 9. 2003)


Nedjeljko Franèula, regular member, Croatian Academy of EngineeringMiljenko Lapaine, collaborating member, Croatian Academy of EngineeringUniversity of Zagreb, Faculty of Geodesy, Kaciceva 26, Zagreb

��!��!�)��%��!�&�!��!�"!��!��8�� !��!�� !-��$��

Davorin Matanoviæ

Coiled tubing (CT) is used in works that can be devided in two categories. Thatare production services, and drilling services. The use for comlestion andwork-over was the original application and represents today about 75% of CTspending, growing about 10% per year. Second category, drilling services repre-sents 25% of spending, but is growing about 30% per year.The advantage when compared to conventional threaded pipes is that conti-

nuous CT can be tripped into and out of the well more quickly. Much more suchcontinuous pipe can be tripped while the well is under pressure, without killing awell.The reason for this growth is in improving quality of the tube itself, better trac-

king of pipe use, and “spent life” prediction. Technical and technological improve-ments have made coiled tubing more feasible and economical to drill with, but itstechnology is still developed. Each project must be evaluated and a thorough re-view is required to ensure that the coiled tubing is capable to sustain drilling re-quirements.

, ��$��

About 780 CT units are currently workingthrough the world. Fig. 1 ilustrates the numberof annual coiled tubing drilled wells. There isabout 7000 wells drilled with coiled tubing, andeach year there is about 700 more. Most of themare drilled in Canada (shallow directional wells)and Alaska (reentering).

Reasons that are forcing the use of coiledtubing unit instead of standard drilling rig are:

• shorter tripping time• continuous fluid circulation• drilling and tripping under pressure• smaller drill-site footprint• smaller amount of rig crue• smaller amount of gases• less drilled particles• less drilling fluid• less noise, as shown in Fig.2.

� *'��%#��$ �))��#$& �� 8�� )��%��#��

To optimise a drilling process there is a needto develop methods and processes that will im-prove drilling efficiency. The method must besystematic, logical and must have quantifiableapproach. The applicable method is one that de-fines and quantifies two sets of parameters forthe drilling operation: performance objectivesand requirements, as shown in Fig. 3.


F i g . 1 – Annual Coiled Tubing Drilled Wells (1) F i g . 2 – Diferences in factors affecting the use of ro-tary or coiled tubing drilling

To achieve minimal interval cost we have tomaximize on-bottom time and effective rate ofpenetration. First branch determines parametersthat are not direct drilling parameters, but de-pend on well path and used equipment. Secondbranch determines parameters that are of great-est influence in drilling process. Bit design andused down hole motor combination efficiency ac-cording to observed formation characteristics areessential. To obtain optimal performance ofbit-motor combination optimal flow rate must beobtained and proper fluid used. The systematicapproach in selection of such parameters isshown in Figure 4. The approach defines if theprocess is technically feasible.

It starts with definition of several known orchosen parameters, such as: hole or casing andcoiled tubing sizes, well desired depth, well tra-jectory, motor size and coiled tubing unit injectorcapacity. Starting point is the determination ofannular fluid velocity, based on desired size ofcoiled tubing, well construction and maximumflow rate through the motor. This will be the in-dication of fluid ability to clean the hole and tocarry drilled particles out. Knowing formationcharacteristics and determining chosen fluidcharacteristics, second step is in selection ofproper pumps according to discharge and outputpressure. Pressure drop in coiled tubing and an-nulus are determined and pressure loss acrossthe motor and bottom hole assembly as well. Indeviated or horizontal wells proper determina-tion of weight on bit in any moment or point ofthe well trajectory is essential. The determina-tion of compressive load in vertical section, buildsection or horizontal section depends on well tra-

jectory and coiled tubing dimensions. Buckling ofcoiled tubing and lock-up condition is the nextlimitation that must be considered.

Technical and technological improvementshave made coiled tubing more feasible and eco-nomical to drill with, but its technology is stilldeveloped. Each project must be evaluated and athorough review is required to ensure that thecoiled tubing is capable to sustained drilling re-quirements. Current technical capabilities forcoiled tubing drilling are collected in Table 1.

Like any project, a CT drilling project shoulduse the cost-effective solution available or thatyields the highest return of investment. Fig. 5.shows the portion of individual costs in total costwhen drilling with coiled tubing. In addition itwas stated that continuous activity would reduceoverall costs.


F i g . 3 – Systematic approaches influence diagram (2)

F i g . 5 – The portion of individual costs in total costwhen drilling with coiled tubing


F i g . 4 – Procedure of technical feasibility determination (3)

Fig. 6. shows the time comparison whendrilling with rotary rig or coiled tubing, and Fig.

7. shows the cost comparison when drilling withrotary rig or coiled tubing.


T a b l e 1 – Current technical capabilities for coiled tubing drilling (3)

VERTICAL WELLS DEVIATED, HORIZONTAL WELLS

New shallow/Deepening Conventional re-entry Through-tubing re-entry

HOLEDIAMETER

311,15mm (12 �") andsmaller. For holes largerthan 171,45mm (6 �")formations have to be softto be drilled with a120,26mm (4 �"), or a lowtorque 171,45mm (6 �")motor

Side tracks: 152,40mm (6")with BUR (built up rate upto 5°/10m; 120,26mm (4 �")and smaller with BUR upto 15°/10mDeepening: 152,40 mm (6")and smaller

– 88,90mm (3 �") or95,25mm (3 �") if through114,30mm (4 �") tubing orlarger size for largertubing

TOTALDEPTH

– depends on the casingprogram and formationdrill ability– CT (coiled tubing) islimited to small andshallow wells up to 1850m

– more than 3000m– horizontal drain hole canexceed 600m but dependson BUR, KOP (kick-ofpoint), casing innerdiameter, and CT size

– 4500m; CTD (coiledtubing drilling) is nowlimited to 114,30mm (4 �")and larger tubing because ofminimum outer diameter ofdirectional and drilling tools

LIMITINGPARAMETERS

– CT torque limits themotor size– pumping pressure limitsthe depth of the holesection larger than120,26mm (4 �")

– down hole WOB (weighton bit) provided by the CTat the end of horizontalsection, limits thehorizontal length– the BUR is limited by theBHA bending friction forcewhich limits the WOB

– down hole WOB providedby the CT at the end ofhorizontal section, limitsthe horizontal length

CT SIZE – 60,33mm (2 3/8") for holeslarger than 171,45mm(6 �") or for hole sectionlarger than 120,26mm (4 �")and deeper than 1500m– 38,10mm (1 �") can beused for holes smaller than101,60mm (4")

– 50,80mm (2") to60,33mm (2 3/8")depending on the holeprofile

– 44,45mm (1 �") to60,33mm (2 3/8") dependingon the hole profile

F i g . 6 – Time comparison when drilling with rotaryrig or coiled tubing

F i g . 7 – Cost comparison when drilling with rotaryrig or coiled tubing (4)

� �#�� #�'��

Coiled tubing is a continuous steel pipereeled on the reel, and is used in well completion,workovers, drilling and production. Because oflimitations in the use of coiled tubing; life limitsdue to low cycle fatigue (on the reel and in injec-tor), allowed axial forces and pressures (com-bined stresses), change of dimensions (diameterand ovality) it is necessary to understand and ex-amine interrelation of this limitations to deter-mine overall coiled tubing working parametersand durability.

Investigations of typical failures and theirclassification show that coiled tubing fails be-cause of:

• Fatigue/Mechanical Damage 32%(Slip Marks, Flat Spots, Gouges,General OD damage)

• Corrosion-Internal/External 30%(H2S, CO2, Chlorides – Pitting)

• Overloading 20%(Excessive Axial Loads,Internal/External pressures)

• Welds 18%(Tube-To-Tube, Bias (fatigue, corrosion)

Fatigue is the progressive, localized, perma-nent structural change that occurs in materialwhen it is subjected to repeated or fluctuatingstrains at nominal stresses that often much lessthan the tensile strength of the material. Theprocess consists of three stages: (1) fatigue dam-age leading to crack initiation; (2) crack propaga-tion or growth; (3) final, sudden failure of the re-maining cross section. It is the last phase that isusually the first visible evidence that fatigue hasoccurred.

The strain levels imposed on coiled tubing asit is deployed and retrieved from a well are onthe order of 2-3 percent. When combined withinternal pressure, the imposed hoop stresses areon order of 60% of the material’s yield stress. Inaddition to imposed strain, analysis of fatigue be-haviour is complicated with multiaxial and vari-able amplitude of loading. Such working condi-tion results in diameter grow on the order of30%. Furthermore, the bending and pressurehistory greatly influence on damage accumula-tion; a cycle imposed on a section of tubing laterin its life consumes a larger proportion of the to-tal working life than a cycle imposed earlier inthe life.

Because of that coiled tubing has been an in-valuable tool to the oil and gas industry. To im-prove success rate of coiled tubing operationsdata has been collected and analyzed. The analy-

sis has shown that there are several circum-stances that increase the risk of failure. Theseinclude: planning, job complexity, focus onpre-job planning and crue skill levels. In order toidentify the largest opportunity for improve-ments the failure frequency distribution wasnormalized, as shown in Fig. 8. The analysis cov-ers about 1200 runs over 23-month period, andshowed overall success of 82%.(5)

The database analysis has suggested thatthere are three fundamental areas of failurecause. Some of them my be reduced by variousactions that possibly include training as a pri-mary solution. Tools and drilling are amongthem.

2 ��$��

To optimise a process it is necessary to knowhis technical capabilities and to develop methodsfor process evaluation. Possible way is systematicapproach that states the influence values. Opti-misation must be controlled through technicalfeasibility evaluation.

• Starting point in the evaluation is fluid se-lection through desired annular velocityaccording to fluid carrying capacity.

• Second step is coiled tubing selection; in-ner and outer diameter and material evalu-ated for axial, radial and tangentialstresses due to axial forces and pressures.

• Third step is determination of coiled tub-ing behaviour in the well according to de-sired well path.

• Finally, bit and motor combination arechosen on the basis of known rock proper-ties and the motor must withstand the de-sired torque on the bit without stalling.

• In order to avoid failures some guidelinescan be concluded:


F i g . 8 – Distribution of improvement opportunities

1. Simple but precise planning, avoidingcomplexity wherever possible.

2. Accurate data gathering (well condition,well history, components).

3. Equipment reliability in spite of sophisti-cation including bottom-hole assembly.

4. Field and engineering training on a con-tinuous basis.

3 ��#��

(1) …… Coiled Tubing Drilling – State of the market,DOE Microdrill, USA, 2003.

(2) Wolfson L., Mensa-Wilmot G., Coolidge R.: Syste-matic Approach Enhances Drilling Optimisation

and PDC Bit Performance in North Slope ERDProgram, SPE 50557, SPE Annual Technical Con-ference and Exhibition, New Orleans, 27-30 Sep-tember, 1998, pp. 1-12

(3) Gary S.C., Doremus D.M.: Technical and Econo-mical Feasibility of Coiled Tubing Drilling, SPEAnnual Technical Conference &Exhibition, Dal-las, 22-25 October, 1995, pp. 405-413

(4) Graham, R.: Under balanced Drilling With CoiledTubing: A Safe, Economical Method for Drillingand Completion Gas Wells, JCPT Volume 36, No.8, September 1997., pp. 19-27

(5) Engel, S.P., Mackey, P.: Opportunities to ImpruveSuccess Rate of Coiled Tubing Operations, SPE68676, SPE Asia Pacific Oil and Gas Conferenceand Exhibition held in Jakarta, 17-19 April, 2001.,pp. 1-4


Davorin Matanoviæ, collaborating memberCroatian Academy of EngineeringFaculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum EngineeringPierottijeva 6, Zagreb

/��!<!��!��%)��#�'!��#��#�!��

Jure Radiæ, Zlatko Šavor and Goran PuD

The paper gives an overview of the most important characteristics of some ex-ceptional new Croatian bridges. The bridge over Rijeka Dubrovaèka is unique byits asymmetrical layout and the combination of two structures: concrete beam andcable – stayed structure over the same span. Maslenica and Krka arch bridges be-longs to the group of very large concrete arches. Both of them have a wide super-structure supported on a much narrower arch, which make them quite uniqueamong similar bridges. Their design has been strongly influenced by durability de-mands, since older bridges near the sea did not perform well. While Maslenicabridge has a superstructure made of precast prestressed girders interconnected byslab cast in situ, Krka bridge has much lighter composite superstructure. Finally,Domovinski bridge in Zagreb is presented as the first extradosed bridge in ourcountry, and one among few in the world.

, ��$��

World-renowned bridges have always beenbuilt on Croatian soil. The tradition goes back tothe ancient times, to the bridges built as a partof the Diocletian Palace aqueduct in Split, whichwere followed by medieval achievements such asDubrovnik city bridges, and Austro-Hungarianbridges, like the Tounj bridge in two levels. Ex-traordinary scientific contributions by FaustVranèiæ or Ruðer Boškoviæ were far ahead theirtime. Few 20th century bridges should also bementioned.

The bridge on Savska street in Zagreb istechnically one of the most important structuresever to be built in our country. The compositesuperstructure of this bridge is one of major Croa-tian contributions to the development of bridgesand civil engineering structures in general,worldwide. Designers of the bridge were MilivojFrkoviæ and Jure Erega. Milivoj Frkoviæ designedand mostly constructed a number of bridges,among them the unique bridge over Kupa Riverin Sisak, built in combination of brick and natu-ral stone.

More than 40 years of Croatian bridge build-ing, beginning from the period after the Worldwar II to the revival of the Croatian state, islinked to the name of prof. Kruno Tonkoviæ. Sev-eral of his numerous bridges entered the text-books on bridge design as the examples of beau-tiful structures, well harmonized with the sur-roundings, such as bridges over Korana in Slunj,bridge in Skradin, or Most slobode (Libertybridge) in Zagreb.

Four arch bridges of very large spans, theŠibenik bridge, the Pag bridge and the Krkbridges (two arches) were built in the second half

of the twentieth century on the Adriatic coast.The most famous is the Krk I bridge, which heldthe world record among concrete arches. Allthese arches were erected utilizing the free canti-levering method, which was developed on Cro-atian bridges, to be accepted and utilized all overthe world.

End of the 20th and the beginning of 21st cen-tury was marked by extreme growth of bridge– building in Croatia, because of numerouspost-war reconstruction works and intensive de-velopment of road network. Among the hundredsof bridges there are few extraordinary structuresthat place our bridge – builders next to the bestin the world.

� #��$# #�� =�9# ��$& ��

Maslenica and Krka arch bridges follow thetradition of large arch bridges in Croatia. Previ-ously mentioned older bridges exhibit some com-mon characteristics which influence their dura-bility: minimum dimensions of structural ele-ments and very small concrete cover. Their per-formance in service cannot be deemed satisfac-tory. All bridges have been investigated and re-paired, and the Pag bridge had to be completelyreconstructed.

The Maslenica bridge lies horizontally instraight line and the grade line is in an upwardcurvature of R = 17 500 meters, approximately90,0 meters above the sea level. The overallwidth of the roadway is 20,4 meters, with fourtraffic lanes.

The bridge comprises a concrete arch of200 meters span. The arch cross – section is ofbox type, double cell with depth to width ratio of


4.0 / 9.0 meters. The arch was constructed byfree cantilevering on traveling formwork car-riages in 5.26 m long segments. The superstruc-ture comprises eight simple-span precast pre-stressed girders made continuous over interme-diate supports and interconnected by concretedeck slab cast in situ (Fig. 1).

Special measures have been taken to providefor the proper functioning of the bridge situatedin an aggressive maritime environment, with itsservice life set at hundred years. Dimensions ofstructural elements were increased in order toavoid reinforcement congestion and increase du-rability. Structural details and cross sectionswere simplified, in order to minimize executionproblems. A low permeability concrete has beendesigned, using cement with 20% slag addition.High standard quality control system and strictconcrete curing methods were prescribed by thedesign. Similar durability concept was chosen forthe Krka bridge near Skradin.

The bridge similar to Maslenica is being builton the new Adriatic highway crossing the canyonof the Krka river near Skradin. The designer of-fered two alternatives with the arch of the samespan and similar shape. The first one envisionedconventional prestressed concrete superstruc-ture made of precast girders and in situ slab,similar to Maslenica bridge, while other offeredcomposite superstructure. In the second alterna-tive the arch has considerably smaller dimen-sions. The composite superstructure, comprisingsteel girders and reinforced concrete deck-platewas adopted. It was utilized for two large archbridges in France: La Rance, with 261 m span,completed in 1992 and La Roche-Bernard, with201 m span, completed in 1994.

The arch is fixed of double cell box cross-sec-tion with constant outer dimensions, b/h=10.0 x3.0 m. The arch cross-sectional dimensions areconstant, except in the proximity of the spring-ing (Fig. 3).

Composite superstructure consists of twowelded steel box girders spaced at 7,6 m,cross-beams at 4,0 m and edge-beams, formingthe grid work which is connected to the concretedeck-slab by welded shear connectors. Main gird-ers are of constant height, 1,7 m. The deck slabis 25 cm thick, and shall be made of prefabri-cated segments, interconnected by wet joints insitu.

The construction procedure for the arch issimilar to the one used for Maslenica bridge. Thesuperstructure is being assembled on shore andthen launched to the position (Fig. 4).

It is interesting to note that total mass of theSkradin bridge (excluding foundations and abut-ments) is 22.910 tons, which is 35% less than the


F i g . 1 – Maslenica bridge – longitudinal layout andcross-section.

F i g . 2 – Maslenica bridge

F i g . 3 – Krka river bridge near Skradin – longitudi-nal layout and cross-section.

total mass of Maslenica bridge, which is 35.150tons (both bridges are of the same width, beingon the same highway).

� �� #$�� >�9# ��8��+#?9#

The bridge over Rijeka Dubrovaèka, openedfor traffic in May 2002, is the first cable-stayedbridge in Croatia. It is interesting to mentionthat our scientist, Faust Vranèiæ designed theforerunner of all such bridges in his book Ma-chinae Novae, published in 1595.

The works on the bridge at the west entranceto Dubrovnik started in 1990, before the war for

Croatian independence, when approach roadsand one abutment were constructed. After thewar, the original design was changed and theworks started once more in 1998.

Asymmetrical layout with one pylon had tobe chosen because the motorway from west en-ters the bridge in a sharp curve, so that the moreeconomical three – span cable-stayed structurewas not possible. The location of the bridge is ina highly active seismic zone and subject to verystrong winds, which strongly influenced thebridge design.

The bridge lay-out comprises the 87,4 m spanbox type prestressed concrete approach viaductwith the 60 m cantilever and the 244 + 80,7 mcable-stayed bridge with composite superstruc-ture (Fig. 5, Fig 6). The longitudinal layout ofthe cables is of modified fan type with partialsuspension. Cable – stays in two inclined planesare spaced at 20 m. The main bridge superstruc-ture is encastred into the east bank abutment,with 9 pairs of cable – stays anchored in thisabutment.

The Contractor changed the original designin order to simplify the construction procedureand to reduce the maintenance costs. Amongother changes, the hinge in the main span wasintroduced, at the connection of the prestressedand composite part of the superstructure. It isquestionable whether that led to a better struc-tural concept. The hinge in the central spanshould have been avoided in the zone of highseismic risk and because of potential mainte-nance problems.


F i g . 4 – Krka river bridge near Skradin – view to aconstruction site, summer 2003.

F i g . 5 – The Bridge across the Rijeka Dubrovaèka

Two hydraulic dampers of 200 tons capacityare installed at the connection of the viaduct tothe west bank abutment, acting in the directionof the bridge axis to act as fixed bearings in caseof a major earthquake and thus reduce earth-quake actions on the pier. The pier base is de-signed to act as plastic hinge in such occasion.

The “A” shaped concrete pylon is hollow,with walls max. 60 cm thick. Cable stays transferlarge forces in the top of the pylon, so that it hadto be prestressed longitudinally and transver-sally.

Two different erection procedures were usedfor construction of the main bridge superstruc-ture. The steel grillage of the 80,7 m side spanand 33 m long adjoining part of the main spanwas erected by incremental launching from theleft bank abutment. The remaining 211m longsteel grillage of the main span was erected in 20m long segments by free cantilevering. The der-rick-crane of 90 tons capacity was used to lift thesegments from the barge floating on the seaunderneath.

The construction of the approach viaductwas executed by free cantilevering proceduresymmetrically from the pier. Two auxiliary con-crete columns were utilized to stabilize the con-struction in the 87,4 m span.

2 ��%�+��9� �� +�� &� *#+# ��+��

Domovinski bridge over the river Sava inZagreb is a part of large infrastructure projectfor construction of central city water treatmentsystem, which is under realization in this mo-ment. The bridge is located in the ZagrebSouth-east suburban area and in the near futurewill be one of the main entrances to the town.

The bridge has a total length of 840,0 m andconsists of 13 spans, the longest being 120 m. Inorder to meet all requirements for road, tram, bi-cycle and pedestrian traffic, the bridge is rela-tively wide, having the width of 34 m betweenthe railings. As a part of a new water treatmentsystem, the bridge should carry four water pipes


F i g . 6 – Cross sections of the Rijeka Dubrovaèka bridge. Left: Prestressed concrete approach viaduct Right: Com-posite cable-stayed bridge

F i g . 7 – Left: View to a completed Rijeka Dubrovaèka bridge. Right: the bridge and its surroundings

and the drainage pipe, and they are all locatedwithin the box girder.

By its statical system the bridge is a continu-ous girder and in the main span prestressed onextrados with relatively low pylons fixed to thedeck. With such layout the superstructure of thebridge is actually externally prestressed, andonly partially suspended in vertical direction,which implicitly solves the problem with fatiguein stay cables. Thanks to the stiffness of the su-perstructure and average cable inclination of 12°forces in cables due to traffic load are negligible.Altogether eight cables will be installed at eachside of the pylon (Fig. 8).

The bridge superstructure is a box girderwith four vertical webs and two lateral inclinedplates.

Since the superstructure of the bridge is rela-tively low above the ground all approach spansare being cast in situ on scaffolding. The lengthof characteristic concreting segment is 60,0 mand it corresponds with characteristic approachspan. For the main span over the river, free can-tilever method with simultaneous prestressing ofstays and backstays is chosen. Length of eachsegment is 4,05 m. The works on the main spanand approach spans can be executed simulta-neously.

In order to increase durability of the struc-ture, the whole cross section will be cast in situwithout using precast elements.

3 ��$��

Some of our new bridges may be viewed asaesthetically successful, some have been builtutilizing innovative technologies, and some haveexceptional spans, but only a few fulfill all thesecriteria. They have been briefly presented in or-der to point out that the Croatian bridge – build-ers, with the long lasting tradition, keep the pacewith current achievements in the developedcountries in rational use of different materials,in careful consideration of durability, and in in-tertwining of design and construction processes.

For maximum bridge spans required inCroatia (up to 500 m) two structural types maybe competitive, cable-stayed bridges or true con-crete arch bridges, depending on local site condi-


F i g . 8 – Domovinski bridge over Sava river – longitudinal layout and cross-section

F i g . 9 – Domovinski bridge – construction site insummer 2003

tions. Nevertheless, new structural types shall beintroduced, if they prove to be more appropriate.

It is the role of the contemporary generationto preserve its originality, openness to foreign re-search and development to broaden our knowl-edge, courage and readiness to handle the great-est challenges, and above all to nurture the joy ofcreation as opposed to the duty to perform.

4 ��#��

(1) Radiæ, J.: MOSTOVI, Dom i svijet, Zagreb 2002.(2) Èandrliæ,V.; Radiæ,J.; Šavor,Z.: DESIGN AND

CONSTRUCTION OF THE MASLENICA HIGH-WAY BRIDGE, Proc. Fib Symposium StructuralConcrete – the Bridge Between People, Vol. II,Prague, (1999), 551-555

(3) Šavor,Z.; Mujkanoviæ,N.; Hrelja,G.: MOST PRE-KOKANJONA RIJEKEKRKEKOD SKRADINA,Zbornik radova savjetovanja Objekti na autocesta-ma, Plitvièka jezera, 2002., 133-138

(4) Radiæ,J.; Šavor,Z.: HRVATSKI MOSTOVI SVJET-SKOG DOMETA, Zbornik radova Radnog saboraDruštva hrvatskih graðevinskih konstruktora,Brijuni 1992., str. 105-124

(5) Radic,J.; Šavor,Z; Pu�,G.; NEW CROATIANBRIDGES, Proc. Structural Engineers World con-gress, SEWC2002, Yokohama, Japan, 2002.,T1-2-k-2, 1-8.

(6) Radiæ,J.; Šavor,Z.; Pu�,G.; Hrelja,G., Prpiæ,V.:SEISMIC DESIGN OF SOME NEW CROATIANBRIDGES, Proc. FIB Symposium, CONCRETESTRUCTURES IN SEISMIC REGIONS, Athens,Greece, 2003., 458-460

(7) Šavor,Z.; Radiæ,J.; Prpiæ,V.; Kindij,A.; Mujkano-viæ,N.; Pu�,G.; Gukov,I. Hrelja,G.: NEW BRIDGEDESIGNS by Structural Department of CivilEngineering Faculty in Zagreb, IGH Zagreb, FibCroatian Member Group: Prikaz hrvatskih posti-gnuæa, Zagreb 2002., 85-90

(8) Šavor,Z.; Radiæ,J.; Prpiæ,V.: BRIDGE ACCROSSRIJEKA DUBROVAÈKA, CROATIA, StructuralEngineering International, 13 (2003.), 3, 190-192

(9) Šavor,Z.; Radiæ,J.; Hrelja,G.; Pu�,G.: BRIDGEACCROSS RIJEKA DUBROVAÈKA, Proc. 3rdInternational Conference on New Dimensions inBridges, Ed.LimEwe Chye, M.C.Tandon, I.Othman;Malaysia 2003., 333-340

(10) Radiæ,J.; Tepeš,D.; Veverka,R., Prpiæ,V.; Èeliko-viæ, G.: DOMOVINSKI BRIDGE IN ZAGREB,Proc. 3rd International Conference on New Di-mensions in Bridges, Ed.Lim Ewe Chye, M.C.Tan-don, I.Othman; Malaysia 2003., 341-345


Jure Radiæ, regular member, Croatian Academy of EngineeringZlatko Šavor, Goran Pu�, Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Zagreb, Kaciceva 26, 10000 Zagrebe-mail: [email protected]

*�"�!��%%��$#��!#��!��"��%#��!*'��%�

Nikola RoDiæ

Soft concepts are becoming the most significant feature of the advanced commu-nication and information systems. An important application area of the soft con-cepts in telecommunication systems is the quality of service control including er-ror control i.e. redundant or channel coding. Success of the soft approach in tele-communications is a challenge to consider the applicability of channel coding met-hods in real life data communication and information systems. Unreliable publicdata communications and unreliable living environment area reality and, just inthe same way as design engineers in telecommunications are doing it, people sho-uld design their “coding/decoding” strategies to maximize information reliability,i.e. to minimize error probability.This paper provides a short review of the most interesting telecommunication

systems using soft encoding/decoding schemes. It also applies the concept of softchannel coding/decoding methods to public data communications. Just as we areapplying channel coding/decoding in telecommunications to control errors, in pu-blic communications we may apply “media coding/decoding”. In a telecommunica-tion system, channel coder/decoder blocks function between terminals and thechannel. In the same way, media coder/decoder blocks function between users andthe public media. A tutorial example is presented which demonstrates the usabi-lity and efficiency of the proposed approach for some typical public data communi-cations in real life.

, ��$��

Whenever a message i.e. a sequence of sym-bols such as data, text, audio, image, or video istransmitted over a physical channel (wire line,wireless, optical fiber cables, magnetic tapes anddisk, optical disks etc.), that message is cor-rupted by a variety of disturbances such as ther-mal or atmospheric noise, impairments and con-tamination, or man-made noise. The basic prob-lem in communications that has to be solved byengineers, as defined by E. Shannon [1], is amessage generated by the source transmitthrough the imperfect channel, to the destina-tion at as small distortion as possible. More gen-erally, a message should be delivered to theuser/receiver at a quality of service (QoS) as it isrequired by him/her or it. To solve the problem,communication engineers apply channel codingby adding a certain amount of redundancy. Inthis way error control and correction are en-sured, thus increasing the reliability of the mes-sage (Fig. 1). From the standpoint of informationgenerated by the source, channel coding shouldassure that the lost amount of information be as

small as it is acceptable by the user (receiver).From the standpoint of a number of symbolsgenerated by the source, channel coding shouldassure that the error probability be as small as itis acceptable by the user (receiver).

A great number of books and papers dealwith channel coding and decoding methods, andonly a few of them are cited in this paper. Re-search in the area of channel coding methodsand their application in contemporary telecom-munications, both wired and wireless, as well asin computing and storage systems, has recentlyincreased and has highly contributed to the dra-matic trend of development in telecommunica-tion and information industry. The thing that weconsider interesting and important and is themain motive for this paper is the fact that thepublic communications are in many aspects simi-lar to or even the same as telecommunications.Both systems suffered of two basic problems in-herent to our reality: first, limitation in time,space and capacity and second, exposure to dis-turbances and enemies. Thus, both systems maybe modeled as in Fig.1. Main elements of qualityof service (QoS) in both systems are the reliabil-ity of the message transmission, delivery delayand synchronization requirements. In this papera particular attention is paid to the equivalenceof the two communication systems regardingmethods for the transmission reliability control,i.e. error control methods. In this area, as it isthe case in the other areas too, a soft approach


F i g . 1 – Communication model with channel enco-ding and decoding

instead of ‘the old’ hard approach is critical forrealizing very high system performance. The ba-sic feature of the soft approach, to be distin-guished from the hard approach, is that the softapproach takes into account not only relateddata but also the probabilistic structure that de-scribes the source, channel and other elements ofthe communication systems. Thus, instead of in-formation represented by ‘data’ in hard systems,the soft information represented by ‘data, errorprobability’ or ‘data, reliability’ is a communi-cation element in soft communication systems.

In Section 2 an application of the soft con-cepts in telecommunication systems is shortlyoverviewed particularly from the point of view oferror control, redundant coding, or channel cod-ing. Section 3 is dedicated to the description ofpotential use of the soft concepts in public com-munications. In Section 4 media coding/decodingmethods suitable for public communication sys-tems are introduced as an equivalent to channelcoding/decoding methods used in telecommunica-tion systems. A tutorial example presented inSection 5 demonstrates the usability and effi-ciency of the proposed approach for some typicalpublic data communications in real life. Someconclusion remarks are given in Section 6. InAppendix A an overview of likelihoods and softdecoding methods is shortly presented.

� *�"� ��$�)�� $�%%��$#��

The channel coding adds redundancy thatthe decoder applies in order to correct as manyerrors as possible. Shannon showed [1] that foran additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) chan-nel the smallest signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) ex-pressed as a ratio of energy per bit Eb to noiseenergy density N0 that can be obtained for reli-able transmission is

E Nm

m

b 0

2 1�

�(1)

where m is a number of bits transmitted persymbol. If m approaches zero i.e. the requiredbandwidth approaches infinity, the smallestvalue of E N

b 0is ln2 or approximately –1,6 dB.

A typical channel uncoded scheme such as quad-rature phase shift keying (QPSK) which workswith m=2 bits/symbol requires an E N

b 0of 9,6

dB for a bit error ratio (BER) of 10–5. This is 11,2dB above the mentioned Shannon limit. The in-dustry standard code for satellite communica-tions uses a rate of 1/2 convolutional channelcoding scheme [2] with a soft-decision Viterbi de-coder, which achieves an E N

b 0of 4,2 dB at a

BER of 10–5 thus giving a 5,4 dB coding gain.

Further performance improvement may be real-ized by concatenation of the standard code witha Reed-Solomon (RS) outer (255.223) code de-fined over Galois field GF(28). This scheme usedon the Voyager space probes [3] can achieve anE N

b 0of 0,58 dB at a BER of 10–7 and m=0,438

bit/symbol. This is only 1,5 dB from Shannonlimit at m=0,438 bit/symbol. Even better perfor-mance is offered by low-density parity-check(LDPC) codes [4-6]. These codes have attractedattention for the sake of their simple encodingdescription and iterative decoding. Last yearsLDPC codes became the most interesting re-search area due to their excellent performancethat are comparable or even better than those ofthe famous turbo convolutional codes [7,8].

Recently it has been discovered that concate-nated coding schemes using relatively simpleconstituent codes can achieve performances quiteclose to the theoretical limits given by Shannontheory [9-12]. The main feature of such schemesis the maximum a posteriori (MAP) soft-in-soft--out iterative decoding [13]. In 1993, a paper [9]describing a new coding scheme called “turbocodes” has initiated a new enthusiasm in thecoding community. A described code achievedthe astonishing performance of E N

b 007� , dB

at a BER of 10–5 and m=0,5 bit/symbol. This isonly 0,7 dB from Shannon at the limit of m=1bit/symbol. The encoder consists of two parallelconcatenated codes (PCC) whose encoder isformed by two constituent systematic convolu-tional encoders joined through a random inter-leaver (Fig. 2). By increasing the number of de-coding modules and the number of decoding iter-ations, BER as low as 10–5 at E N

b 007� , dB has

been realized in simulation [14].

From the point of practical application ofturbo codes the aspect of their decoding complex-ity [15] is a critical issue regarding delay andcomputation power. In that sense the simple(N,1) repetition code (RC) as well as the simple(N,N-1) single parity code (SPC) are, although


F i g . 2 – Turbo code: a parallel concatenated codescheme

both are very weak codes, excellent as constitu-ent codes for the design of powerful concate-nated codes [10], [16-18]. It has been shown thathigh performance coding schemes can be de-signed using the multidimensional concatenationtechnique. The two-dimensional (2-D) code con-sists of a data block, parity checks on the rows,checks on the columns, and checks on thechecks. In a similar way d-dimensional (d-D) en-coding could be performed. For example, the per-formance of a 4-D [20,19] SPC product codeachieved at E N

b 02 78� , dB was BER of 10–5

which is only 0,63 dB from the capacity of the bi-nary AWGN channel [26]. The code rate of suchd-dimensional code is

rN

N

d

��

��

��

1(2)

For the above mentioned 4-D (20,19) SPCproduct code rate is approximately 0,814.

Iterative decoding of SPC codes is interestingnot only at multi-dimensional SPC schemes butalso at decoding general linear (N,M) codeswhich may be easily interpreted as N-M–dimen-sional SPC code [19]. Although this approachgives a slightly worse BER performance, the pro-posed scheme is much less complex than thestraightforward approach.

Current communications are mainly of amultimedia type and messages are transmittedover mobile wireless channels. In a mobile envi-ronment the channel is quite noisy. In addition,there is also the impact of multipath fading andDoppler spreading. These features emphasize theneed of more powerful coding schemes based onjoint source channel coding [20]. It has beenshown that significant coding gain may be real-ized by using the source-controlled decoding

scheme, particularly at a low signal-to-noiseratio [21,22].

The dramatic increase of demands of wirelessdata services, such as messaging, e/mail, Internetaccess, and multimedia services, stimulates thedesign of third-generation cellular systems basedon code-division multiple-access (CDMA) whichsignificantly improve the throughput whilemaintaining a reasonable delay. In [23] modifiedautomatic-repeat-request (ARQ) techniques ba-sed on turbo coding are investigated for CDMAdata networks under shadowing and frequencyselective fading channel conditions. In digitalmobile communication systems the issue ofspeech quality is particularly important. Evenwith channel coding residual errors occur thatmay lead to severe degradation of speech quality.This annoying effect can be reduced or eveneliminated by error concealment. In cellular sys-tem standards such as GSM error concealmentalgorithms are proposed in a way to allow systemimprovement by proprietary solutions [24]. Anapproach based on softbit speech decoding thatuses the bit reliability information from thechannel and the residual redundancy of thecodec parameters offers a significant gain, partic-ularly at a low SNR [25]. In addition, applicationof turbo code instead of conventional convo-lutional code in GSM can give a coding gain of0,9 dB at a bit error rate 5 10 3 � [26].

Systems with one antenna at each end of thelink represent, from the point of view of the sys-tem theory, the single-input single-output(SISO) system that has traditionally been usedin mobile wireless communications. Recent re-search in the field of information theory showedthat wireless systems using multiple transmitterantennas and not only multiple receiver anten-nas (Fig. 4) can achieve significant performanceimprovements [27]. From the point of view of thesystem theory, these systems represent multi-in-put multi-output (MIMO) systems [28,29]. Onthe basis of this architecture a new codingscheme called space-time coding (STC) has beenproposed [30]. A scheme using ConvolutionalTurbo Code (CTC) with two transmitters andtwo receiver antennas has been proposed in [31]with gain of 6 dB at BER=10–5 over a standardspace-time trellis code (STTC). Similarly, ascheme using space-time block codes [32,33] per-forms as well as space-time CTC while achievinghigher spectral efficiency within lower number ofiterations.

MAP and soft-in soft-out algorithms are notrestricted only to the channel coding application.Intersymbol interference (ISI) channel can beconsidered concatenated with the channel code


F i g . 3 – Shannon limit and some well known codes

and the powerful turbo decoding technique isthen used to equalize the channel [34].

Soft-in-soft-out and turbo decoding tech-niques always include the use of reliability mea-sures associated with binary and non-binarysymbols, called soft-bit, soft-symbols or soft-in-formation. Standard codes defined with non-bi-nary symbols such as Reed-Solomon codes aredefined over an extended Galois field GF(28) andare commonly used in CD-ROMs and space sys-tems [35]. Generally nonbinary symbols aretaken from some extension field GF(pa) or frominteger ring Zq [36,37]. Codes defined over realor complex fields have potentially promising fea-tures and applications in communications[38-40].

Real number codes are inherently concernedwith analog communication systems i.e. trans-mission of analog symbols through analog chan-nels. This rarely occurs in contemporary tele-communication systems that are almost alwaysimplemented in digital technology. On the otherside, public data communications are almost al-ways analog ones. Therefore it is interesting toconsider the applicability of channel codingmethods in real life communication and informa-tion systems. In the next section a concept of softcoding/decoding methods used in telecommuni-cations is extended to real life communications.

�. *�"� ��$�)�� -�8��$ �#�# ��%%��$#��

Let us consider a typical public data commu-nication where there is an information source,communication channel(s) exposed to distur-bances, and receiver(s) i.e. user(s). Communica-tion model is quite similar to the basic communi-cation model shown in Fig.1. In public communi-cation we may define main types of sources, me-dia (channels), disturbances and users as follows:

• Sources: human, event, database, …• Channels: conversation (voice or other),radio/TV broadcasts, newspapers, journals,books, Web portals, statistical editions, …

• Disturbances: printing errors, “cut andpaste” errors, editor’s intervention, …

• Users: human, applications, services, …

Data generated by a human being or anevent, or data extracted from database or storagesystem, are transmitted to the user through me-dia (channel) such as through direct or indirect(phone, videoconference) voice communication,via radio/TV broadcasts, through printed media(newspapers etc.) or through web pages. In me-dia data are exposed to disturbances. Distur-bances in public communications that causetransmission errors may be random or system-atic, independent or correlated, Normal or arbi-trarily distributed, just as it is the case in tele-communications. Systematic errors can be tech-nique-dependent (e.g. rounding off) or hu-man-dependent i.e. intentionally caused by an“enemy”.

As an example, let the users be human be-ings really interested in information about cli-mate conditions in certain tourist towns on theAdriatic coast. They listen to the radio news,watch TV programs and surf the Internet look-ing for data. Unfortunately, they obtain prettydifferent data regarding the current tempera-ture, e.g. 32 °C via radio broadcast, 26 °C via TVset and 33 °C via web. A similar situation occurswith humidity data, wind speed, etc. The usersare confused and unable to make decisions de-pending on these data. Thus, they are confrontedwith reasoning as follows:

• ignore all data because of their non-con-currence,

• choose the data published by the most reli-able media and ignore the other ones,

• average all data by dividing the sum of allthe three values by 3,

• average all data by weighting each of thepublished values by the measure of the me-dia reliability.

What are the results of the above decisions?Decision 1 leads to one’s frustration and disap-pointment with public information media. Deci-


F i g . 4 – Space-time encoding and decoding (MIMOsystems)

F i g . 5 – Weh! What is the true temperature?

sion 2 leads to the conclusion that the true tem-perature is e.g. 26 °C and not 32 °C or 29 °C sinceone has more confidence in data transmittedvia the TV screen than to the speaker’s voicefrom the radio broadcast or to the web datashown on the PC screen. Decision 3, whichseems to be mathematically more correct, leadsto the conclusion that the temperature is(32+26+29)/3=29 °C. Finally, decision 4, thatseems a little scientific game, requires that onehas reason to associate to the particular publicmedia a certain weighting factor that reflects itsreliability. Let us take that user’s weightingfactors are 9, 1 and 2 respectively, so that theresult is

t Caverage � � �

� ��

9 32 1 26 2 299 1 2

31

where denominator includes the sum of factorsin order to normalize weights.

The user eager of knowing the true tempera-ture is obviously confronted with three relativelyvery different temperature values: 26 °C, 29 °Cor 31 °C.

A number of questions are hanging about inthe user head. Which of these values is closest tothe true value? What is the best decision policyin general? Why take into account values pub-lished by less reliable media at all? Is there in-deed a sufficiently reliable medium among thesemedia, and finally, is it reasonable to believe toany public media? With a number of people thesequestions may cause behavior as described by de-cision 1, thus cause their indolence regarding allkinds of information published by public media.

Thinking about 26 °C, 29 °C or 31 °C, roughlyspeaking, does not seem worthy of any discus-sion. However, if we suppose that, for the sake ofany possible reason, temperature of 30 °C repre-sents a decision boundary between two very dif-ferent policies, it is of vital importance for theuser to decide which of the three calculated val-ues is the most probable one. In other words, wesuppose that the user is strongly interested infinding out the most reliable value in order tobring the decision about the best policy at theminimum risk. Fig. 6 illustrates the decisionboundary in an one-dimensional (1-D) example.Generally, when any decision rule is applied tothe d-dimensional feature real Rd space, decisionregions may be any subsets of Rd and it is com-mon to have a region that is disconnected. Thesetopics are substantially concerned with patternrecognition problems where Baysian decisiontheory plays a central role.

Let us consider one more “pitfall” which cancontribute to further distraction of people con-

fronted with different values for the same vari-able. In addition to publishing elementary data,public media often publish some aggregate data.For example, we may read in some newspapersdaily data, in some journals weekly and/ormonthly aggregated data, in some statistical edi-tions yearly data etc. Moreover, as interestingfigures of trends in economics, power, social areaor in meteorology, a number of differently de-fined aggregated data could be commonlypublished as a sum of:

• three (or more) most loaded hours, days,months in a certain day, week, year, etc.,

• sales during the working days, duringweekend days, during holidays, etc.

• three (or more) biggest sales, money trans-actions, shares of stock in a certain day,week, year, etc.,

• the amounts of the rainfall in three (ormore) most rainy days, a sum of three (ormore) lowest daily temperatures, etc.

Generally, aggregated data as well as elemen-tary data may be published in the same or in dif-ferent media. In addition, elementary data andaggregated data may be published in the samemedia but within the different sections (columns).

Let us take that two elementary values x andy and their sum z are taken from the differentmedia. A natural reaction of someone confrontedwith fishy data on x and y is to check data basedon their eventually available aggregate z. How-ever, aggregated value z carry information on xand y in hidden way since it is not generally pos-sible from the sum calculate summands. The keyfor uncovering x from z is y and vice versa. How-ever, value y is unreliable as it is the case with xand z too, so that �x z y� � will also be an (evenmore) unreliable estimate. Obviously, the prob-lem really presents a shuffling and “everyonenormal human being” will give up.

This problem with aggregates, as well asquestions mentioned above, may with a numberof people cause decision 1, resulting in their in-dolence regarding all kinds of information pub-lished by public media. Of course, such reactionis not wise. Unreliable data communications and


F i g . 6 – An example of 1-D decision boundary

unreliable human living environment are a real-ity and, just as it is the case with design engi-neers in telecommunications, people should de-sign their “coding/decoding” strategies to maxi-mize information reliability, i.e. to minimizeerror probability.

2 ��# �� @��$�� A�� &#�� @��$��

Just as it is the role of channel coding/decod-ing in telecommunications to control errors, inpublic communications we may apply “mediacoding/decoding”. In a telecommunication sys-tem channel coder/decoder blocks are includedbetween terminals and the channel as it is de-picted in Fig. 1. In the same way, media co-der/decoder blocks are included between usersand public media as it is depicted in Fig. 7.

Typical public data communications may bedescribed as follows: some, for people interestingdata, are printed in different newspapers, jour-nals, advertisement materials and other media,by different publishing houses, different editors,within different columns, then broadcasted viaradio, television and web systems or by neigh-bors, colleagues etc. (Fig. 8). Let us consider afew most frequent cases in which the user(reader) should use soft approach:

• i) The user (reader and listener) receives(reads and listens to) N different valuesamong all others, that relate to the sameinformation. In comparison with telecom-munication systems, this situation corre-sponds to the repetition (N,1) code whereeach of N symbols are communicatedthrough a channel of certain reliability(multi receiver antenna system).

• ii) The user (reader and listener) receivesN-1 different data (for example daily data)as well as their aggregate (for exampleweekly data). Compared with telecommu-nication systems, this situation corre-sponds to (N,N-1) single parity code (SPC)where N-1 values represent informationsymbols and a aggregated data represent aparity symbol.

• iii) The user (reader and listener) receivesN-1 different values (for example dailydata), as well as their aggregate (for exam-ple weekly data), as well as their aggregate(for example monthly data), as well astheir aggregate (for example yearly data),etc. Compared with telecommun-icationsystems, this situation corresponds to mul-tidimensional K-D (N,N-1) single paritycode (SPC) code where checks on checksare included.

• iv) The user (reader and listener) receivesM different values (for example hourly ordaily data during a week, month or year),as well as a few aggregates (for example asum of the three most significant data).Compared with telecommunication sys-tems, this situation corresponds to the(N,M) low density parity code (LDPC).

• v) User (reader and listener) receives Ngroups of N-1 different data (for exampledaily data) as well as their concatenatedaggregates (for example seven-day sums).Compared with telecommunication sys-tems, this situation corresponds to (N,N-1)x (N,N-1) single parity product code(SPPC), where N-1 values represent infor-mation symbols and aggregated data repre-sent parity symbols. In this case an itera-tive soft-in soft-out decoding algorithmmay be applied.

Let us here shortly consider only cases i) andii). A more complete tutorial example is given inSection 5.

Case i) The user reads different newspapers,journals and other printed materials, listens tothe radio news, watches TV programs and surfsthe Internet looking for data. In that way he col-lects a set of values y y y y

i N� ( , , , )

1 2related to

the same data (information) xi. In this case, typi-cally correlated errors occur and decoding of the


F i g . 7 – Communication model with media enco-ding and decoding

F i g . 8 – Typical public data communications

repetition (N,1) code is a powerful method for er-ror correction.

We suppose that a user receives value yj viamedia j, where the total number of media is N. Itis reasonable to suppose that each media is ex-posed to different and independent disturbances,possibly autocorrelated. Compared with telecom-munication system, this case corresponds to mul-ti-antenna receiver system. Let reliability mea-sure of each media be known and presented bymedia variance �

j2 . According to (A5) in Appendix

A, the LLR value for (N,1) repetition code is:

L x L yi j

j

N

( � ) ( ),��

�1

(3)

If xi is real number, MAP estimate �xican be

calculated from

�

( )

x

L yy y y

i

jj

N

jj

N

N

N� �

� �

�

�

�

�

�

1

21

1

12

2

22 2

12

2

1 1 1

�

� � �

� � 2 2

1�

�N

, (4)

where we suppose Normal distribution of y sothat L y

j( )� 1 2� (see (A12) in Appendix A).

If xi is an integer, MAP decision �xi0 can be

calculated from � ( �)x round xi0 � .

Case ii) The user (reader and/or listener) re-ceives N-1 elementary data (for example dailydata) as well as their aggregate (for exampleweekly data). Compared with telecommunicationsystems, this situation corresponds to (N,N-1)single parity code (SPC) where N-1 values repre-sent information symbols and aggregated valuerepresents parity symbol. In this case only aggre-gated symbol as a redundant value may be usedto improve the reliability of each of N-1 receivedelementary symbols.

Let reliability measure of each media beknown and presented by media variance �

j2 as it

was supposed in case i). According to (A5) in Ap-pendix A, the LLR value for (N,N-1) SPC code is:

L x L y L y yi i e p j

jj i

N

( � ) ( ) ( )� � ��

�1

(5)

where yp represents received aggregated (parity)value.

If xi is an integer which takes valuesbetween 0 and M, LLR value of �x

ican be cal-

culated from (A6) (Appendix A), and MAP deci-sion �x

i0 can be calculated from � maxx k

i0 � , where

( , ) max { ( � )}max maxL k L xk k i

� �k.In all above mentioned cases the considered

data can contain a certain amount of redundancy

due to correlated source. This redundancy can beexploited in decoding to improve error correctionperformance, just as it is shortly discussed underthe so-called “source-controlled decoding” inSection 2.

�� #8�� &� �� $&�%��

In cases i) to v) only decoding aspects are dis-cussed. However, encoding aspects in publiccommunications may also be considered in thesame way as it is the case with telecommunica-tion system design. A man, as an encoder, con-fronted with more or less unreliable media, pur-posely disseminate source information via differ-ent media. In this way, he provides an opportu-nity for the intended users to apply the MAP de-coding algorithm for repetition codes. He willalso purposely disseminate more aggregates ofdifferent elementary data as well as aggregatesof aggregates (checks on checks), with which heassures to the intended users a possibility of ap-plying an iterative decoding algorithm for decod-ing of the multidimensional SPC codes andLDPC codes. In addition, he will strive to dis-seminate data carry redundancy through the apriori source distribution and through the corre-lation source structure. This redundancy maysignificantly contribute to reliability of thedecoded data, as demonstrated in the examplepresented in Section 5.

In telecommunication systems the subjects ofdesign and optimization are commonly both en-coder and decoder as an integrated solutioncalled ‘codec’. As discussed above, although inpublic communications the subject of design andoptimization is commonly a decoder, the encod-ing process is also often within the user’s con-trol. Thus, from the point of view of system opti-mization, two coding/decoding schemes in tele-communication and public communication sys-tems should be considered in the similar way.However, there is a very significant differencebetween the two systems, which makes the MAPdecoding even more powerful in public communi-cations. Indeed, in telecommunication systemsan important design issue which restricts chan-nel coding efficiency is a trade-off between em-bedded redundancy that enables error controland required channel capacity (bandwidth and/orpower) due to the increased signaling rate. Inpublic communications, the amount of the em-bedded redundancy is not commonly a restrict-ing factor. It could be said that in public commu-nications embedded redundancy is “for free”since different printed and electronic media arepractically competing in publishing informationinteresting for people (users).


3 ��#� (#%)��

In this Section an example is used to showhow different elementary and aggregated pub-lished values, as well as knowledge about thesource features, contribute to increasing of thereliability of the MAP decisions i.e. to the nar-rowing of the decision risk region.

Let x1 =17 and x2 =8 be data on the sales ofarticle #1 and article #2 for the two consideredweekend days. Let y1 =19 and y2 =3 be data onthe sales of article #1 and article #2 for the twoweekend days as they are published by newspa-per X. Let journal Y publish the total weekendsale as yp =28. Let us take that the reliability ofthe two media is the same and is presented byvariance �

12 5� . Compute MAP decisions about

the data on sales during the two weekend daysfor the following situations:

a) y1, y2 and yp are the only available in-formation,b) besides y1, y2 and yp, an a priori in-formation about the source distributionis known. Let source distribution beNormal: for the first weekend-day x1 ~ N( , )� �

1210 2� �x and for the second week-

end day x2 ~ N ( , )� �2

25 3� �x ,c) in addition to information available asin b), information on source redundancyis available. Let us take that the sale dur-ing the second weekend-day is predictablefrom the sale during the first week-end-day where prediction error is Normaldistributed i.e. e ~ N ( , )0 2� e ,d) in addition to information available asin c), additional data on sales x1, x2 areavailable from other media. Let y1(k),y2(k); k=1,2,…,K represents data on thesales published in all media. Let us heremention that user also may be providedfor some additional data by experts. More-over, an “expert” among them may beuser himself. The only important thingfor user is, just as it is case with data ob-tained from public media, to have avail-able soft, not only hard values. As it is al-ready discussed, soft data implicitly in-clude value and its reliability. Thus,knowing of the expert’s reliability is es-sential.

Solution a) The reader is confronted withsuspicious data since aggregated value shouldamount to 22 if data y1 =19 and y2 =3 are true.Of course, since the reliability of two media arelimited (the variance is not equal zero), all thethree data are unreliable. Thus, the user should

calculate MAP decisions �x10 and �x

20 by perform-

ing soft media decoding. Obviously, he has to de-code SPC (3,2) code. Since x takes values fromthe integer set I M� { , , , , }0 1 2 (i.e. sale on aweekend day does not exceed value M), the ex-trinsic log-likelihood ratio values follow from(A8) or from approximate expression (A9) withmedia values Lc(y) given by (A12) in Appendix A.Taking into account media L-value and extrinsicL-value, the a posteriori soft values are

L x L y L x k M iki

ki e

ki

( � ) ( ) ( � ); , , , ; ,� � � �1 2 1 2 (6)

where L yki

( ) represents the media soft values,L xe

ki

( � ) are the extrinsic soft values and L xki

( � ) rep-resents the a posteriori soft values.

MAP decision �xi0 follows from � maxx k

i0 � ,

where ( , ) max{ ( � )}max maxL k L xk k i

� �k, and k�(1,M).

Fig. 9 shows media soft values with markedMAP decisions that amount to �x

10 21� and

�x20 5� .

Fig. 10 shows distributions of the media val-ues and MAP decisions. As expected, reliabilityof the MAP decisions is higher than the reliabil-ity of the received media values. In this example,reliability of �x

iis about 33% higher than the reli-

ability of the media value y1, i.e. risk region is re-duced to about 67% compared to the risk regionof y1. Note that the mentioned gain in its entirelyresults from the redundant value yp. It is easy tosuppose that the gain depends on the reliabilityof journal Y. For example, if the reliability ofjournal Y is tenfold, the risk region is reduced toabout 50% compared to the risk region of y1.

Solution b) Taking into account that apriori information about the source distribu-tion is known: for the first weekend-day x1 ~ N( , )� �

1210 2� �x and for the second weekend day


F i g . 9 – LLR values for case a)

x2 ~ N ( , )� �2

25 3� �x , the a posteriori soft val-ues are

L x L x L y L x

k M i

ki

ki

ki e

ki

( � ) ( ) ( ) ( � );

, , , ; ,

� � �

� �1 2 1 2(7)

where L xki

( ) represents the a priori soft values.Fig. 11 shows soft values with marked MAP

decisions that now amount to �x10 14� and �x

20 5�

and Fig. 12 shows distributions of media valuesMAP decisions. As expected, the reliability of theMAP estimates is increased in comparison to theresult shown in Fig. 10. due to taking into ac-count the a priori information in [17]. The riskregion is now reduced to approximately 46%.

Solution c) Let us take that informationabout correlation of data is available in a waythat the sale during the second weekend-day ispredictable from the realized sale during the firstweekend-day. Let x a x e

i i i� �

�1is prediction

of xi based on known xi-1 where prediction erroris Normal distributed e ~N ( , )0 2� e . The a posteri-ori soft values follow from

L x L x L x x L y L xki

ki

ki i

ki e

ki

( � ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( � )� � � ��1

(8)

where L x x L a xki i

kn

( ) ( )� �

� 1 1

represents theconditional soft values.

Figs. 13 shows soft values with a = 0.5 and� e

2 3� . MAP decisions now amount to �x10 14�

and �x20 6� . Fig. 14 shows distributions of MAP

decisions with distributions of media values. Asexpected, the reliability of the MAP decision �x

20

is further increased in comparison with the re-sult shown in Fig.12. due to taking into accountinformation about data correlation in (18). Therisk region for �x

20 now amounts only to 39%.

Solution d) Let an additional informationon sales x1, x2 be available from two other media.Let y1(k), y2(k) ; k=1,2,3 represents elementary


F i g . 1 0 – Distribution of media data and MAP deci-sions for case a)

F i g . 1 1 – LLR values for case b)

F i g . 1 2 – Distribution of media data and MAP deci-sions for case b)

F i g . 1 3 – LLR values for case c)

data on the sales published by all the three me-dia where y1=(19, 14, 20) and y2=(3, 11, 7). Letthe reliability of the two additional media be�

12 2 8( )� and �

22 3 3( )� .

In this case the a posteriori soft values followfrom

L x L x L x x

L y j L x

ki

ki

ki i

ki

jek

i

( � ) ( ) ( )

( ( )) ( � )

� � �

� �

�

�

�

1

1

3 (9)

where L y jki

j

( ( ))�

�1

3

represents the soft values ob-

tained based on three different elementary me-dia values (see Eq. (A12)).

The corresponding decoding scheme for thiscase (Fig. 15) includes two decoders connectedserially: first is the (3,1) repetition decoder andsecond is the (3,2) SPC decoder. Decoding of therepetition code is defined with (3), and decodingof the SPC code is defined by (6). The a priorisoft values are included before the SPC decoderand the conditional soft values are includedwithin the SPC decoder.

Fig. 16 shows soft values with marked MAPdecisions that now amount to �x

10 16� and �x

20 7�

and Fig. 17 shows distributions of MAP decisionswith distributions of media values. As expected,the reliability of the MAP estimates is addition-ally increased compared with the result shown inFig.14, since information about the elementarydata is, roughly speaking, tripled. The risk re-gion for both data is now reduced to only 29%compared with the risk region when only y1 =19and y2 =3 are known.

Note that the described method for calcula-tion of soft values is not restricted to Normal orany other well-known distribution since we takeinto account the whole set of the M log-likeli-hood values. Generally, each discrete variablethat takes values from finite set of size M as asoft value has to be defined with M-1 log-likeli-hood values. From the point of view of the data-base where data have to be stored, each field


F i g . 1 4 – Distribution of media data and MAP deci-sions for case c)

F i g . 1 5 – Decoding scheme for case d)

F i g . 1 6 – LLR values for case d)

F i g . 1 7 – Distribution of media data and MAP deci-sions for case d)

within the entry of the file contains not only thevalue x but also the corresponding M-value vec-tor of LLR values L(x). Data defined with (x,L(x)) represent the soft-value. So we may saythat a soft information system is based on softdatabases that contain soft values.

4 ��$��

We have applied the concept of soft channelcoding/decoding methods to public data commu-nications. Just as we are applying channel cod-ing/decoding in telecommunications to controlerrors, in public communications we applied“media coding/decoding”. In a telecommunica-tion system, channel coder/decoder blocks func-tion between terminals and the channel. In thesame way, media coder/decoder blocks functionbetween users and the public media. By the pre-sented tutorial examples we demonstrated theusability and efficiency of the proposed approachfor some typical public data communications inreal life.

It is interesting to stress that there is a verysignificant difference between the two systems,which makes the MAP decoding even more pow-erful in public communications. Indeed, in tele-communication systems an important design is-sue which restricts channel coding efficiency is atrade-off between embedded redundancy that en-ables error control and required channel capacity(bandwidth and/or power) due to the increasedsignaling rate. In public communications, theamount of the embedded redundancy is not com-monly a restricting factor. It could be said thatin public communications embedded redundancyis “for free” since different printed and electro-nic media are practically competing in publishinginformation interesting for people (users).

�$9�� %��

The author wish to note that this work hasbeen performed within the project “Advancedcommunication and information systems andservices” (0023019) supported by the Ministry ofScience and Technology of the Republic ofCroatia. He is also grateful to the anonymous re-viewers for their helpful comments.

7 ��"��$��

(1) C.E. Shannon: A mathematical theory of commu-nications, Bell Syst. Tech. Journal, 27, pp.379-423, 623-656, 1948.

(2) E.C. Posner, L.L. Rauch, B.D. Madsen: Voyagermission telecommunication first, IEEE Commun.Mag., 28, pp. 22-27, 1990.

(3) S. Dolinar, M. Belongie: Enhance decoding for theGalileo low-gain antenna mission: Viterbi redeco-ding with four decoding stages, JPL TDA Prog.Rep., 42(121), pp. 96-109, 1995.

(4) R.G. Gallanger: Low-Density Parity-Check Codes,IRE Trans. on Information Theory, IT-8, pp.21-28, January 1962.

(5) D.J.C. MacKay: Good Error-Correcting Codes Ba-sed on Very Sparse Matrices, IEEE Trans. onInformation Theory, IT-45, No.2, pp. 399-431,March 1999.

(6) T.J. Richardson, M.A. Shokrollahi, R.L. Urbanke:Design of Capacity-Approaching IrregularLow-Density Parity-Check Codes, IEEE Trans. onInformation Theory, IT-47, No.2, pp. 619-637, Fe-bruary 2001.

(7) H.Pfister, P. Siegel: Joint Iterative Decoding ofLDPC Codes and Channels with Memory, in Pro-ceedings of the 3rd International Symposium onTurbo Codes & Related Topics, Brest, France,Sept. 1-5, 2003.

(8) X.Yang, D.Yuan, P.Ma, X.Gao: MLC/PDL SystemBased on LDPC Codes with 16QAM Constellationsover Rayleigh Fading Channels: in the Procee-dings SoftCOM 2003, pp. 213-221, Split-Veni-ce-Ancona-Dubrovnik, Oct. 7-10, 2003.

(9) C. Berrou, A. Glavieux, P. Thitimajsima: NearShannon Limit Error-Correcting: Turbo Codes, inProceedings of the IEEE International Conferen-ce on Communications ICC 93’, pp. 1064-1070,1993.

(10) J. Hagenauer, E. Offer, L. Papke: Iterative Deco-ding of Binary Block and Convolutional Codes,IEEE Trans. on Information Theory, IT-42, No.2,pp. 429-445, March 1996.

(11) S. Benedetto, G. Montorsi: Design of Parallel Con-catenated Convolutional Codes, IEEE Trans. onInformation Theory, IT-42, No.5, pp. 591-600,May 1996.

(12) H.Nickl, J.Hagenauer, F.Burkert: ApproachingShannon’s Capacity Limit by 0.27 dB Using Ham-ming Codes in a ‘Turbo’-Decoding Scheme, inProc. ISIT’97, Ulm, Germany, 1997, pp.12.

(13) L.R. Bahl, J.Cocke, F.Jelinek, J.Raviv: OptimalDecoding of Linear Codes for Minimizing SymbolError Rate, IEEE Trans. Inform. Theory, Vol.IT-20, pp. 284-287, Mar. 1974.

(14) D. Divsalar, F. Pollara: Turbo Codes for PCS,Proc. 1995 IEEE International Conference onCommunications ICC 95’, June 18-22, 1995.

(15) S. Benedetto, G. Montorsi: Iterative Soft-inputSoft-output Decoding Algorithms: A complexityAnalysis, in the Proceedings SoftCOM 2000, pp.17-31, Split-Rijeka-Trieste-Venice, Oct. 2000.

(16) R.Lucas, M.Breitbach: On Iterative Soft-Deci-sion Decoding of Linear Binary Block Codes andProduct Codes, IEEE J. on Selected Areas in Com-munications, Vol. 16, No.2, pp. 276-296, Feb.1998.


(17) L.Ping, S.Chan, K.L.Leung: Iterative Decoding ofMulti-Dimensional Concatenated Single ParityCheck Codes, in Proc. Of the IEEE InternationalConference on Communications ICC 98’, 1998.

(18) D.M.Rankin, T.A.Gulliver: Single Parity CheckProduct Codes, IEEE Trans on Communications,Vol.49, No.8, pp. 1354-1362, Aug. 2001.

(19) J.S.K. Tee, D.P. Taylor: Iterative Decoding ofSystematic Binary Algebraic Block Codes, in Proc.Globecom’00, San Francisco, Nov. 2000.

(20) J. Hagenauer, T. Stockhammer: Channel Codingand Transmission Aspects for Wireless Multime-dia, Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol-87, No.10, pp.1764-1776, October 1999.

(21) J.Hagenauer: Source-Controlled Channel Deco-ding, IEEE Trans on Communications, Vol.43,No.9, pp. 2449-2457, Sept. 1995.

(22) N.Rozic, D.Begusic: Source-Controlled Real/Com-lex Channel Decoding for Image Communications(in Croatian), Automatika, ATKAAF 41(3-4), pp.101-116, Sept. 2000.

(23) T.Ji, W.E.Stark: Turbo-Coded ARQ Schemes forDS-CDMA Data Networks Over Fading And Sha-dowing Channels: Throughput, Delay, and EnergyEfficiency, IEEE J. on Selected Areas in Commu-nications, Vol. 18, No.8, pp. 1355-1364, August2000.

(24) Recommend. GSM 06.11 Substitution and Mutingof Lost Frames for Full Rate Speech Traffic Chan-nels: ETSI TC-SMG, 1992.

(25) T.Fingscheidt, P.Vary: Softbit Speech Decoding: ANew Approach to Error Concealment, IEEE Transon Speech and Audio Processing, Vol. 9, No.3, pp.240-251, March 2001.

(26) F. Burkert, G.Caire, J.Hagenauer, T.Hindelang,G.Lechner: “Turbo” Decoding with Unequal ErrorProtection Applied to GSM speech Coding, in Proc.Globecom’96, London, pp. 2044-2048, Nov. 1996.

(27) A.Narula, M.D.Trott, G.W.Wornell: PerformanceLimits of Coded diversity Methods for TransmitterAntenna Arrays, IEEE Trans. on InformationTheory, IT-45, No.7, pp. 2418-2433, Nov. 1999.

(28) MIMO Systems and Applications: Part I and II,IEEE J. on Selected Areas in Communications,Vol. 12, No.9, Dec. 2001. and Vol. 21, No.5, June2003.

(29) S.Cantreux, P.F.Driessen, L.J.Greenstein: DataThroughputs Using Multiple-Input Multiple-Out-put (MIMO) Techniques in a Noise-Limited Cellu-lar Environment, IEEE Trans. on Wireless Com-munications, Vol-1, No.2, pp. 226-234, April 2002.

(30) V.Tarokh, N.Seshandri, A.R.Calderbank: SpaceTime Codes for High Data Rate Wireless Commu-nication: Performance Criterion and Code Con-struction, IEEE Trans. on Information Theory,IT-44, No.3, pp. 744-765, March 1998.

(31) A.Stefanov, T.Duman: Turbo Coded Modulationfor Systems with Transmitt and Receive AntennaDiversity, in the Proceedings of Globecom’99, Riode Janeiro, 5-9 December 1999.

(32) K.Cavalec-Amis,R.Pyndiah:Block Turbo Codes forSpace-Time Systems, in the Proceedings of Globe-com’00, San Francisco, Nov-Dec 2000.

(33) B.Lu, X.Wang, Y.Li: Iterative Receivers for SpaceTime Block-Coded OFDM Systems in DispersiveFading Channels, IEEE Trans. on Wireless Com-munications, Vol-1, No.2, pp. 213-225, April 2002.

(34) E.Tungsrisaguan, R.M.Rajatheva: Turbo Equali-yation With Sequential Sequence Estimation OverMultipath Fading Channels, IEEE Communica-tions Letters, Vol-6, No.3, pp. 93-95, March 2002.

(35) D.J.Costello Jr. J.Hagenauer, H.Imai, S.B.Wicker:Applications of Error-Control Coding, IEEETrans. on Information Theory, IT-44, No.6, pp.2531-2560, Oct. 1998.

(36) J.Berkmann: Symbol-by-Symbol MAP Decoding ofNonbinary Codes, IEEE Trans on Communica-tions, Vol.49, No.8, pp. 1354-1362, Aug. 2001.

(37) A. Ruscitto, E. Biglieri: Joint Source and ChannelCoding Using Turbo Codes Over Rings, IEEETrans on Communications, Vol.46, No.8, pp.981-984, Aug. 1998.

(38) T.G. Marshall Jr.: “Coding of Real-Number Se-quences for Error Correction: A Digital SignalProcessing Problem”, IEEE Journal on Select.Areas in Commun., Vol.2, N0.2, March 1984, pp381-392.

(39) N. Rozic, D. Begusic, N. Pavesic, H. Dujmic: Real(4,2) BCH code for Image Communications, in theProceedings of Globecom’99, Rio de Janeiro, 5-9December 1999.

(40) A.Gabay, P.Duhamel, O.Rioul: Real BCH codes asJoint Source Channel Codes for Satellite ImagesCoding, in the Proceedings of Globecom’00, SanFrancisco, Nov.-Dec. 2000.

�--��B �

� *&�� +�� " ��9��&�� #�� - ��$��

Likelihoods and maximum a posteriori(MAP) estimation play central role in the detec-tion theory that deals with the problem of deter-mining (‘detecting’) the value for a random vari-able X based on the outcome of the another,more or less correlated, variable Y. For examplean integer random variable X � {0,1, …,M-1}

could be the input to a analog channel exposed tothe random noise, and the output of the channelis a real valued Y � R. A hard decision for X,based on the observation of Y, is a function thatassigns a decision in the set X based on the out-come of Y. A soft decision for X produces a mea-sure on the set X based on the observation of Y.

The maximum likelihood (ML) soft decisionmeasure for a given outcome y � Y is describedby the conditional distribution

p y x p y x xp y x x p x x

p xi

i i( ) ( � )( ) ( )

( )� � �

� �;

xi � X ={x0, x1, …, xM-1}, i=0,1,2,…,M-1(A1)


The maximum a posteriori (MAP) soft deci-sion measure for a given outcome y � Y is basedon the conditional distribution

p x y p x x yp y x x p x x

p yi

i i( ) ( � )( ) ( )

( )� � �

� �;

xi � X ={x0, x1, …, xM-1}, i=0,1,2,…,M-1(A2)

where p y p y x x p x xi i

i

M

( ) ( � ) ( � )� � ��

�

�0

1

, and

p y x xi

( � )� represents conditional probability of acontinuous variable y belonging to the transmit-ted symbol xi. For Gaussian channels p(y) is aconstant. In the general case (e.g. fading chan-nels) p(y) is time-variant and can be denoted asp(y,t). The probability p x x

i( � )� represents the a

priori probability based on some statistical know-ledge about the source. The a posteriori probabil-ity p x x y

i( � )� can be considered as an improve-

ment of a priori knowledge.The ML measure does not represent a proba-

bility distribution since the sum on the alphabetX is not, in general, equal unity. However theMAP measure is a probability distribution. It iseasy to see that the ML and MAP measures arerelated by the marginal distribution p x( ) on X,thus

MAP p x MLmeasure measure� ( )

The decoding procedure is based on a maxi-mum a posteriori probability calculating amongM possible values xi. In channel decoding appli-cation it is useful to use the logarithm likelihoodratio (LLR) [10]:

L x x yp x x y

p x x yi ei( � ) log

( � )

( � )� �

�

�

�

��

�

��

0

��

� �

�

�

��

�

�

��

log( � ) ( )

( � ) ( )e

i ip y x x p x x

p y x x p x x0 0

; i = 0,1,2,…M–1

thus

L x x yp y x x

p y x x

p x xi e

ie( � ) log

( � )

( � )log

(� �

�

�

�

��

�

��

�

0

i

p x x

)

( )�

�

��

�

��

0

or simply

L x y L y L xc( � ) ( ) ( )� � (A3)

where

L yp y x x

p y x xc ei( ) log

( � )

( � ),�

�

�

�

��

�

��0

and

L xp x x

p x xi ei( ) log

( )

( )�

�

�

�

��

�

��

0

.

Value Lc(y) is the channel L-value calculatedfor the received symbol y under the conditionsthat xi have been transmitted. Value L x

i( ) is the

a priori L-value of the symbol xi.For an linear (N,K) code, K of N symbols

are equal to the information symbols and N-Ksymbols are equal to the parity symbols. Aftertransmission over a binary channel or a Gau-ssian channel a log-likelihood ratio can be cal-culated. For the received symbol yi correspondingto transmitted symbol xi, the decoder soft-outputis

L x L y L x L xi c i i e i

( � ) ( ) ( ) ( � )� � � (A4)

where L xe i( � ) represents the soft extrinsic infor-

mation [2] (Fig. A1).Extrinsic information is important since it

carries independent part information about thetransmitted symbol that contributes to the reli-ability of the decoding decision.

Hard decisions regarding �xiare based on

L xi

( � ). For binary case the hard decision is de-fined by the sign of L x( � )

1and for M-nary case

the hard decision is defined by the maximum ofL x( �). Thus for binary case if L x( � )

10� the de-

coder output is xi, otherwise decoder output isxj. For M-nary case the decoder output is xi ifmax ( � )

k

ki i

L x x� . The magnitude of L x( �) mea-sures the reliability of the decision.

Let us consider two simple codes: repetition(N,1) code and a single parity code (SPC).

�, ��)�� C�:,D $��

The repetition (N,1) code means that foreach source symbol xi transmitter sends throughthe channel a block of N symbols xi. We may takethat the decoder receives yi symbol and yj,j=1,2,…,N-1 redundant symbols so that the de-coder soft output is

L x L y L x L xi c i i e i

( � ) ( ) ( ) ( � )� � � (A5)

where L x L ye i jj

N

( � ) ( )��

�

�1

1

presents the decoder

soft extrinsic information [2].


F i g . A 1 – Soft-input soft-output decoder

�� *�� -#��' �&�$9 �� $��

For M-nary (N,N-1) SPC code, (M-1) dimen-sional LLR vector is defined by

L y y x x xkp j

jj i

N

p jjj i

N

i� �

�

�

��

�

�

�

�

�

�

��

�

��

�

� �1

1

1

1

��

�

�

��

(A6)

�

� �

�

�

��

�

�

�

��

�

��

�

� �

log e

p jjj i

N

p jjj i

N

P y y x x x2

1

2

1

i

p jjj i

N

p jjj i

N

P y y x x

�

�

��

�

�

��

� �

�

�

��

�

��

�

��

�

� �1

1

2

1 �

�

�

��

�

�

��

�

�

��

�

��

�

��

!

��

x0

;

The distributions in (A6) are given by theconvolution of the each distribution function [15].

Let us consider simple (3,2) SPC code. FromEq. (A6) follows

L y yp y y x x x

p y y x xk

p j e

i p j p j i

p j p j

( ) log[( )/ ]

[( )/� �

� � �

� �0

�

��

��

� �

!�x0]; (A7)

and from Eq. (A6)

L y y

e e

e e

kp j e

L y L y

m

M

L y L

cm

j cm i

p

cm

j c

( ) log

( ) ( )

( )

� �

�

�

�

�0

1

mpy

m

M( )

�

�

�

�

�

��

�

�

��

0

1

k=0,1,2,…, M-1; j=1,2 (A8)

Eq. (A9) can be written in an approximateform

L y y L y L y L yip j c

ip c j c

ip( ) max{ ( ), ( ) ( ), ,� " � �1 1

� �� , ( ) ( )}L y L ycM

j ci M

p1 1

(A9)� � � max { , ( ) ( ), ( ) ( ), ,0 1 1 2 2L y L y L y L yc j c p c j c p

�� , ( ) ( )}L y L ycM

j cM

p1 1

which significantly reduces a number of calcula-tions.

�� &#�� A#��

Assuming Gaussian noise n ~ ( , )0 2� n N(0), inthe channel LLR channel values are

L yp y x x

p y x xci

ei( ) log

( )

( )�

�

�

�

��

�

��

0

�

� ��

��

�

��

� �

log

exp ( )

exp (e

n ni

n n

y x

y x

12

12

12

12

22

2

#� �

#� � 02)

�

��

�

��

�

�

��

�

��

�

��

!

��

i=1,2, …,M-1, (A10)

or simply

L y y x y xci

ni

( ) [ ( ) ( ) ]� � � � � �1

2 22

02

�

� � � �1

222 0

2 20� n

i ix x y x x[ ( )];

(A11)

1. Usually source encoder output is repre-sented with equidistant values xi so thatxi – xi-1 = � and x x i

i� �

0$ with x

00� ,

2. In speech and image/video applications weusually have $x =1 and

L y i y ici

i in

( ) ( ) ;� � 2122�

(A12)

This value we call soft channel output where1 2/ � n represents the reliability value of the chan-nel.


Nikola Ro�iæ, associated member,Croatian Academy of EngineeringFaculty of Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Naval ArchitectureUniversity of Split, 21000 Splite-mail: [email protected]

E�#'!��!*#+#!��+��!#�!*�#+��9�!��!$��'��!$��$��

Zorislav Soriæ, Marko Pršiæ, Franjo Veriæ, Milutin Anðeliæ, Tomislav Kišièekand Josip Galiæ

The river quay at Slavonski Brod that is currently (September 2003.) underconstruction is presented. Reinforced concrete structure, situation, view and deta-ils of reinforcement as well as applied loads are described. All the structure is sup-ported by geotechnical diaphragms and piles. Reinforced concrete elements at up-per level such as girders and slabs will be prefabricated, while girders at lower po-sitions, columns, walls and upper slab will be cast in place. Due to durability rea-sons the structure elements are of simple shape and robust. Structure elementswere calculated taking into account relevant actions.

, ��$��

The ship landing stage Slavonski Brod(Croatia) should be an international traffic andtrade center with an area of 30 hectares. From500 m quay length in end phase, the first phase ofreinforced concrete structure will be 120 m long.The durability reasons dictated that the structureelements would be of simple shape and robust.The materials that shall be used in constructionthe quay structure are concrete and steel rein-forcement. Concrete will be of grade 40 MPa andreinforcement of grade S-400 (ribbed) bars.

The landing stage is placed on the left bankof river Sava, station 355+000 to 356+500,about 200 km east of Zagreb. Today, this is a lo-cal traffic intersection with oil traffic quantity ofless than 100.000 tons per year. Only 200 mnon-developed riverbank has a port function, fortransfer of raw oil from pipeline to tank barges.On the location there are traffic infrastructuressuch as: road, railway, electricity, water supply,closed general cargo storage, and a big grain silo.

Inland waterway of river Sava is of IV inter-national class, as found in Review of the Classifi-cation of European Inland Waterways, (1996),[1]. Navigation clearance of the waterway is 2,9 x70,0 m with the minimum radius of 400 m. Thewaterway can take pushing convoy of one lighterand boxer whose dimensions could be as much as85,0 x 9,5 x 2,5 m.

The development plan predicts in perspectivethat landing stage Slavonski Brod becomes agreater international traffic and trade centerwith an area of 30 hectares. Near shore is about50 % of the territory that would have a trafficfunction. The rest of 50 % of the territory, that isterritory in backshore, would have a trade andindustrial function.

Inland waterway goods traffic on landingstage would be realized by reloading gravel,sand, grain and raw oil, on nine ship berths (gen-eral cargo with open and closed-types of storages,container berth, RO-RO ramp, and liquid cargo).

From altogether 1500 m operative bank, a500 m will be vertical quay and the rest of 1000 mthe sloped type. The first phase of reinforced con-crete vertical quay structure will be 110 m long.

Oscillation, i.e. difference between the ex-treme water levels is 10,0 m and oscillation ofnavigable water levels is 7,0 m. Development oflanding stage will start with one berth. The wa-terfront structure will be the vertical concretequay.

� ��#� *$&�%� �" ��#�� -�� E�#'*��$��

The main kinds of different loading and load-ing conditions that act on the reinforced concretestructure of port stage are numbered in follow-ing lines.

�., ��#� ��#�� #��

• structure self-weight• hydrostatic pressure for regular high,mean and low water level (buoyancy)

• soil pressure for regular high, mean andlow water level

• uniform live load: 2 rows of containers,with loading of 35 kN/m2

• crane not in use; crane in use; crane driv-ing

• road loading on quay• snow; ice


�.� ��#� +#��#8�� #��

• additional soil pressure from: uniform liveload on embankment; mobile crane on em-bankment; road load on embankment

• temperature• braking and accelerating of: mobile crane;road vehicle

• operating wind (v=20 m/s) on crane in use,perpendicular to quay length; along thequay

• ship impact by landing for regular highwater level: +89,15, perpendicular to quaylength: 100 kN

• ship impact by landing for mean waterlevel: +84,02, perpendicular to quaylength: 100 kN

• ship impact by landing for regular low wa-ter level: +82,2, perpendicular to quaylength: 100 kN

• ship impact by landing for regular highwater level: +89,15, along to quay length:0,5x100=50 kN

• ship impact by landing for mean waterlevel: +84,02, along to quay length:0,5x100=50 kN

• ship impact by landing for regular low wa-ter level: +82,2, along to quay length:0,5x100=50 kN

• rope pull force, for regular high waterlevel: +89,15, perpendicular to quay lengthto water: 100 kN/75m

• rope pull force, for mean water level:+84,02, perpendicular to quay length towater: 100 kN/75m

• rope pull force, for regular low water level:+82,2, perpendicular to quay length to wa-ter: 100 kN/75m

• rope pull force, for regular high waterlevel: +89,15, along the quay: 4x100 = 400kN

• rope pull force, for mean water level:+84,02, along the quay: 4x100=400 kN

• rope pull force, for regular low water level:+82,2, along the quay: 4x100 = 400 kN

• vertical force due to friction of ship towardquay, for: regular high water level: +89,15;mean water level: +84,02; low water level:+82,2

• hydrostatic pressure of residual water be-hind wall for regular high water level:+89,15: �H=0,20 m

• wave pressure for regular high water level:+89,15: across the quay toward water:H/2=0,25 m

• wave pressure for regular low water level:+82,2: across the quay toward water:H/2=0,25 m

• settlement of supports

�.� ��#� ��#��

• concrete shrinkage

�.2 �$$��#� ��#��

• wind storm (40 to 50 m/s), on crane, not inuse, perpendicular to quay length

• wind storm (40 to 50 m/s), on crane, not inuse, along the quay length

• ship impact by landing (vn=0,2 to 0,3 m/s),perpendicular to quay length:

• ship impact by landing (vn=0,2 to 0,3 m/s),at certain angle to quay length:

• hydrostatic pressure for accidentally highwater level, +91,5 (buoyancy)

• hydrostatic pressure for accidentally lowwater level, +81,15 (buoyancy)

• soil pressure for accidentally high waterlevel, +91,5

• hydrostatic pressure for accidentally lowwater level, +81,15

• seismic force on self weight of structure atmean water level: +84,02 (horizontal, per-pendicular and alongside, vertical)

• seismic loading on soil behind wall bymean water level: +84,02 (horizontal pres-sure)

• seismic loading on soil from uniform liveload by mean water level: +84,02

• seismic loading on soil from mobile craneon bank by mean water level: +84,02

• seismic loading on soil from road loadingon bank by mean water level: +84,02

• seismic forces on crane (horizontal perpen-dicular and alongside)

� ��$�� *��$�� " *&�) �#�� *�# �

Quay structure has plan dimensions of11,6x120,0 m divided (at movement joint) intotwo parts of 60,0 m each.

From working plateau, geotechnical dia-phragm of 60-cm thickness and 15,0 m depth insoil is constructed on the riverside. The so calledhalf-diaphragm is constructed 5,25 m apart fromthe diaphragm in transverse direction. Its depthin soil is 13,0 m, thickness is 60-cm and length2,5 m, and its centre to centre distance is 5,0 mapart alongside. Drilled piles of 1,0 m diameterare constructed on backside of quay, 5,25 m


apart from the half-diaphragm in transverse di-rection, with depth of 13,0 m inside soil and5,0 m apart in longitudinal direction (see figure1 and 2). Foundation structure has two trans-verse diaphragms at its ends and two at themovement joint in the middle of 120 m length ofthe quay. There are no transverse diaphragms inbetween. Transverse diaphragms at the ends ofquay were by mistake constructed about one me-ter off the prescribed axes. Therefore the endtransverse walls of the upper structure shouldhave had the special depth-increasing cantileverconstructed to bridge this irregularity (figure10). After the RC (reinforced concrete) founda-tion has been made (concrete strength 30 MPaand reinforcement of grade S-400 (ribbed) bars),the upper RC structure of box-type, opened onits bottom, of concrete strength 40 MPa and re-inforcement S-400, would be constructed. Figure1 shows cross-section of the reinforced concretestructure and slope of riverbank before construc-tion. The back-wall cantilever and anchoragetendons on the right side of the structure couldbe, in Figure 1, seen as well.

Upper-structure (from the level +83,00 up)will consist of lower longitudinal girder and trans-verse girders, longitudinal walls (riverside-walland backside-wall), transverse walls, columns(Figure 3), upper girders and slab. Upper longi-tudinal and transversal girders would be prefab-ricated elements (Figures 4, 6 and 7). All otherreinforced concrete elements would be cast inplace.

Of the upper-part structure, first, the lowergirders (70/120-cm) grid with cantilever slab,length of 1,0 m, toward bank soil would be con-structed by casting in place concrete. Trans-verse girders that are placed at every 5,0 m con-nect diaphragm, half-diaphragm and piles ofsoil-RC-structure. In the longitudinal directiongirders would be constructed above diaphragm,half-diaphragm and piles. After lower girdersgrid was constructed, the RC walls of 70-cmthickness would be constructed on the riverside(above diaphragm) and on the backside (abovepiles). Back-wall has the longitudinal cantileverat its bottom for the reason of decreasing theoverturning moment, and has anchorage tendons


F i g . 1 – Cross-section of the quay structure

at the top for decreasing of top horizontal move-ment of structure. The space behind back-wallwill be filled with soil and compacted in layers.

In transverse direction, the RC walls of30-cm thickness, 10,0 m apart, would be con-structed above transverse girders (figure 5). Inthe centre of the field between transverse andlongitudinal walls (at the connection of trans-verse and longitudinal girders) the RC columnsof cross section 1,0x1,0 m would be constructed.Those columns, 10,0 m apart of each other,should be provided with square (1,4 x 1,4 m)heads at their top level of +89,5 m, in order toallow placing of prefabricated girders of upperstructure on top of them. On top of those girders(Figures 6 and 7) would be placed reinforced con-crete prefabricated slabs, which will all be con-nected by reinforced concrete slab cast in situ.Concrete cover should be at least 4 cm for ele-ments that are not in contact with soil. For thosein direct, unprotected contact with soil, covershould be 7 cm. Figure 2 shows plan of thegeotechnical foundation structure. Girders, wallsand columns of upper part of structure at level+83,0 m (Figure 3) will be reinforced and con-crete-cast in situ. The connections between ele-ments cast in-situ and those that are prefabri-cated will be reinforced and cast with fresh con-crete. Sticking-out reinforcement of reinforcedconcrete elements that are cast in place and ofprefabricated girders, those elements will be con-nected by in-situ concrete-cast of connectionjoints. After construction of 60 cm thick rein-forced concrete slab, the road pavement shall bemade on top of structure.

Figure 3 shows plan of the lower girders grid,while Figure 4 shows plan of the upper girdersand beams grid.

Of all loading that act on top surface of struc-ture at level +91,50 m, the mobile crane loadingis the most important, because of its weight andsize. Besides, the mobile crane can move in allpossible unfavorable places for structural ele-ments. This type of crane has four axles onwheels and extensible legs. Distances from cen-ter to center of legs are 11,50 m and 10,00 m.The size of each leg is 1,20 x 1,80 m. Its totalweight in work is 2500 kN. The plan view of two


F i g . 2 – Plan of the geotechnical foundation structure(diaphragm, half-diaphragm, piles)

F i g . 3 – Plan of the lower girders cast in place

F i g . 4 – Plan of the upper prefabricated girders

working mobile cranes is given in Figure 5. Twomobile cranes are foreseen to be in use for load-ing and unloading in port. Possible positions oftwo parallels working mobile crane placed longi-tudinally and transverse to the quay. Figure 5shows also maximum force at each of mobilecrane legs by maximum loading and/or unloadingthe ship, according to position of crane arm. Themaximum load on one leg could be as much as1462 kN which means 677 kN/m2 on reinforcedconcrete slab below the leg of size 1,20 x 1,80 m.This kind of load is way above any other loadand therefore is relevant for design.

In order to prevent extensive cracking in re-inforced concrete elements, the thinner steelribbed bars shall be used. The diameter of steelbar shall be no greater than �22 mm in lowerzone and no more than �25 mm in upper zone,and the tensile stress in steel bars during serviceshall not be greater than 300 N/mm2.

After construction of columns and walls, pre-fabricated girders of upper grid will be erected.First, prefabricated girders in transverse direc-tions would be placed at the positions of col-umns. Dimensions of these girders are 70/120 cmand span of L = 4,8 m, with prepared recesses55/60 cm for supporting longitudinal prefabri-cated beams. Thereafter longitudinal prefabri-cated RC beams and girders will be placed. First,middle prefabricated girder in longitudinal direc-tions of dimensions b/d = 60/120 cm and span L= 4,45 m, will be placed at the caps of columnsand on widened upper portion of transversewalls. Thereafter, four smaller longitudinal pre-

fabricated beams of b/d = 50/60 cm, span L = 4,6will be placed on transverse girders and walls.All girders are reinforced with steel bars S-400.On the top of longitudinal girders and walls, pre-fabricated OMNIA-slabs of span L = 1,1 m and1,8 m, thickness of h=8 cm, will be placed. Theseslabs serve as formwork for RC slab of totalthickness of 60 cm. The space behind back-wallwill be filled with, in layers, compacted gravel,after all structure is completed, i.e. 28 days afterconcreting the slab and all connections.

Figure 6 shows the cross sections and sideview of transverse prefabricated girder, whileFigure 7 shows the cross sections and side viewof longitudinal prefabricated girder.

2 ��#�'��$#� �� " �&� *��$��

Although the structure the ship landingstage is of simple shape, it was necesarry to bevery cautious in design and calculation. Due tolarge horizontal forces of soil pressure on backwall, it was necessary to provide anchorage ten-dons at upper part and cantilever at bottom partof the back-wall of the structure. Figure 8 showssoil pressure loading on back-wall and cantileveras well as anchorage tie force.

The structure analysis has been made on the3-D model using computer program Staad. Thisanalytical model comprised foundation structureand upper structure. The contacts of both struc-tures have been modelled by springs. The me-chanical properties of springs were obtained


F i g . 5 – Possible positions of two parallels working mobile cranes placed longitudinally and transverse to thequay with maximum force at each of its legs at maximum loading

from soil mechanic expert, according to test re-sults, as well from iterative calculation of soilforce/displacement interaction. Diaphragm hasbeen modelled by shell-elements, while half-dia-phragm and piles have been modelled bybeam-elements. At first, structure was modelledwithout the back-wall cantilever. Though, hori-zontal displacement toward river, due to soilpressure, was too big, causing too high force inanchorage tendons, that it was necesary to modelback-wall cantilever. The ship impact on thefront wall was modelled by movable loads. Thisimpact force was distributed on top edge of eachfield at 5,0 m length and moved down stepwiseevery 1,0 meter. It was found that the ship im-pact has its unfavourable influence when appliedto the top of end field of the structure, while itcaused torsion. The mobile crane loading wasmodelled as a load of each of four legs by a group


F i g . 7 – Cross sections and side view of longitudinalprefabricated girder

F i g . 8 – Soil pressure on back-wall and cantilever

F i g . 6 – Cross sections and side view of transverseprefabricated girder

of three vertical forces. Those forces were movedalong the structure on different positions in or-der to induce maximum internal forces in struc-ture. There were altogether 271 load cases. Fig-ure 9 shows structural model with bendingmoments of upper girders grid, due to combinedloading of dead load, soil pressure and mobilecrane.

3 *&�) ��#�� *�# � ��' ��$�� C*�)��%8�� D

The reinforcement that comes from geotech-nical diaphragms and piles, and that should beconnected with upper-structure come out to beof curled-shape. Some of curled reinforcing barshave been straigthened-up while the others werewelded to straight bars in order to ensure satis-factory anchorage. Figure 10 shows connectionof reinforcement of geotechnical diaphragm andupper-structure at the end cross wall of landingstage with depth-increasing cantilever. Figure 11shows the reinforcement of upper-structure atthe beginning of September 2003.

4 ��$��

Design and construction of ship landingstage is complex engineering task that needsgood preparation and cooperation among severalcivil engineering experts. This type of structureis submitted to a great number of different influ-ences, but analysis has confirmed that verticaland horizontal loading due to mobile cranes, shipimpact forces, and soil pressure are the most rel-evant for analysis of the structure. The structureis currently under construction.


F i g . 9 – Structural model with bending moments ofbeams loaded by dead load + soil pressure+ crane

F i g . 1 1 – Reinforcement of upper-structure at the beginning of September 2003


F i g . 1 0 – Connection of reinforcement of geotechnical diaphragm and upper-structure at the end cross wall oflanding stage by depth-increasing cantilever

7 ��"��$��

[1] Review of the Classification of European InlandWaterways, (1996). United Nations, Economic andSocial Council, Economic Commission for Europe,Inland Transport Committee TRANS/SC3/131,Geneva 1996. (UN/ECE 1996).

[2] Soriæ, Z., Pršiæ, M., Kišièek, T., Ahmetoviæ, E.: Re-inforced Concrete Structure of Quay on Sava Ri-ver. Proceedings of the VII international sympo-sium on water management and hydraulic engine-ering, Miedzybrodzie _iwieckie, Poland, 10-12September, 2001

[3] Galiæ, J., Soriæ, Z., Anðeliæ, M., Kišièek, T., Veriæ,F.: Armiranobetonska konstrukcija pristaništa uSlavonskom Brodu. Zbornik radova, Interdiscipli-narno znanstveno-struèni simpozij “Graditeljstvoi okoliš”. Brijuni 4.-6. 7. 2002, 279-286

[4] Soriæ, Z.: Project of quay concrete structure on Sa-va river at Slavonski Brod – Croatia. Croatian –Report book. The first FIB Congress 2002. Con-crete structures in the 21st Century. Volume 1.Osaka, Japan, October 13-18, 2002, pp. 105 -108

[5] Agatz, A., Lackner E. (1977): Erfahrungen mitGrundbauwerken, Springer-Verlag, 1977

[6] Bruun, P. (1973): Port Engineering. Gulf Publi-shing Company, 1973

[7] Thoresen, C., A. (1988): Port Design, Guidelinesand Recommendations. Tapir Publishers, Tron-dheim-Norway, 1988

[8] Quinn, A., D. (1972): Design and Construction ofPorts and Marine Structures. Mc Graw-Hill BookCompany, second edition, 1972

[9] Empfehlungen des Arbeitsausschusses “Uferein-fassungen” Haefen und Wasserstrassen EAU 1996(1996), Ernst & Sohn, 9. Auflage, 1996

[10] Kolund, I., Despot, Z. (1999): Obnova i dogradnjavukovarske luke (Vukovar port reconstruction andextension), Graðevinar 51 (1999) 9, pp. 597-604

[11] Mazurkiewitz, B. (1984): Morskie Budowle Hydro-techniczne. Politechnika Gdanska, Gdansk, 1984

[12] Technical Standards for Port and Harbour Facili-ties in Japan, (1980), The Overseas Coastal AreaDevelopment Institute of Japan, Tokyo, Japan,1980


Zorislav Soriæ1, CAE associated member, Marko Pršiæ2, Franjo Veriæ3, CAE associated member, Milutin Anðeliæ4,Tomislav Kišièek5, Josip Galiæ61,2,3,4Professor, 5,6 Assistant, University of Zagreb, Civil Engineering Faculty, Zagreb, Croatiae-mail: [email protected]

+#��#��!�"!-#+�%��!-��"��%#�$�!#��!��!��F��%��"!��#'!#��#�$�!#��!��&#8��#��!��!��#��#

Mate Sršen

The paper is based on knowledge and technical solutions contained in the de-signs for maintenance and rehabilitation of motorway pavements in Croatia. Themotorway section Ilova-Slavonski Brod was taken as an example with performedpavement condition assessment and recommended rehabilitation and maintenan-ce measures. The project was implemented by the Pavement Engineering Divisionof IGH according to the contract with the Croatian Motorways Authority. Theproject goal was to define the maintenance and rehabilitation schedule disposedover the particular motorway sections and for each traffic lane separately. TheOECD method, described in details, was applied for determining the pavement da-mage type (cracks, unevenness, rutting and skid resistance), based on index of pa-vement surface condition, the values ranging between 0 and 5. The proposedworks are limited only to the pavement surface layers. These are complex mainte-nance works, greater in scope and their implementation results in considerableimprovement of road serviceability.

, ��$��

Based on the contract signed with the Cro-atian Motorways Authority (HAC) and IGH sur-vey and measurement of pavement conditioncharacteristics was performed on the motorwayZagreb – Lipovac, on the section from Ilova toSlavonski Brod. This motorway section is 110km long and was constructed in the 80's. Themotorway pavement structure is of compositetype consisting of asphalt layers 20 cm thickplaced on cement stabilised gravel layer 20 cmthick. Under this layer there is a layer of un-bound gravel 25 to 30 cm thick. Because of envi-ronmental factors, traffic load and climatic con-ditions pavement has over time suffered dam-ages and deformations in the form of transversaland longitudinal cracks, net-like cracks and ruts.The pavement condition assessment was per-formed according to OECD (OECD, 1995) [1]methodology and its was numerically expressedby pavement condition index. The necessary datawere collected in field measurements and by vi-sual inspection of pavement damages. Tests in-cluded measurements of longitudinal and trans-versal evenness of the pavement with profilo-graph as well as measurement of skid resistanceby means of grip-tester (deflection measure-ments were not performed since the pavementbearing capacity is not questionable). Visual sur-vey of cracks was made by recording the type, se-verity and extent of cracks. On the basis of allthe analyses as well as on insight into the earlierprocedures of motorway maintenance, a proposalwas given for maintenance and renovation works

for particular sections of this motorway. Theproposed renovation works can be defined asmore complex maintenance and rehabilitationworks of greater extent that need to be per-formed within specific time intervals and whichconsiderably improve the motorway servicea-bility.

� ��$�� " ��$��#�' �#�#

�., ��#� ��

�� &

Visual inspection of pavement distresses forthe both motorway pavements was carried outby a two-person team from the vehicle moving ata speed of about 8 km/h. Recorded damages ofthe pavement surface were drawn in detail ontospecially prepared forms in a corresponding scale(one A4-size page shows 200 m long subsection).Surface damages on this motorway can be classi-fied into five basic types:

• unevenness• longitudinal cracks (Figure 1)• transversal cracks (Figure 2)• net-like cracks (Figure 3)• ruts (Figure 4).

Particular damage types are graphicallyshown according to traffic lanes, and extent andseverity of damages are entered numerically(Figure 5).


��.��&&

Profilograph measurements along the rightrut of the traffic and overtaking lane of the mo-torway were the basis for evaluation of the pave-ment longitudinal evenness. Unevenness of themotorway is expressed by the international even-ness index (IRI) in m/km, as an average value formotorway subsections 100 m in length (Figure5). Should the IRI = 2 m/km be adopted as alimit value of the IRI evenness index, it is evi-dent that majority of results (ranging betweenIRI = 0.5 m/km to IRI = 3.5 m/km) do not ex-ceed this value. This means that the longitudinalmotorway evenness is mostly satisfactory.

��*��!�&

The depth of rut was measured during mea-surement or the longitudinal evenness withprofilograph. Data about average depth of theleft and the right rut (ranging from 0 to 30 mm)for traffic and overtaking lane are given for 100m long motorway subsections (Figure 5).

For the purpose of interpretation of the mea-surement results the limit rut depth of 15 mmwas taken as the warning value. The client wasadvised to take one of the two values (17 mm or20 mm) as the intervention value, what dependson the financial means.

��&-$��&$&��

The surface skid resistance was measuredby means of grip-tester. Measurement was per-formed in the right rut of the motorway trafficlanes at the speed of 40 km/h. Data processingwas performed in such a way that the averagevalue of the longitudinal friction coefficient(number GN) for motorway subsections 100 mlong was converted into SRT values according tothe ratio SRT = 0,720 x GN + 0,10. For inter-pretation of measurement results (ranging fromSRT 40 to SRT 80) the limit value of SRT � 60was taken. The limit value means that eitherspeed limit and/or technical rehabilitation mea-sures of the pavement are to be undertaken ifthe skid resistance is below the limit value.


F i g . 1 – Longitudinal cracks at KM 316+850 (Sla-vonski Brod direction)

F i g . 2 – Transversal crack over the whole pavementwidth at KM 290+200 (Slavonski Brod di-rection)

F i g . 4 – Very pronounced ruts on the traffic lane atKM 346+800 (Ilova direction)

F i g . 3 – Net-like cracks on traffic and overtakinglane at KM 383+600 (direction SlavonskiBrod-Lipovac)


F i g . 5 – Graphical survey of pavement condition parameters on the motorway section Ilova-Slavonski Brod (seg-ment) (IGH, 2002) [2]

� -#+�%�� %��

During visual survey of the motorway pave-ment, the severity and extent of particular dam-age type were recorded on traffic, overtaking andstopping lanes. Homogenous sections were deter-mined according to the severity and extent ofparticular damage type, separately for traffic,overtaking and stopping lane for both directionsof the motorway.

For each homogenous section, the extent (E)of every recorded damage was classified into oneof the three categories:

• E1 < 10%,• E2 10-50%,• E3 > 50%.

The severity of each particular damage wasdetermined on the basis of OECD recommenda-tions (OECD, 1995), Swiss standards (VSS, 1991)[3] and SHRP Damage Identification Manual(National Research Council, 1993) [4].

In the proposed concept of pavement condi-tion assessment, damage severity is expressed asfollows:

• S1 minor damage,• S2 medium damage,• S3 major damage

These three specified levels of severity differdepending on the type of damage. In compliancewith the stated recommendations, severity canbe assessed according to the quantitative (crackwidth, rut depth) or the described criteria.

The most important criteria are stated forassessment of damage severity, applied in thecase of damage types recorded on the pavementof the motorway section from Ilova to SlavonskiBrod.

Transversal, longitudinal and net-like cracks:• S1: crack width to 3 mm,• S2: crack width from 3 to 10 mm, and• S3: crack width greater than 10 mm.

Ruts:• S1: rut depth to 15 mm,• S2: rut depth from 15 to 30 mm, and• S3: rut depth greater than 30 mm.

The extent of cracks was determined depend-ing on the size of the area which is covered in re-lation to the entire area of the observed pave-ment (homogenous subsection) and the extent ofruts is calculated depending on the length of rutsof certain depth on the observed pavement sub-section.

Thus, the extent 1 implies surface (cracks)and longitudinal (ruts) portion of individualdamage up to 10% of the analyzed section. Ex-tent 2 denotes the portion of damage from 10 to50%, and extent 3 more than 50%.

Damage degree (D) is represented by a wholenumber from 1 to 5, and it is determined on thebasis of extent (E) and severity (S), in the man-ner as defined in the matrix shown in Table1.

Damage degree (D) is then multiplied by im-pact (I) of particular damage on the pavementcondition, i.e. on costs of pavement rehabilita-tion caused by that damage.

Impact (I) is represented by an unspecifiednumber from 1 to 3 and it tells us about the rela-tive impact of a particular damage on the costs ofpavement renovation. From the point of view ofrenovation costs on the subject section, three da-mage types are distinguished. These are: cracks(longitudinal, transversal and net-like) whose(relative) impact on the costs equals 1. The effectof deformations in the shape of ruts is double thesize in relation to cracks and it is expressed as anunspecified number 2. The product of multiplica-tion of the damage degree by impact of damage iscalled degree of damage impact (D x I)

For each analyzed subsection the factor ofdriving comfort is also determined and it rangesfrom 0 to 5, whereby higher values are more un-favourable. The impact of the driving comfortfactor amounts to 2. For the most part the driv-ing comfort depends on the pavement evennessand its assessment was in the specific case per-formed on the basis of data measured by profi-lograph.

For each type of the damage and each homo-geneous section, the damage degree obtainedfrom Table 1 was multiplied by appertaining im-pact. Impact degrees are summed up accordingto homogeneous sections, including also the driv-ing comfort.

Evaluation of pavement condition (uponwhich the method of repair is dependent, too)was performed using the pavement condition in-dex. This index was adopted by 16 member coun-


T a b l e 1 – Damage Degree (D)

SE

1 2 3

minor medium major

1 < 10 % 1 3 4

2 10 – 50 % 2 4 5

3 > 50 % 3 5 5

tries of the OECD. Values of the mentioned in-dex range from 0 to 5, whereby lower values aremore unfavourable.

The pavement condition index of an individ-ual motorway subsection is calculated by equa-tion:

I D l� � % %�5110

( ) (1)

where I = pavement condition index, and D � I =

impact degree, i.e. product of multiplication of the

damage degree and its impact on the pavement renova-

tion costs.

Example of the pavement condition index cal-culation for one homogeneous subsection isshown in Table 2.

2 -��)��#� "�� +#�� " -#+�%��*��"#$�� +��#� ��#'*�8��$��

Based on the previously conducted analysesof pavement surveys and measurements, a pro-posal is presented for maintenance and rehabili-tation works on the pavement surfacing to be ex-ecuted on individual subsections of Ilova –Slavonski Brod motorway section.

Depending on the value of pavement condi-tion index, pavement of the complete motorwaysection is divided into three categories.

The first category includes pavement subsec-tions with the value of pavement condition indexfrom I = 3,3 to I = 3,7. This category representsthe motorway subsections that require rehabili-tation without any delay, because they are char-acterized by pavement surface damages and de-fects such as longitudinal, transversal and net-likecracks. Motorway subsections, whose conditionwith regard to cracking does not require immedi-

ate renewal, can be removed from that category.The fact that they belong to this category is con-ditioned by the combination of cracking and un-evenness. Urgency of renewal of these subsec-tions can be considered.

The second category includes pavement sub-sections with the value of pavement condition in-dex from I = 3,8. Such motorway subsections arein better condition than the first category sub-sections, but their rehabilitation and mainte-nance must be planned within a period of 2 to 3years.

The third category includes pavement subsec-tions with the value of pavement condition indexfrom I = 3,9 to I = 4,1. Such subsections are ingood condition and their condition must be moni-tored to enable timely identification of possibledamages and their renovation. The subsectionswhose condition in terms of cracking is good butruts have occurred should be removed from thiscategory.

As a rule, renovation of the whole width oftraffic, overtaking or stopping lane is proposed.Maintenance and rehabilitation works are lim-ited only to pavement surfacing layers and in-clude the following activities:

• milling of cracked surfacing, remixing ofthe remaining surfacing and laying geo-textile and SMA,

• milling of cracked surfacing and REMIX--PLUS treatment,

• renovation of individual wide (transversaland longitudinal cracks) using REMIXtreatment about 30 cm in width, placing ofgeotextile and SMA,

• removal of ruts by milling,• sporadic milling of net-like cracked pave-ment surfacing, replacing with a new as-phalt concrete layer and later overlayingwith a new wearing course.


T a b l e 2 – Example of pavement condition index calculation

Type of pavement damage

Damage severity(S)

Damage extent(E)

Damagedegree (D)

Damageimpact (I)

Damage impactdegree (D�I)

S1 S2 S3 E1 E2 E3

Damages and defects ofpavement surface (longitudinal,transversal and net-like cracks)

2 2 4 1 4

Deformations (ruts) 1 3 3 2 6

Drive comfort (0 = excellent, 5 = very poor) 2 2 4

Sum of impact degrees � (D � I) 14

Pavement condition index (calculated as per equation (1) 3.6

Depending on the sort and type of deter-mined damage as per individual motorway sub-sections, the following specific methods of reha-bilitation were proposed:

• rehabilitation of pavement surfacing atpoints with enormously progressed cracks(where transversal crack are dominant)

• rehabilitation of pavement surfacing atpoints with widely distributed net-like andlongitudinal cracks

• rehabilitation of pavement surfacing atpoints of net-like cracks of smaller distri-bution with stronger longitudinal andtransversal cracks in places

• rehabilitation of pavement surfacing atpoints of grouped net-like cracks

• rehabilitation of pavement surfacing atpoints with rutting

• rehabilitation of stopping laneSpecific renovation treatment and renova-

tion materials are applied for each particularrenovation work. Also the locations of motorwaysubsections were determined where renovationworks will be undertaken either on traffic, over-taking or stopping lane.

3 ��$��

Described measures of pavement surfacingrehabilitation on subsections of Ilova – SlavonskiBrod motorway are presented in such a way thatthey are first classified according to the type ofdamage, then they are attached to motorwaysubsections according to changes and trafficlanes (with this also according to quantities ofwork) and, finally, the time sequence of their im-plementation is recommended.

Renovation measures proposed under item 4cover specified subsections of the motorway withdamages quantified by the pavement conditionindex I = 3,3 to 3,7. Such subsections requirepriority renovation meaning that, depending onthe financial possibilities of the Croatian Motor-ways Authority, should be included first in the

program of maintenance and rehabilitation ac-tivities of the motorway pavement surfacing.

Renovation measures proposed under item 4,referring to sporadically cracked parts of thepavement surfacing and which are quantified bythe pavement condition index I = 3,8 must beimplemented within the scope of priority pro-gram No. 2, which means after implementationof measures covered by the pavement conditionindex I = 3,3 to 3,7.

Renovation measures on the stopping lanewhich cover motorway subsection quantified bythe pavement condition index I = 3,3 to 3,7 andI = 3,8 should be implemented according to rec-ommendations on priorities for both of these twogroups.

After particular rehabilitation works on thepavement surfacing are performed in terms ofGeneral technical conditions [5], the CroatianMotorways Authority was recommended to per-form regular monitoring of this motorway. Themonitoring results would enable not only thecontrol of behaviour of the rehabilitated parts ofthe motorway surfacing, but also monitoring ofchanges in the pavement condition index of par-ticular motorway subsections.

4 ��"��$��

[1] OECD, 1995. Road maintenance managementsystems in developing countries. Paris.

[2] IGH (Civil Engineering Institute of Croatia),2002. Project of maintenance and rehabilitation ofpavement surfacing on the section of Kutina-Sla-vonski Brod (east) motorway (orig. in Croatian),Zagreb.

[3] VSS, 1991. SN 640925, Beilage, Schadenkatalog.Zürich.

[4] National Research Council, 1993. Strategic Hig-hway Research Program (SHRP – P338): DistressIdentification Manual for the Long – Term Pave-ment Performance Project. Washington DC.

[5] HC (Croatian Road Authority), 2001 General tec-hnical conditions for road construction work (orig.in Croatian), Zagreb.


Mate Sršen, regular member, Croatian Academy of EngineeringCvil Engineering Institute, Rakusina 1, 10000 Zagrebe-mail: [email protected]

*�#��!�"!�&�!��!��!� �� !�"!-�� !#��! �#)&�$!��

Vilko Iiljak

The existing methods in the printing industry are eroding faster and faster, butpotentials for the printing industry’s reconstruction are enormous. Today we areexperiencing total integration of the most diverse graphic systems. Digital prin-ting and the Internet are titles that are offering new investigation topics to scien-tists. The future of the printing industry depends on computer science develop-ment, development of telecommunications, implementing new applications andimplementing new training methods. Life in the area of graphic engineering willbe more complicated than it is now. Ahead of us are marvelous steps to be takenin the general integration of computer science, expert systems and the printing in-dustry.Computer acceleration may be briefly presented by the following dimension:

speed, memory, discs, the Internet. The progress is such that the developmenttrend and evaluation of the future may be shown only with the help of logarithmictables. If science, discoveries and patents (on which the said variables are basedon) have been acting in such a fixed exponential manner for the past twenty yearsor so, one must believe that the same parameter growth will remain in the time tocome. The variables are followed through dimensions: in how many months willwe be surrounded by a duplicated value of each single variable? If the computermemory is observed, the duplication takes place in 21 months; if the computerspeed is observed, the duplication takes place in 31 months, and 16 months for thediscs, and only 13 months for Web-Internet application. If we propose the follo-wing equation:

log (Y) = 0,29 X + 7,86

where for X = 0 variable Y yields the Web-host computers number in the world inthe year of 2000. The relation is the approximation of data (Network Wizardwww.nw.com “Internet domain survey” www.isc.org/ds/host-count-history.html)from 1981 (X = -19) till 2002 (X = 2). This gives us the result that the Websystem increases by ten times in three and a half years. If we were to include thepossible alterations and application of the Internet in the printing industry, wewould surely have to work hastily in reorganizing graphics systems. If three and ahalf years are a minimum for training a graphics engineer, then we are facing thetask to introduce significant changes into the manner of studying graphics tech-nologies.

, �� 1��% +#��#�� #��

The idea of the necessity of a wide systematicintegration of humanisties with industrial gra-phics engineering has matured with the develop-ment and application of automation in the print-ing industry in general.

The printing industry of the last century’snineties will be remembered as the period whenthe conventional Guttenberg’s world was begunto be transformed into a digital multimedia in-dustry. Today, all the young people – the e-gen-eration – have their e-addresses, web-sites andare ready to receive information through theInternet. The graphics branch of industry andthe publishing industry regard web design withspecial attention.

The expansion of digital printing is observedthrough variables of offset printing speed, espe-cially for ink-jet technology and separately for

electrographic-xerographic technologies. An esti-mate of 18 months for duplication includes bit--mapping speed phases, estimates of variable con-dition and new toners (ink and powder) patentdevelopment. Digital printing could not have ta-ken place until ten years ago, because such print-ing processes process data files of gigabyte size inreal printing time. Today we are in the computerenvironment that has enabled finding solutionsfor such problems, so it is also the reason why weare going through a period when new printingtechnologies are explored on a large scale basis.

In the same way that the Internet of theeighties did not seem to be terrifying (although itwas duplicating itself in a 13-month period), theink-jet/xerography was observed in the printingindustry as an experiment with no future and in-fluence on graphics production. Digital printingpioneers today are the pioneers creating expertknowledge bases on printing engineering.


� ()�� *'��%�

Printers are faced with some new trends inthe graphics arts: shortening of the time neededto finish a job from the first idea to job comple-tion. Designs are becoming more complicatedand more demanding. Automation is implemen-ted whereas the necessary training and adapta-tion to new working conditions is not takingplace. The new machines have several functionsthat are not in the same nomenclature area ofoccupation and task. Modular automation re-quires multifold qualification and repetition ofacquired knowledge. Sales officers are turninginto “multi sellers”, entering the world of e-in-dustry where the term specialization means – ina new way. Today, in the year 2003, there arestill no databases on the printing industry here,not even on the Chamber of Commerce level, sothat industry advances in this industry are re-duced to information given by individuals, infor-mation that is not updated nor valuable as anadvice source for good decision making. For opti-mal graphics production management, techno-logical as well as marketing data on limits arelacking. Many hopes are placed into includingthe Web-internet in the graphics industry sys-tem.

Contemplation on expert systems in theprinting industry first began on maintenanceand servicing levels. The technique where eachequipment part is automated is the integrationof old and new parts. There are almost no identi-cal “machine parks”, so there are no set installa-tion procedures, set maintenance procedures norset procedures for operating a printing plant.

There are not available “know-it-all” experts.The printing plant managing body is becomingaware of the fact that a successful productionrise may be achieved only by remote control. Awell trained crew that interactively receives in-formation on the next steps to be taken and opti-mum production managing is a must for success-ful production. Gone are the times of servicingpersonnel travelling from one printing plant toanother. Information is travelling through theInternet. The first positive results are in alteringmachines with a new alarm diagnostic software,bit-mapping standards and implementing PDFentries as self-efficiency in respect to prepresssources.

We are making efforts to organize expert se-minars and additional training on using expertdatabase knowledge in the graphics area activi-ties. There is a number of requirements thetrainees must fulfill: they must be skilled inweb-environment work, possess a knowledge ofEnglish and new graphic and computer technolo-gies; their choice must be team work. We are be-ginning by organizing the updating of the situa-tion in printing works: production equipment,printing job type, development plans, additionaltraining planning, reproduction material sour-ces, equipment suppliers, market covering.

Printing engineering is in a phase of continu-ing studies. The questions most often posed toexperts in the printing industry are: Are thereany data bases on the printing industry situationin our country? Where are the addresses of ourexperts? What is the knowledge on the printingindustry in general, and what in respect to spe-cialized areas, and at whose disposal is it? Whatare our production capacities? What are theloads on printing works and their free capacities?Is there systematized Web information on print-ing works? Another series of questions are forthe publishers – the main printed products buy-ers.

Regretfully, the situation is in a state of dis-order. If we observe the development of graphicsand the Internet it is clear that they will spreadand develop faster than we could follow-up. Thepotential for renewal is such that it cannot bestopped and this gives ground to optimism.

Expert teams for international consultationhave been organized by Pira (www.piranet.com),the publisher of the most prestigious graphics in-formation for the following:

Management Consultancy, Strategy and In-dustry Planning, International Industry Stra-tegy, Technical Consultancy, Trouble Shooting,Quality, Packaging Development, Process Effi-ciency and Development, Product Application


and Development, Environmental Strategies,Life Cycle Analysis, Supply Chain Optimization,Legislative Compliance, Innovation, ResearchServices, Packaging Consultancy, Strategic Con-sultancy…

For the time being the consultacies areoff-line, free of charge and replies are recei-ved within 24 hours. There are lists of recom-mended questions and directions how to posequestions. It is characteristic for Pira that it hasan updated library of extremely expensive edi-tions with very topical and attractive subjectslinked with the printing industry. The price ofbooks (www.piranet.com.bookshop) may be ashigh as 4,000 EU. A magazine is released by Pirain the PDF format only, deliverable by e-mailand the yearly subscription amounts to 1500 EU([email protected]). The magazine is notonly informative but is interactive, forcing ques-tionnaires interesting to those in the graphics in-dustry.

� �&� �� "�� *'��%#��$ *��

The time has come when there is a need tosettle the situation in respect to all directions ofactivity the graphics production is taking. Pro-duction has changed significantly in the past tenyears. Text layout, picture layout, proof prints aswell as the layout of graphic pages has beenshifted to authors, writers, publishers. Part ofthe printing produced by digital techniques alsocame from the printing works. The learning ofthese skills has spread to all levels of general ed-ucation. What has remained exclusively in theprinting works? The production of a great num-ber of different products: products with a largenumber of copies, those using non-process colors,those using ultra-violet, electronic, infra-red col-ors, those requiring complex book-binding, bend-ing;, those with additional processing as, for in-stance, holography and protection techniques;those printed on ultra thin or ultra thick mate-rial; those designed individually, typical for thewrapping material program. Automation is in-troduced in printing works wherever there is agreat quantity of human manual work, raw ma-terial transfer and warehouse management. Vi-sual control of print quality is carried out in fullby optical automation.

We support the new ideas in the printing in-dustry with the goal to create motivation in re-spect to the necessity to extend knowledge. Manynew methods, techniques and technologies arepopping up, so we have a situation where peopleare too busy, over-engaged. Such a wide scope ofactivity gives more ground for specializing the

printing works, the workers and the manner ofproduction. JDF (Job Definition Format) has be-come a widely accepted set of industrial rules forworkflow, beginning from prepress and coveringpostpress as well. Production till now has been avariety of different solutions for unit processes.The new computer science era enables “digitaluniting” of all processes taking place in a print-ing sequence.

International Consortion for the Integrationof Process in Prepress, Press and Postpress,shortly named CIP4, is trying to define how tounite knowledge, skills and experience and havejob definition be like a format setting behaviorrules for all participants in printing production.All innovations are systematically prepared andthere is an attachment on the success of theCIP4 movement at: www.cip4.org/./. CIP4 (Inter-national association following the CIP3 ideafrom 1995; Integration in Prepress, Press andPostpress) may be interpreted as the basis fordeveloping production standard specification andthe development of managing standards in theprinting industry. This movement came as a con-sequence of general information science applica-tion and the need to integrate the printing in-dustry on the managing level, capacity exploit-ing, knowledge increase for each participant inthe graphics-computer science field of work.CIP4is concentrated on linking unit jobs into an inte-gral stream in producing the printing product.Workflow has thus become the most interestingpoint of research in the printing industry. Oper-ations cover activities from the moment of orderto product delivery. Furthermore, JDF has theaim to integrate what is called today the printingindustry environment: media, design, graphicproduction “on demand”, digital printing kiosks,individual procedures for solutions needed forspecialized production. Full automation of pro-duction control is introduced so as to increaseproductivity, gain flexibility and see printing in-dustry problems more clearly.

If we were to try comparing these new move-ments in the printing industry with manual andlocal production managing still taking place to-day, the situations would seem impossible andthinking about them extremely complicated.Quite contrary to this, if the whole CIP4 move-ment leans on and implements computer scienceprocedures (where computer networks are in-cluded, the Internet, the Web system, e-dealings,data base on production standards), then themanaging of printing workflow becomes a natu-ral, simple, understandable and effective system.It is necessary to learn about all the segments ofcomputer production control. Computer-inte-grated manufacturing CIM, www.idg.fhg.de


must be brought in closer relation to the produc-tion procedures of today.

Besides the titles referring to graphics pro-duction, expert support should unite vendors,suppliers, equipment servicing and maintenance,counselors on production management and endusers into one single communication system.Troubleshooting is defined through productionbecause the equipment in printing works is di-verse, the hardware is different and the standardfor production software is not well defined asyet.

The idea of Job Definition Format – Job De-scription Format JDF is at it’ very beginningin respect to the success of application andthings are not going smoothly as to graphicsproduction standard definition (www.cip4.org/jdfoverview/index.html). Twelve years ago theInternet standard was determined known as theHTML graphics language, altering behavior ingeneral visualization communication, as well asbehavior in the printing industry. The continua-tion is in XML coding, on which the industrialstandard data file www.w3.org/tr/ will be basedon.

More was expected from the CIP4 topgraphic association, the ones becoming the verymovement systematic thought codex, at leastthis was so four years ago when they were stillthe bearers of brave innovations. To unite such avast number of competitors seems more than be-ing Utopian. There are extensive and difficultdiscussions namely because there are efforts tosettle disputes in respect to contrarieties that areabundant in the printing industry area.

There is effort to adapt to the request of ev-ery single customer with the help of JDF logic.We are speaking about a Format determiningthe production process, information flow integra-tion, commands, control in a wider sense of theword. JDF’s central task is to make ground for agood-quality capability of making the graphicsproduct from the very beginning up to it’s deliv-ery. Specifying is included, such as; creative taskspecification, graphic prepss, workflow towardspress, press, postpress operations and the verydelivery. It is necessary to create with XML thebooks of standards.

Expert seminars and meetings are offeringdiscussions with different approach in respect tothe implementation of the Management Infor-mation System – MIS, in order to have system-atic observation of printing problems be intro-duced into all production plants. Algorithms aresought for bridging the communication node be-tween production and management of informa-tion and industry systems.

2 -��%�� 5�� &#�#$��$�

• Carrying out, planning and control of theprinting process, from the initial idea tothe delivery. This includes design elabora-tion, prepress, press, postpress up to theproduct acceptance evaluation

• To overcome all trouble shooting points inthe production sequence, including timesheets and computer controlled productionsystem.

• Coming to agreement with the client onhis ideas about the production sequenceand the actual printing press capacities,with special stress on multi-layer prepssand non-scientific relationship in respectto design solution personality. The colormanagement dependency on its printingworks resources; trial print, digital trials,large scale printing.

• Finding flexible and adaptable solutionsfor leaving those printing works that donot have the adequately adjusted equip-ment and doing work in dislocated placesor partially, depending on the optimizationof the final performance.

• JDF is a system for creating data; a welldeveloped structure for branching and con-necting data. It is not something one canbuy like a control or applied program

• JDF is compatible with PPF (Print Pro-duction Format) www.cip4.org/ppf_over-view/index.html and with Adobe PJTF(Portable Job Ticket Format).

• JDF is an XML record and therefore it isextremely flexible, free of hierarchy andadaptable to all future requirements anddevelopments. It is adaptable to all userswith simple superstructure and extensions(http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml-names)

• JDF, as a preceding industrial standardsimplifies information exchange betweenvarious types of application and methodsin the graphics industry. In this sense JDFis founded on the existing technology, butgoes farther away from the existing partialsolutions, as for instance CIP3’s Print Pro-duction Format (PPF) and the AdobePJTF system

A��#� -��$��

There is experience in Croatia with modelingand projecting virtual production. The wholeworkflow is simulated so as not to get into riskysituations. The project feasibility estimate is iter-ative experimenting with altering of various


combinations, changing not only parameters, butthe designed models as well. There is effort madeto study new industry situations important toall; from people to the works creating the tasksand having at their disposal production capaci-ties. In such a manner greater knowledge may beacquired in order to set the following projects ina significantly more flexible manner, with morefruitful results. Such information enhancementgives JDF a greater role in the future, in orderfor automation to be implemented faster andsafer into overall control of graphics production.Printing works are faced with demands forbetter production results, quality enhancement,use of new specialized inks and materials andprice reduction. A virtual printing plant experi-ments with alternative processes.

JDF is very flexible because knowledge is notsystemized and the future requirements are be-coming greater. From time to time new workgroups are founded with the task to define fu-ture JDF versions. Also, response from new CIP4association members who see how significantshifts in the printing industry can be made, iswelcome. It is good that XML was recognized asa set of good tools and a language for generalcommunication, and that it was set as the basisfor industry development and JDF development.

3 B� ��$&�� ' �� &� -�� '

There is a need to observe in a much widercontext the cycle comprising of press, postpress,publishing, graphic prepress, as well as image ar-chives and printed matter contents. The use ofall the very differently based printing capacities,organizations and designing sources is united bythe XML technology. As there are new routinesand whole new languages appearing in the XMLenvironment daily, standardization is expected,with the goal to have printing taking place any-where, everywhere, anytime.

The printing industry idea must go througha new phase of successful development in a sym-biosis with computer science technology. Print-ing is putting on a “global mask” because ex-perts of various industry profile are taking partin it. Due to all their very specific needs, theremust be new solutions, new applications, new in-tegration, new patents. Such mass participationin printing practice requires major innovationsin respect to setting standards, communication,new material discovery, new digital printingtechnique discovery, managing of the printingprocess by backing it upon expert knowledge ofvarious types of industry.

The choice of using the XML language(eXtensible Markup Language-1988) that wascreated following the CIP3/CIP4 movement, –www.w3.org (world wide web consortium)www.w3.org/1999/xhtml as a set of communica-tion tools opens a freer perception of the futuredevelopment. XML’s non-hierarchical principleenables constant addition of new learning,knowledge, and production standard resettingalong with them. Communication based on theInternet principles opens space for interconnec-tion of various platforms and use of designs cre-ated in dislocated places. Knowledge level im-provement is based on overall Internet use anddirect communication is abandoned completely.Information is offered through an electronicagent. The HTML and XHTML languages pre-ceded the development of XML and all are ofnewer date. All recent graphic program toolssupport these languages because in a short pe-riod of time they have demonstrated their supe-riority in the relation between the Internet andcontrol of all graphic production segments.

��%#�� #�� #��#��0#�� &� )�� '

Printers have become nervous in respect toinvestment steps they should be taking. In thefirst place they consider purchasing new elec-tronic components to just install them onto theexisting installations. They understand the inev-itable necessity to alter the offset plate produc-tion technology, and are purchasing CTP equip-ment in great strides. After having doubts aboutdigital printing for ten years, printers are begin-ning to understand that they must have suchequipment because then they can meet specificrequirements: individualization, test-runs, im-plementation of new prints, as for instanceprinting big format material, printing onnon-standard material.

Printing works are considering new invest-ments too slowly. Their caution may be gatheredfrom the modestly set criteria. Firstly, printingworks would like to improve their machines byincluding automation and gadgets needed forspecial printing. Secondly, because their neigh-bors have successfully purchased CTP, theywould like to do the same. Thirdly, due to a suc-cessful era of computerized prepss with applica-tion of many colors, printing works are equip-ping themselves with a very wide scope of multi-purpose printing facilities. Contrary to thesemodest undertakings, the bolder criteria wouldbe: Investing into new equipment will be suc-cessful only if it has a well defined relationshipwith XML (JDF) technology.


The XML language is begun by defining thevocabulary and cookbook for a certain branch ofindustry. In JDF, the XML printing pattern thathas been developed during the past five years,neither the vocabulary nor the cookbook havebeen defined so far. The databases on processes,materials, methods, equipment and other chap-ters falling into printing industry classificationhave not arrived to the point of being completedyet. Up to date approximately eighty processeshave been defined, such as imposition, RIPing,approval and around two hundred logical andphysical actions. By making a printing industrylanguage on basis of access organized in such away leads to standardization. Optimization re-quires definition of the borders within which wemove and adapting the data to the conditionsnecessary for their fluctuating between systems.A vocabulary is formed as a common basis forJDF development, a workflow language and theirintegration.

The future of the printing industry includesand insists on the use of XML technology, digitalprinting, individuality of the printed product, in-tegration of the complete production processfrom prepress, press, postpress and delivery pro-cesses. XML technology is put at the top of thediscussion because it’s ideas will unite the alter-ations, development and define the future of theprinting industry too. Information science tech-nology allows individuals to create their ownproduct using digital printing. Digital printing asa new media is a very strong motivating meansfor large scale graphic product design.

Fundamental principles of the conventionalprinting industry with strict printing technologyclassifications, vocation nomenclatures, incompat-ible techniques are falling apart due to the inva-sion of digital technologies that are causing theopening of multi-printing application, multifoldintegration in all graphic product production pha-ses. Information on planning future alterations inthe printing industry are available through theInternet, and they are the initiators of ideas ondevelopment directions and patents with the goalbeing the expansion of printing methods andtechnologies. Polemics on the printing industryfuture are making the world disintegrate conven-tional printing by introducing knowledge ac-quired on basis of other fundamental researchand placing it at the printing industry center.

4 �$��+�� (�� #)&�$ � �� =��

The best discussions on the graphic industrydevelopment may be heard during seminars that

are either separate conferences or are part ofPrinting industry show. Let’s mention the justcompleted ones, where new discussions wereheld: (this paper was completed by the middle of2002)

Zurich, Switzerland (March 20, 2002) Inter-national Cooperation in Developing Integrationin Prepress, Press and Postpress (CIP4)

Seminars during IPEX in Birmingham, Eng-land (April 11, 2002) (NEC – National ExhibitionCenter. Visions were given by: Anschutz (Heidel-berg), Doug Belkofer (PrintCafe), Gugler (Roland),Dave deBronkart (PODI) and John Sweeney(GMI)

The main seminar subjects are oriented to-wards discussions on the question: “What is therelationship between JDF and CIP4 and how canconcrete printing production be enhanced whilehaving the existing equipment, personnel andknowledge? Reports were prepared by: StephenJaeggi (PrePress counselor) and Margaret Mota-med (CIP4 Marketing, EFI)

Prominent polemics were held on alterationsin JDF (JDF 1.0, JDF 1.1…) from the technicalaspect and updating other language standards.Discussions were led by Rainer Prosi (CIP4, Hei-delberg) and Steve Hiebert (HP).

Central discussions are led on the appropri-ate task setting for work groups that are to de-fine visions of JDF positive contribution. CIP4 issearching for a new gray mass; pioneers ofgraphic engineering who are to develop expertknowledge and are to be carriers of the vision onfuture technologies. An international work atmo-sphere should be created in respect to definingthe future printing works design. The develop-ment that really meets requirements of a success-ful graphic production.

There is fear of digital printing among themore elderly fellow-workers because the resultsof this struggle between old and new technologyare not known yet.

Contemporary work groups are offering vari-ous discussions and there are several concepts onhow to give reports. The addition and research ofthe following titles is offered:

• printing works hardware (includes pre-press, press and postpress)

• computer hardware• standard development inside CIP4• printing equipment use optimization• newspaper printing, e-newspapers, PDFnewspapers

• digital printing• publishing of reviews and adds


• materials, with stress on new color devel-opment

• final, postpress operations, packaging andlabeling

• organizing user interests• printing with variable data• printing – Web/rotation• color management of six-color separation• non-editing of graphic records for any in-dependent media display

• expert, specific graphic productionWork groups are defined as international ex-

pert groups, but they include user experienceand contemporary needs. The work groups aregathering around the general CIP4 idea with thegoal to exchange knowledge on new achieve-ments so as to create their conclusions in the op-timal manner. Users have their expert system,their specific knowledge and requirements. Themarket is not altering as rapidly as are commu-nication methods and information science in theprinting industry. CIP4 is not only making ef-forts to give a vision of the printing industry fu-ture, but to connect the past and the future withcontinuing transitions. Our participation in suchdiscussions is to help engineers and graphic pro-duction monitors be informed about the oncom-ing changes and to be ready to make firm deci-sions about new investments and the new pre-press, press and postpress process systems. Weare making efforts for our presence in spreadinginformation about new achievements to be effi-cient not only in international gatherings, but atthose in Croatia as well. Let us stress the Zagreb(2000) and Brijuni (2002) gathering on packag-ing materials, the discussions of which may par-tially be found on the Web. Those are the thingsthat are pressuring teachers to make their work,books and articles be available free on the Web,accessible to students and experts in the area ofgraphic engineering. (www.fotosoft.hr,http://free-zg.hinet.hr/kpap/).

Every participant in the printing industry isexpected to participate in CIP4 news internatio-nalism with their specific fields of knowledge andtherefore – with their expert suggestions. Withthe intention of future JDF expanding, includingusers in CIP4 work groups helps to spread dataon details, thus profoundly intensifying the PDFconcept.

Our associating into the CIP4 movementopens the possibilities to have available to us allthe most recent set and discussed knowledge andinformation. We have insight into contemporaryapplications as well as their criticism and sugges-tion for improvement (www.cip4.org/applications/

index.html) . Furthermore, by associating thereis significant possibility of influencing the print-ing industry development and its speeding-up.Possibilities are opening to be able to define vir-tual printing with the goal of simulating andmeasuring the response to each single idea. Thiswould be significant in evading bad decisionsthat are the cause not only of losing money, butof losing time in the development of graphicsproduction plants.

Although stress is put here on the open-min-dedness of the CIP4 movement concept, atten-tion is also paid at all times to certain specifictypes of production that do not integrate varioustechnologies.

Work process automation of any graphicsproduction is a necessity and so by general CIP4postulations knowledge may be applied in orderto make positive advancements within the expertapplication micro structure.

*�%��#� �� #��0#�� &� ��8>�$� �" ��-2

The CIP4 consortium has engaged almost allcenters and development centers, especially inEurope, for the education on all graphic industrysubjects. The most aggressive companies are:Fujifilm Electronic Imaging (www.ffei.co.uk),Agfa (www.gmicolor.com), Printcafe Software,Inc. (www.printcafe.com), Heidelberger Druck-maschinen AG (www.heidelberg.com) BestGmbH (www.bestcolor.com), Wohlenberg(www.wohlenberg.de), Graphics Microsystems(www.gmicolor.com), Fraunhofer IGD(www.igd.fhg.de/igd-a1), Eltromat Polygraph(www.eltromat.de), Koenig & Bauer AGwww.kba-print.com). The following topical sub-jects are being offered at this very moment: Pre-press work process improvement; Proof prints andcolor management standardization in printingremote control; Control and management of bookbinding; Managing the documentation computersystem in printing production, Prepress system-atic workflow; Automatic network color controlfor large runs of printed material; e-network au-tomation in newspaper printing; Software trans-lators for PPF; Color in printing and postpress.

This shows how the Consortium is involvedin organizing knowledge transfer. (The price ofthe seminars, covering the listed subjects, lastfrom two to three weeks and cost about 500 EUper day).

7 �� #� )��

Computer and information technology ex-tends the printing industry area and enables


new ideas to flourish in respect to completelynew jobs, where the old printing industry systemdid not allow their application. The developmentof individualized printing (IP) will alter theprinting of many products, such as: catalogues,brochures, specialized literature, printing of sci-entific literature; especially in countries with asmaller number of inhabitants. In IP there willhave to be a great deal of work done on layoutautomation. Libraries of successful layouts arebeing collected with efforts made at standardiza-tion, and this is contrary to individualization. Li-braries with layout rules are being formed “allby themselves”; they are multiplied, modified,and automatic solutions are searched for so thatthe usability of machine and human resourcescould be greater. Web search offers ready solu-tions according to the “most successful” algo-rithms, the ones in demand, those that are in.The same way as in clothes fashion, there is atrend that develops in individual printing solu-tions.

The discussion on individualized printing(IP) reminds us first of all of the hit product: indocument making IP allowed application of digi-tal images that were impossible to “unglue andreplace”. Individualized printing together withXeikon was, for example, the phenomenon thathad announced a new chapter in graphic art. Re-gretfully, printers are not ready to take oversuch jobs without leaning onto the assistance ofcomputer programmers, and those are the onesstill making a big deal out of it. New printingfirms that are completely oriented towards digi-tal printing are much more skilful, although justsome are capable of organizing complex projects,as for instance, mass chance games or B2B cata-logues.

Variable Data Printing (VDP) is a term thatcan be found often in this segment. Althoughconventional printing firms have VDP just so asnot to render individualization services outsidetheir printing works, they are still ready to takepart in research projects that have the goal ofanswering the following:

Which are the markets requiring VDP andwhich applications are profitable?

What technology is more or less efficient forthe given task?

Who are the optimal printer and ink produ-cers?

Where does conventional printing end andwhere does digital printing with individualiza-tion begin?

What is the readability level of software in-structions and it’s simplicity in application?

Individualized printing is being identified asprinting “on demand” and printing “in onecopy” that is organized through “digital kiosks”.The latter example is in connection with theInternet where the major part of printing is be-ing done by extracting the printed matter fromdata bases: e-newspapers, e-books, e-magazines.There will be a growing rise in individual, unitprinting coming, for instance, from departmentstore catalogues, luxury goods producers, and allof this is taking place in order to have computer-ized follow-up of potential customers. The found-ing of special agencies may be expected, produc-ing individualized newspapers with their deliv-ery to the end user. Such customers will sub-scribe to material of their personal interest, suchas, for instance, “art criticism published in alldaily newspapers that day” because they are notinterested in anything else. Other individualscould subscribe to sport surveys, stock exchangereports, Middle East politics, and many othertopics with the extension of coverage length tobe programmed for each individual separately.The time has come when the client’s and seller’spersonalities are recognized through well orga-nized related data bases. The XML movementhas appeared just in time making it possible forthe end user to be virtually brought by means ofelectronics to the very printing machine. Theend user is a dynamic transaction which all thosetaking part in a successful chain of sales, offersand the very production must think about andtake care of. Many individualization points willbe solved through the Internet only. As the XMLtechnology has been implemented in the printingindustry on all levels, from instrument data inthe printing process to the most sensitive marketareas, printers must not let this chance pass bynot conquering new markets of individualizedprinting. XML technology is becoming the essen-tial prime-mover of printing, being adapted on alarge scale by the modern environment. Informa-tion science and technology allows individuals tocreate their own product through digital print-ing, and allows them to have their own designcreation.

Digital printing and the new media are astrong motivating means for large scale newgraphic product design in the printing industry.The printing industry is entering a new area inthe future to come, and is not, as some thought,at the decline with information desseminationmethods, but is expanding, with the most diversetypes of application.

The best example of how digital printing hasnot threatened in the least the existing technolo-gies, is the novelty in packaging material print.Digital printing has only improved and filled in


some voids. On the other hand, digital printing isthe center of activities of successful automationand the greatest initiator developing those acti-vities that are carried out by the CIP4 consor-tium. Digital printing includes modern compu-ter presence, so it was not difficult to organizetheoretically the development of what is calledJDF.

6 *�))��%�� &� �� $&�� -��

New patents have been registered in theinkjet and xerographic technologies. These inno-vations have been implemented in almost allgraphic production segments. The digital pro-cesses have been accepted and insisted upon be-cause of the following:

• firstly; due to implementing new possibili-ties characteristic for computer systems

• secondly; graphic product better or identi-cal result production, if compared with ex-isting conventional solutions,

• thirdly; enrichment of the final productswith integrated hybrid procedures includ-ing design solutions with old tested tech-niques and postpress carried in new digitaltechnologies,

• fourthly; the manifold use of digital ma-chines and the exploitation of the sameequipment for printing on paper, card-board and textile, for example

A broader way of looking at things is under-stood under digital technology in printing:

• firstly; direct printing with inkjet tech-niques, dry and liquid toners, printing atthe production process beginning, printingin intermediate phases, postpress or mark-ing at the end of the production process,complete printing with only digital machineuse, directing data on images from the com-puter to the print without the interventionof reproduction photography experts,

• secondly; programmable printing with thegoal being product individualization, suchas numbering, complex variability with pic-tures, signature, information printing withalgorithms and data from the database,

• thirdly; implementing programmable pro-duction control means with targeting spe-cial computers and programs from Com-puter to Plate production to printing qual-ity control,

• fourthly; production process computer con-trol that comprises graphics completeness

of the printing production: prepress, press,postpress, tendering, ordering, delivery,payment and customer definition plan forthe next industry deal.

The criticism still remaining is that digitalprinting is right for small print runs of printedmatter (Books on Demand, Digital ProductionStrategies and Cost Models – ISBN 1858024676,J.Birken & D. Butler). On the other hand, thereare advantages such as big formats that are notfound in conventional printing, new systems forcoloring (C. Williams: Printing Ink TechnologyISBN 1858024323) and new patents in the print-ing industry (over 3500 have been taken oversuccessfully last year: Scitex-inkjet, IBM, Xerox,Indigo, Xeikon, Oce, Heidelberg). The listed pro-ducers are still aggressively seeking help in de-velopment of new technologies. They announ-ce new machines to be shown on fairs: The Im-pact of Market and Technology Changes on Pu-blishers and Printers, 2002. ISBN 1858023785www.piaranet.com). Xerox Corp. is finishing a newtechnology for wide application called blue la-ser diode for laser printers www.parc.xerox.com/parc-go.html with new resolution speed and for-mat characteristics, as the listed are the weakpoints of laser printing in comparison to ink-jetprinters.

Reliability is a separate chapter when it co-mes to making decisions in respect to digitaltechnologies applicability, and this is somethingthat follows any patents that still need to estab-lish themselves. Whereas this development phasefor prepress ended as far back as ten years agoand conventional methods were completely drivenout by digital techniques, we are at the very be-ginning of establishing the new digital technolo-gies applicability in other segments of the print-ing process.

Industrial use requires strict control and areliable lasting print. Research has offered pat-ents with water soluble inks developing a gra-phic inkjet color standard. Piezo technology hasfound a wide field of application (www.aprion.com):graphics on paper, cardboard, textiles, docu-ments, furniture wood, flexible and inflexiblematerials, sheet and web printing with endlessmemory records. New equipment offer growingprinting speed, labeling this boldly as industrialapplication. Most of all speed improvement de-pends on the ink jet technology so that the cen-ter of research is directed to this end. If we lookback, plotters have been offering doubling ofspeed every 17 months, and this exceeds com-puter science development. Plotter width (mostoften 63 inches), printing head number, an in-creasing optical density, a new greater choice ofspot colors are increasing in the same way as


printing speed is. It may sound bold when we saythat the CMYK color separation is going throughdecline and that we are turning more and moreto six color and multicolor RGB separation, anew printers’ scale. All this is due to new pro-gram instruments – GCR, UCA and UCR meth-ods that have been only theoretically discussedin graphics engineering up to the period of pixelgraphics computer science development.

Many companies are competing in the worldthat have developed from reproduction photogra-phy scanners, digital printing and conventionalprinting production. During conferences on newprocedures of digital printing application for pro-ducing packaging material demonstration of newproducts is announced aiming to show their ad-vantages in respect to conventional printing. Therewere useful discussions on large format digitalprinting development during the recent DigitalPrint World Conference, 2002 held in London. Thelecturers showed new technologies and presentednew patents in several various ways, the results ofwhich are expected in three years. The main par-ticipants were MAN Roland with it’s own systemand development of several OEM solutions as wellas Dainippon Screen with their “TruePress”, thebiggest format in commercial application as yet.

The most aggressive company promoting bigformats and speeds is quite rightfully consideredto be Aprion (part of Scitex) (www.aprion.com).There are one hundred experts with a very widefield of knowledge employed in Aprion’s experi-mental plants in Natany (Israel). There is infor-mation coming from various laboratories in theworld on pilot experimental solutions for newtechnologies that are expected to be in applica-tion in two to three years after going throughwell tested procedures. In any case the criticismspresent at digital printing’s beginnings are try-ing to be eliminated as they were the reason forless euphoria in application of digital solutions inlast century’s mid-nineties. It is expected thatboth scientists and end users will discuss newpatents that have stagnated in the world: (con-ferences in Japan, USA, Israel in 2001/2002) oncolor application with the accent on color spill-ing, penetration and bit-map element sharpedges, furthermore: on new solutions for ink-jetheads and criticism of the existing technologiesand directions of development for print stabilityimprovement.

*��$&#��$ �� : �� &� *��) ��#�� %)��#�$��& �� #�9�� F��%��

The forecast for this technology’s applicationis that in eight years 20% of all printing will beonly digital (my opinion is that this is too mod-

est). The issue here is not taking over of the ex-isting market, but of extending printing to thoseplaces where it could not be developed, as for in-stance the printing of small editions. If we ob-serve those fields that integrate conventionaland digital printing from a wider aspect, wemight say that digital reality is the rough realityfor which we must prepare well.

Conventional printing did not have a ten-dency to follow modern trends, unique design,adaptability to media needs. Digital techniqueshave changed all this. The proposal is stochasticdesign where each product has it’s own individ-ual design. Whether it is the design of a box, la-bel, fashion textile, posters that are basicallyprinted conventionally, – individualization bymeans of picture and drawing requires stochasticprogramming. The first step is using fractalsthat are strictly determined on one side and sto-chastic in their internal structure. In their indi-vidual application fractals have large scale pro-duction characteristics. This is why they can besuccessfully applied now when digital printingspeed has risen and become significant (the char-acteristic of which is variable printing). Eachsegment that must be programmed inflexibly(graphic product form and size, company andproduct logo are obligatory designed data, for in-stance) remains the same during the whole edi-tion production, and the special points are dis-cussed in respect to controlled fractals. Digitaltechnique has it’s full application here where itcontrols printing with new technologies; dry andliquid toners, on one hand, and enables the de-velopment of endless designer solutions with thehelp of computer graphics mathematical meth-ods, on the other hand.

Program and graphic languages, such asPostScript, for instance, are the ideal link indealing with both subjects: printing and the con-tent visual creating.

Programming a graphic product’s contentsmay be planned together with the other printedelements; conventional printing, for instance, –because the reproduction photographic prepressis in the hands of computer technique. Stochasticgraphics are equally programmable in pixel aswell as vector graphics. Market designers con-centrate more on visualization logic than onmaking individual design solutions. Systematicplanning of stochastic attacks on the buyer willbe the main task for the printing works, designerand marketing agency teams. The printing in-dustry is becoming similar to the fashion indus-try; and this requires fast reaction in respect tomarket requirements and better adaptability tothe season’s editions. Digital printing speed willplay an important role when the requirement co-


mes for printing additional quantities of a well--received product. Graphic engineering has thetask to unite the individuality, i.e. artistic worldwith the printing technology’s new patents.

The uniqueness of designing with computergraphics is most impressive when joined withfractal graphics knowledge. We are speaking aboutsuch individualization where each sample hasbeen created by the initial stochastic procedureseed and algorithm. Big digitally printed formatsare becoming the media for creating an endlessnumber of new solutions that are coming outinto the market only due to the fact that they arespecial and unique. Prints on textile, paper orwood will have a growing number of special solu-tions with a uniqueness guarantee. This willplease the consumer craving for greater variety.

High speed digital printing has made way forthe forming of new habits in product placement.Uniformity and big print-runs of identical prod-ucts are abandoned. The printing industry is be-ginning to solve the need to use complex colorsand holography, implement product individual-ization, specialty, imaginativeness, stochastic be-havior in design. Computers are used in all thefields of use they offer: as printing machines andas media for creative managing of printing thevisual matter part.The product film is printed onthe graphic product, making way for freedomand creative behavior of the designer, buyer andproducer. Discussions on graphic design are veryintensive during education because studentswish to be liberated from out-of-date crude defi-nitions that position graphic design in a two-di-mensional paper media. Luckily, the fast devel-opment of computer implementation makes itpossible to prove assertions on basis of manymutational examples how graphic design hasspread to the 3D presentation in time-animationdisplays. Video graphics (that used to be far fromthe printing works due to a different memorysystem) are shattering the old definitions. Thetime has come when the situation for staticprinting may be the one chosen following the 3Dmovement, and this makes way for new designtools. New methods such as compression andrendering have made ground for the designersbold behavior and they are designing their prod-uct in real time for printing and video too. Theon-coming high computer speeds allow makingassertions that 3D and 2D animation are merg-ing into a unique graphic system that will resultas a dynamic publication. The information is of-fered through the Internet to be seen, saved, to

have high editions, to be printed, edited, ani-mated, provided with soundtracks. We may ex-pect that in near future e-books will be in the 3Dedition with a soundtrack and they will be lis-tened to by looking at another person readingthem and it will not be necessary to read watch-ing the computer monitor.

Digital printing in its implementation re-quires printing house flexibility and fast responseto market demand. It is not news that digitalprinting equipment accepts computers, tools andprograms of most diverse producers, and that thesame memory record renders on media unthink-able till of now: paper, cardboard, wood, textile,video, film and television. It was unthinkable ofdiscussing graphic prepress standardization forthose solutions that were to be realized in diversemedia. Only 2% of today’s prepress ends in a PDFformat; this format being a strict way in applica-tion of serious printing form, where we skip fromthe raw RGB color system into conventional, aswell as digital printing. Color separation for thepress is assigned to computer controlled printingmachines leading to new definitions in printingcolor use and bit-mapping, and the decline of theCMYK four-color printing.

; ��#��

Literature, together with web addresses hasbeen given in the paper. The subjects and queriesof graphics engineering are going through theirmost intensive development. There is questionwhether it is purposeful to print school-books ongraphics matter because their rapid out-of datestatus shows we should not waste precious timeon learning about historical facts. “Anythingprinted by using printing techniques is alreadyout of date”. As we are dealing with new activitiesand processes in the printing industry, it is notrecommended to have printed matter publishedin magazines or scientific papers because in mostcases one can find them, updated, through theInternet. However, I would like to recommendherewith the newly published “Handbook of PrintMedia”, Springer, ISBN 3-540-67326-1, 1207p,1276 illustrations, 92 tables, 2001, New York. Thebook is an e-book. I would strongly recommendnew books (published in 2002) entitled Future ofEuropean Printing and Future of Active Packag-ing on which there is full detail given onwww.piranet.com. The mentioned web sites canlead and link to many specific inquiries.


Vilko _iljak, CAE regular memberUniversity of Zagreb, Faculty of Graphic Art,Getaldiceva 1, 10000 ZAGREB

ANNUAL 2003 OFTHECROATIAN ACADEMY OFENGINEERING · 2014-04-30 · management(EOM), • Information...

Documents

Transcript of ANNUAL 2003 OFTHECROATIAN ACADEMY OFENGINEERING · 2014-04-30 · management(EOM), • Information...