Anno Domini 1

Anno Domini

Dionysius Exiguus invented Anno Domini yearsto date Easter.

Anno Domini (AD or A.D.) and Before Christ (BC or B.C.) aredesignations used to label or number years used with the Julian andGregorian calendars. This calendar era is based on the traditionallyreckoned year of the conception or birth of Jesus of Nazareth, with ADcounting years after the start of this epoch, and BC denoting yearsbefore the start of the epoch. There is no year zero in this scheme, sothe year AD 1 immediately follows the year 1 BC. This dating systemwas devised in 525, but was not widely used until after 800.[1]

Alternative names for this era include vulgaris aerae (found 1615 inLatin),[2] "Vulgar Era" (in English, as early as 1635),[3] "Christian Era"(in English, in 1652),[4] "Common Era" (in English, 1708),[5] and"Current Era".[6] Since 1856,[7] the alternative abbreviations CE andBCE are sometimes used in place of AD and BC.

The Gregorian calendar is the most widely used calendar in the worldtoday. For decades, it has been the unofficial global standard, adoptedfor pragmatic interests of international communication, transportationand commercial integration and recognized by international institutionssuch as the United Nations and the Universal Postal Union.[8]

The term Anno Domini is Medieval Latin, translated as In the year ofthe Lord,[9] and as in the year of our Lord.[10][11]:782 It is sometimes specified more fully as Anno Domini Nostri Iesu(Jesu) Christi ("In the Year of Our Lord Jesus Christ").

Traditionally, English has copied Latin usage by placing the abbreviation before the year number for AD.[12] SinceBC is not derived from Latin it is placed after the year number (for example: AD 2012, but 68 BC). However,placing the AD after the year number (as in "2012 AD") is also becoming common usage. The abbreviation is alsowidely used after the number of a century or millennium, as in "fourth century AD" or "second millennium AD"(although conservative usage formerly rejected such expressions).[13] Because BC is the English abbreviation forBefore Christ, it is sometimes incorrectly concluded that AD means After Death, i.e., after the death of Jesus.However this would mean that the ~33 years commonly associated with the life of Jesus would not be present ineither BC or AD time scales.[14]

Anno Domini inscription at Carinthia cathedral,Austria

History

The Anno Domini dating system was devised in 525 by DionysiusExiguus to enumerate the years in his Easter table. His system was toreplace the Diocletian era that had been used in an old Easter tablebecause he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant whopersecuted Christians.[15] The last year of the old table, Diocletian 247,was immediately followed by the first year of his table, AD 532. Whenhe devised his table, Julian calendar years were identified by namingthe consuls who held office that year—he himself stated that the"present year" was "the consulship of Probus Junior", which was 525

Anno Domini 2

years "since the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ".[16] Thus Dionysius implied that Jesus' Incarnation occurred525 years earlier, without stating the specific year during which his birth or conception occurred.

"However, nowhere in his exposition of his table does Dionysius relate his epoch to any other dating system,whether consulate, Olympiad, year of the world, or regnal year of Augustus; much less does he explain orjustify the underlying date."[17]:778

Blackburn & Holford-Strevens briefly present arguments for 2 BC, 1 BC, or AD 1 as the year Dionysius intended forthe Nativity or Incarnation. Among the sources of confusion are:[17]:778–9

• In modern times Incarnation is synonymous with the conception, but some ancient writers, such as Bede,considered Incarnation to be synonymous with the Nativity

•• The civil, or consular year began on 1 January but the Diocletian year began on 29 August•• There were inaccuracies in the list of consuls•• There were confused summations of emperors' regnal years

PopularizationThe Anglo-Saxon historian the Venerable Bede, who was familiar with the work of Dionysius Exiguus, used AnnoDomini dating in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, finished in 731. In this same history he also usedanother Latin term, "ante vero incarnationis dominicae tempus" ("the time before the Lord's true incarnation"),equivalent to the English "before Christ", to identify years before the first year of this era,[18] thus establishing thestandard of not using a year zero,[19] even though he used zero in his computus. Both Dionysius and Bede regardedAnno Domini as beginning at the incarnation of Jesus, but "the distinction between Incarnation and Nativity was notdrawn until the late 9th century, when in some places the Incarnation epoch was identified with Christ's conception,i.e., the Annunciation on March 25" (Annunciation style).[17]:881

Statue of Charlemagne by Agostino Cornacchini(1725), at St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican, Italy, who

popularized and spread the usage of the AnnoDomini epoch throughout the Carolingian Empire

On the continent of Europe, Anno Domini was introduced as the era ofchoice of the Carolingian Renaissance by Alcuin. Its endorsement byEmperor Charlemagne and his successors popularizing the usage of theepoch and spreading it throughout the Carolingian Empire ultimatelylies at the core of the system's prevalence. According to the CatholicEncyclopedia, popes continued to date documents according to regnalyears for some time, but usage of AD gradually became more commonin Roman Catholic countries from the 11th to the 14th centuries.[20] In1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to switch tothe system begun by Dionysius.[20] Eastern Orthodox countries onlybegan to adopt AD instead of the Byzantine calendar in 1700 whenRussia did so, with others adopting it in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Even though Anno Domini was in widespread use by the 9th century,Before Christ (or its equivalent) did not become common until muchlater. Bede used the expression "anno igitur ante incarnationemDominicam" (before the Incarnation of the Lord) twice. "Anno an xpinativitate" (before the birth of Christ) is found in 1474 in a work by aGerman monk.[21] In 1627, the French Jesuit theologian Denis Pétau(Dionysius Petavius in Latin), with his work De doctrina temporum, popularized the usage ante Christum (Latin for"Before Christ") to mark years prior to AD.[22][23][24]

Change of year

Anno Domini 3

When the reckoning from Jesus' incarnation started replacing the previous dating systems in western Europe,different people chose different Christian feast days to begin the year: Christmas, Annunciation, or Easter. Thus,depending on the time and place, year number changed on different days, which created slightly different styles inchronology:[25]

• from 25 March 753 AUC (today in 1 BC), i.e. from the incarnation of Jesus. That first "Annunciation style"appeared in Arles at the end of the 9th century then spread to Burgundy and northern Italy. It was not commonlyused and was called "calculus pisanus" since it was adopted in Pisa and survived there till 1750.

• from 25 December 753 AUC (today in 1 BC), i.e. from the birth of Jesus. It was called "Nativity style" and hadbeen spread by the Venerable Bede together with the Anno Domini in the early Middle Ages. That reckoning ofthe year of Grace from Christmas was used in France, England and most of western Europe (except Spain) till the12th century (when it was replaced by Annunciation style), and in Germany till the second quarter of the 13thcentury.

• from 25 March 754 AUC (today in AD 1). That second "Annunciation style" may have originated in FleuryAbbey in the early 11th century but it was spread by the Cistercians. Florence adopted that style in opposition tothe one of Pisa, so it got the name of "calculus florentinus". It soon spread in France and also in England where itbecame common in the late 12th century and lasted until 1751.

• from Easter, starting in 754 AUC (AD 1). That "mos gallicanus" bound to a movable feast was introduced inFrance by king Philip Augustus (1165–1180–1223), maybe to establish a new style in the provinces reconqueredfrom England. However, it never spread beyond the ruling élite.

With these various styles, the same day could, in some cases, be dated in 1099, 1100 or 1101. The Annunciationstyle also caused a major problem: in some years, there was no Easter, and in other years, that feast was celebratedtwice; for example, Easter occurred on 23 March 1504 (i.e. in 1505 for us) and on 12 April 1506, but not in 1505.[26]

Historical birth date of JesusSee also: Nativity of Jesus and Chronology of Jesus

According to Doggett, "Although scholars generally believe that Christ was born some years before AD 1, thehistorical evidence is too sketchy to allow a definitive dating".[27] According to Matthew 2:1[28] King Herod theGreat was alive when Jesus was born, and Matthew 2:16,[29] says Herod ordered the Massacre of the Innocents inresponse to Jesus' birth. Blackburn and Holford-Strevens fix King Herod's death shortly before Passover in 4BC[17]:770, and say that those who accept the story of the Massacre of the Innocents sometimes associate the star thatled the Biblical Magi with the planetary conjunction of 15 September 7 BC or Halley's comet of 12 BC (less likelysince comets were usually considered bad omens); even historians who do not accept the Massacre accept the birthunder Herod as a tradition older than the written gospels.[17]:776

The Gospel of Luke states that Jesus was conceived during the reign of Herod the Great[Luke 1:5] (i.e., before 4 BC)while also stating that Jesus was born when Cyrenius (or Quirinius) was the governor of Syria and carried out thecensus of the Roman provinces of Syria and Iudaea.[Luke 2:1-3] The Jewish historian Josephus, in his Antiquities of theJews (ca. AD 93), indicates that Cyrenius/Quirinius' governorship of Syria began in AD 6, and that the censusoccurred sometime between AD 6—7,[30] which is incompatible with a conception prior to 4 BC. On this point,Blackburn and Holford-Strevens state that "St. Luke raises greater difficulty ... Most critics therefore discard Luke".The Gospel of Luke also states that Jesus was "about thirty years old" [Luke 3:23] during the 15th year of the reign ofTiberius Caesar [Luke 3:1]. Tiberius began to reign with his adoptive father, Augustus, in AD 12. The 15th year of hisreign would then be AD 26 or 27, placing Jesus' birth about 5 or 4 BC (because there is no year 0). Some scholarsrely on John 8:57[31]: "thou are not yet fifty years old", making the earliest possible year for Jesus's birth c. 18BC.[32]:776

Anno Domini 4

Other erasDuring the first six centuries of what would come to be known as the Christian era, European countries used varioussystems to count years. Systems in use included consular dating, imperial regnal year dating, and Creation dating.Although the last non-imperial consul, Basilius, was appointed in 541 by Emperor Justinian I, later emperors throughConstans II (641–668) were appointed consuls on the first 1 January after their accession. All of these emperors,except Justinian, used imperial post-consular years for all of the years of their reign alongside their regnal years.[33]

Long unused, this practice was not formally abolished until Novell XCIV of the law code of Leo VI did so in 888.Another calculation had been developed by the Alexandrian monk Annianus around the year AD 400, placing theAnnunciation on 25 March AD 9 (Julian)—eight to ten years after the date that Dionysius was to imply. Althoughthis Incarnation was popular during the early centuries of the Byzantine Empire, years numbered from it, an Era ofIncarnation, were only used, and are still only used, in Ethiopia, accounting for the eight- or seven-year discrepancybetween the Gregorian and the Ethiopian calendars. Byzantine chroniclers like Maximus the Confessor, GeorgeSyncellus, and Theophanes dated their years from Annianus' creation of the World. This era, called Anno Mundi,"year of the world" (abbreviated AM), by modern scholars, began its first year on 25 March 5492 BC. LaterByzantine chroniclers used Anno Mundi years from 1 September 5509 BC, the Byzantine Era. No single Anno Mundiepoch was dominant throughout the Christian world. Eusebius of Caesarea in his Chronicle used an era beginningwith the birth of Abraham, dated in 2016 BC (AD 1 = 2017 Anno Abrahami).[34]

Spain and Portugal continued to date by the Era of the Caesars or Spanish Era, which began counting from 38 BC,well into the Middle Ages. In 1422, Portugal became the last Catholic country to adopt the Anno Domini system.[20]

The Era of Martyrs, which numbered years from the accession of Diocletian in 284, who launched the last yet mostsevere persecution of Christians, was used by the Church of Alexandria, and is still used officially by the Copticchurch. It also used to be used by the Ethiopian church. Another system was to date from the crucifixion of JesusChrist, which as early as Hippolytus and Tertullian was believed to have occurred in the consulate of the Gemini(AD 29), which appears in the occasional medieval manuscript.

Common EraAnno Domini is sometimes referred to as the Common Era, Christian Era, or Current Era (abbreviated as C.E. orCE). CE is often preferred by those who desire a term that does not explicitly use religious titles.[35][36] For example,Cunningham and Starr (1998) write that "B.C.E./C.E. …do not presuppose faith in Christ and hence are moreappropriate for interfaith dialog than the conventional B.C./A.D." Upon its foundation, the Republic of Chinaadopted the Minguo Era, but used the Western calendar for international purposes. The translated term was 西 元

("Western Era"). Later, in 1949, the People's Republic of China abandoned the Chinese calendar completely andadopted 公 元 (gōngyuán, "Common Era") for all purposes domestic or foreign.

No year zeroFurther information: 0 (year), Astronomical year numbering, and MillenniumIn the AD year numbering system, whether applied to the Julian or Gregorian calendars, AD 1 is preceded by 1 BC.There is no year "0" between them. Because of this, most experts agree that a new century begins in a year with thelast digits being "01" (1801, 1901, 2001); new millennia likewise began in 1001 and 2001. A commonmisconception is that centuries and millennia begin when the trailing digits are zeroes (1800, 1900, 2000, etc.);[1]

moreover, this convention was widely used to celebrate the new millennium in the year 2000. For computationalreasons astronomical year numbering and the ISO 8601 standard designate years so that AD 1 = year 1, 1 BC = year0, 2 BC = year −1, etc.[37] In common use, ancient dates are expressed in the Julian calendar, but ISO 8601 uses theGregorian calendar and astronomers may use a variety of time scales depending on the application. Thus dates usingthe year 0 or negative years may require further investigation before being converted to BC or AD.

Anno Domini 5

Proposed reformsThe following are proposed reforms of the Gregorian calendar:•• Human Era• International Fixed Calendar (also called the International Perpetual calendar)•• World Calendar•• World Season Calendar• Leap week calendars

•• Pax Calendar•• Common-Civil-Calendar-and-Time•• Symmetry454

Notes and referencesNotes

[1] Teresi, Dick (July 1997). "Zero" (http:/ / www. theatlantic. com/ past/ docs/ issues/ 97jul/ zero. htm). The Atlantic. .[2] Johannes Kepler (1615) (in Latin). Joannis Keppleri Eclogae chronicae: ex epistolis doctissimorum aliquot virorum & suis mutuis, quibus

examinantur tempora nobilissima: 1. Herodis Herodiadumque, 2. baptismi & ministerii Christi annorum non plus 2 1/4, 3. passionis, mortis etresurrectionis Dn. N. Iesu Christi, anno aerae nostrae vulgaris 31. non, ut vulgo 33., 4. belli Iudaici, quo funerata fuit cum Ierosolymis &Templo Synagoga Iudaica, sublatumque Vetus Testamentum. Inter alia & commentarius in locum Epiphanii obscurissimum de cyclo veteriIudaeorum. (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ title/joannis-keppleri-eclogae-chronicae-ex-epistolis-doctissimorum-aliquot-virorum-suis-mutuis-quibus-examinantur-tempora-nobilissima-1-herodis-herodiadumque-2-baptismi-ministerii-christi-annorum-non-plus-2-14-3-passionis-mortis-et-resurrectionis-dn-n-iesu-christi-anno-aerae-nostrae-vulgaris-31-non-ut-vulgo-33-4-belli-iudaici-quo-funerata-fuit-cum-ierosolymis-templo-synagoga-iudaica-sublatumque-vetus-testamentum-inter-alia-commentarius-in-locum-epiphanii-obscurissimum-de-cyclo-veteri-iudaeorum/oclc/ 62188677). Francofurti : Tampach. . Retrieved 2011-05-18. "anno aerae nostrae vulgaris"

[3] Kepler, Johann; Vlacq, Adriaan (1635). Ephemerides of the Celestiall Motions, for the Yeers of the Vulgar Era 1633... (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=prP9cQAACAAJ& dq=vulgar+ era). . Retrieved 2011-05-18.

[4] Sliter, Robert (1652). A celestiall glasse, or, Ephemeris for the year of the Christian era 1652 being the bissextile or leap-year: contayningthe lunations, planetary motions, configurations & ecclipses for this present year ... : with many other things very delightfull and necessary formost sorts of men: calculated exactly and composed for ... Rochester (http:/ / www. google. com/ products?q=Ephemeris+ year+ Christian+era+ 1652). London: Printed for the Company of Stationers. .

[5] The History of the Works of the Learned (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=D_wvAAAAYAAJ& q="common+ era"#v=onepage&q="common era"& f=false). 10. London: Printed for H. Rhodes. January 1708. p. 513. . Retrieved 2011-05-18.

[6] BBC Team (8 February 2005). "History of Judaism 63BCE–1086CE" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ religion/ religions/ judaism/ history/history_1. shtml#section_2). BBC Religion & Ethics. British Broadcasting Corporation. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/20110513215113/ http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ religion/ religions/ judaism/ history/ history_1. shtml) from the original on 13 May 2011. .Retrieved 2011-05-18. "Year 1: CE – What is nowadays called the 'Current Era' traditionally begins with the birth of a Jewish teacher calledJesus. His followers came to believe he was the promised Messiah and later split away from Judaism to found Christianity"

[7] Raphall, Morris Jacob (1856). Post-Biblical History of The Jews (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=r7CbDH5hTe8C&printsec=frontcover& dq=CE+ BCE). Moss & Brother. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20110511061618/ http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=r7CbDH5hTe8C& printsec=frontcover& dq=CE+ BCE) from the original on 11 May 2011. . Retrieved 2011-05-18. The termcommon era does not appear in this book; the term Christian era [lowercase] does appear a number of times. Nowhere in the book is theabbreviation explained or expanded directly.

[8] Eastman, Allan. "A Month of Sundays" (http:/ / www. timeanddate. com/ newsletter/ all-the-time/ a-month-of-sundays5. html). Date andTime. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20100506002355/ http:/ / www. timeanddate. com/ newsletter/ all-the-time/a-month-of-sundays5. html) from the original on 6 May 2010. . Retrieved 2010-05-04.

[9] "Anno Domini" (http:/ / www. m-w. com/ dictionary/ Anno Domini). Merriam Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. 2003. .Retrieved 2011-10-04. "Etymology: Medieval Latin, in the year of the Lord"

[10] "Online Etymology Dictionary" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=Anno+ Domini). . Retrieved 2011-10-04.[11] Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003, p. 782 "since AD stands for anno Domini, 'in the year of (Our) Lord'."[12] This convention comes from grammatical usage. Anno 500 means "in the year 500"; anno domini 500 means "in the year 500 of Our Lord".

Just as "500 in the year" is not good English syntax, neither is 500 AD; whereas "AD 500" preserves syntactic order when translated.[13] Chicago Manual of Style, 1993, p. 304.[14][14] Donald P. Ryan, (2000), 15.[15] Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003, 767[16] Nineteen year cycle of Dionysius (http:/ / hbar. phys. msu. ru/ gorm/ chrono/ paschata. htm) Introduction and First Argumentum.[17] Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003[18][18] Bede 731, Book 1, Chapter 2, first sentence.

Anno Domini 6

[19][19] Compare Bede 731, Book 1, Chapter 2, first sentence, with Chapter 3.[20][20] Gerard, 1908[21] Werner Rolevinck in Fasciculus temporum (http:/ / www. cervantesvirtual. com/ servlet/ SirveObras/ 80248064097793506388868/ index.

htm) (1474) used Anno an xpi nativitatem (in the year before the birth of Christ) for all years between creation and Jesus. "xpi" is the Greekχρι in Latin letters, which is a cryptic abbreviation for christi. This phrase appears upside down in the centre of recto folios (right hand pages).From Jesus to Pope Sixtus IV he usually used Anno christi or its cryptic form Anno xpi (on verso folios—left hand pages). He used Annomundi alongside all of these terms for all years.

[22] Steel, Duncan (2000). Marking time: the epic quest to invent the perfect calendar (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=fsni_qV-FJoC&pg=PA111#v=onepage& q=1627). p. 114. ISBN 978-0-471-29827-4. . Retrieved 2010-06-01.

[23] Hunt, Lynn Avery (2008). Measuring time, making history (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=A6nrL1XxpGYC& pg=PA33& lpg=PA33&dq=petau+ "ante+ Christum"& q=petau "ante Christum"). p. 33. ISBN 978-963-9776-14-2. . Retrieved 2010-06-01.

[24] Petau, Denis (1758). search for "ante Christum" in a 1748 reprint of a 1633 abridgement entitled Rationarium temporum by Denis Petau(http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=RRv0_NEpl-oC& pg=PA46& lpg=PA46& dq=petau+ "ante+ Christum"& q=ante Christum). . Retrieved2010-06-01.

[25] C.R. Cheney, A Handbook of Dates, for students of British history, Cambridge University Press, 1945–2000, pp. 8–14. (http:/ / catdir. loc.gov/ catdir/ samples/ cam032/ 99027383. pdf)

[26] Easter Sunday/Jewish Passover calculator (http:/ / www. staff. science. uu. nl/ ~gent0113/ easter/ easter_text2a. htm)[27][27] Doggett 1992, 579.[28][28] Matthew  2:1[29][29] Matthew  2:16[30] Flavius Josephus. The Antiquities of the Jews, Book 18, Chapters 1–2 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=E5dCAAAAYAAJ&

printsec=frontcover& dq=josephus+ antiquities+ of+ the+ jews& cd=2#v=onepage& q& f=false). Josephus indicates that the census underCyrenius (i.e., Quirinius) occurred in the 37th year after Octavian's (i.e., Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus') victory over Marc Antony at Actium,which secular historical records date to 2 September 31 BC. Therefore 31 BC + 37 years = AD 6–7.

[31][31] John  8:57[32] Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003, p. 776 "Most critics therefor discard Luke; some have rehabilitated John, who seems to imply that

Jesus was born c. 18 BC."[33] Roger S. Bagnall and Klaas A. Worp, Chronological Systems of Byzantine Egypt (https:/ / openaccess. leidenuniv. nl/ handle/ 1887/ 11125),

Leiden, Brill, 2004.[34] Alfred von Gutschmid, Kleine Schriften, F. Ruehl, Leipzig, 1889, p.433.[35] Robinson, B.A. (20 April 2009). "Justification of the use of "CE" & "BCE" to identify dates. Trends" (http:/ / www. religioustolerance. org/

ce_info1. htm). ReligiousTolerance.org. .[36] William Safire (17 August 1997). "On Language: B.C./A.D. or B.C.E./C.E.?" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1997/ 08/ 17/ magazine/

bc-ad-or-bce-ce. html). The New York Times Magazine. .[37] To convert from a year BC to astronomical year numbering, reduce the absolute value of the year by 1, and prefix it with a negative sign

(unless the result is zero). For years AD, omit the AD and prefix the number with a plus sign (plus sign is optional if it is clear from thecontext that the year is after the year 0). [Doggett, 1992, p. 579]

References

• Abate, Frank R(ed.) (1997). Oxford Pocket Dictionary and Thesaurus (American ed.). New York: OxfordUniversity Press. ISBN 0-19-513097-9.

• Bede. (731). Historiam ecclesiasticam gentis Anglorum (http:/ / www. thelatinlibrary. com/ bede/ bede1. shtml).Accessed 2007-12-07.

• Chicago Manual of Style (2nd ed.). University of Chicago. 1993. ISBN 0-226-10389-7.• Blackburn, Bonnie; Holford-Strevens, Leofranc (2003). The Oxford companion to the Year: An exploration of

calendar customs and time-reckoning. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-214231-3. Corrected reprinting oforiginal 1999 edition.

• Cunningham, Philip A; Starr, Arthur F (1998). Sharing Shalom: A Process for Local Interfaith Dialogue BetweenChristians and Jews. Paulist Press. ISBN 0-8091-3835-2.

• Declercq, Georges (2000). Anno Domini: The origins of the Christian era. Turnhout: Brepols.ISBN 2-503-51050-7. (despite beginning with 2, it is English)

• Declercq, G. "Dionysius Exiguus and the Introduction of the Christian Era". Sacris Erudiri 41 (2002): 165–246.An annotated version of part of Anno Domini.

• Doggett. (1992). "Calendars" (http:/ / sunearth. gsfc. nasa. gov/ eclipse/ SEhelp/ calendars. html) (Ch. 12), in P. Kenneth Seidelmann (Ed.) Explanatory supplement to the astronomical almanac. Sausalito, CA: University

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Science Books. ISBN 0-935702-68-7.• Gerard, J. (1908). "General Chronology" (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 03738a. htm). In The Catholic

Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 2008-07-16 from New Advent: http:/ / www.newadvent. org/ cathen/ 03738a. htm

• Richards, E. G. (2000). Mapping Time. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-286205-7.• Riggs, John (January 2003). "Whatever happened to B.C. and A.D., and why?" (http:/ / www. ucc. org/ ucnews/

janfeb03/ whatever-happened-to-bc-and. html). United Church News. Retrieved 2005-12-19.• Ryan, Donald P. (2000). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Biblical Mysteries. Alpha Books. p. 15.

ISBN 0-02-863831-X.

External links• Calendar Converter (http:/ / www. fourmilab. ch/ documents/ calendar/ )

Article Sources and Contributors 8

Article Sources and ContributorsAnno Domini  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=513994103  Contributors: 192.146.101.xxx, 1995hoo, 1exec1, 5telios, A Nobody, AMC0712, Acroterion, Adam Bishop,Adazka, Adband1, Aervanath, AgentFade2Black, Ahoerstemeier, AlanBarrett, Alansohn, Albamhandae, Aldaron, Alerante, AlexPlank, Alexander DeRoest, Alexandre8, AlexiusHoratius,AlphaEta, Alphachimp, Amillar, Anaxial, Anbu121, Andonic, Andre Engels, Andrejj, Andres, Andrew c, AndrewNJ, Anir1uph, Antandrus, Anthony71, April Is Really Fooled, Aranel, Arcturus,Ark25, AssegaiAli, Astronautics, Atif.t2, Aunt Entropy, Avnjay, Avraham, Balls4life1127, Barbara Shack, Barenakedjames, Barmysot, Bayerischermann, Bberrios, Bchaosf, Behn-kihl-nahm,BenBaker, Bensaccount, Berean Hunter, Bgpaulus, BioPupil, BirgitteSB, Björn Felten, Bkonrad, Bloovee, Bobblewik, Bobbybuilder, Bobo192, BorgHunter, Brian Boru is awesome, Brian Sayrs,Brighterorange, Bringiton, BrokenSphere, Brunton, Bryan Derksen, BuffaloChip97, CDThieme, CIS, CJLL Wright, CWii, Caknuck, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Candidulus, Cantiorix,Capricorn42, CardinalDan, Caribbean H.Q., Carlaude, Centrx, Cessator, Chicago god, Chris Capoccia, Chris Roy, Christian List, Chuckstar, ChÿnaDragön, Civilizededucation, Clarencedonath,Classical geographer, Closedmouth, Clpo13, Codex Sinaiticus, Coffee, Cometstyles, Conversion script, Cosmic Latte, Courcelles, Credema, CuteHappyBrute, D, DAOWAce, DARTH SIDIOUS2, DHN, DabMachine, Dablaze, Dan, DanielCD, Dante Alighieri, Darth Panda, DarthM, David Gerard, Dbachmann, Ddxc, Deamon138, Delldot, Der Golem, DerHexer, Derek Ross, Deriksmith,Deus Homoni, Deville, Dewet, Dgillig, Dhp1080, Diberri, Diego Grez, DirkvdM, Discospinster, Dlohcierekim's sock, Dmcq, DocWatson42, Docu, Dougweller, Download, Doyley, Dpbsmith,Dr.Bastedo, Draeco, Dreadstar, Druff, Dswanny, Dtate888, Dwo, Dylan Lake, Dylanbforthree, EamonnPKeane, Ec.Domnowall, Editor2020, Edward, Edward-F, El C, Elektrik Shoos, Eltone,Emmazunz84, Endroit, Epbr123, Ericdn, Eugene-elgato, Ewawer, F, FBM, Fabartus, Fabhcún, Favonian, Fearmongerer1367, Ffaker, Fieldday-sunday, Firefly017, Fireplace, Flybkbrfr,FocalPoint, Fonzy, Fourohfour, FoxCE, Frecklefoot, Furrykef, Fyyer, Gaff, Gaius Cornelius, Gary D, Gately, Gdr, Gee Emm Christlur, Georgia guy, Gerry Ashton, GhostPirate, Ghostofnemo,Glane23, Glenn L, Godfollower4ever, Gomada, Gordonrox24, Graham87, Gravitan, Grblomerth, Greatgavini, GregorB, Greier, Grim23, Grimhelm, Groucho, Gustavo Bessolo, Haj aminus,Happypigglet, Harris7, Hashar, Henry Flower, Hmains, HolIgor, Homersimpson1517, Hughey, Husond, Iamastupidbutt, Ian Pitchford, Iancanton13, Iblardi, Igiffin, Igoldste, Ihcoyc, Ike9898,Ilikecakepie, Imnotminkus, Insanity Incarnate, Iridescent, Irishguy, Isonomia, Iwanttoeditthissh, J'raxis, J.delanoy, J496, JForget, JHunterJ, Jan Z, Jassim14, Jc3s5h, Jclerman, Jeff G., JeffreySmith, Jengod, Jguk, Jim Douglas, JimWae, Jimp, Joan-of-arc, Joe Jarvis, Joe Kress, John H. 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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:Scriptorium.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Scriptorium.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bohème, Manuel Anastácio, Mel22, Roybb95, WarburgFile:Austria Klagenfurt Dome 12.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Austria_Klagenfurt_Dome_12.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:Alexander Z., G.dallorto, Gugganij, JJ55, Man vyi, SoerfmFile:Charlemagne Agostino Cornacchini Vatican 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charlemagne_Agostino_Cornacchini_Vatican_2.jpg  License: CreativeCommons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Myrabella

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