206

Annex I: List of Interviews with Professionals

Reference Number

Initials of Person/People Interviewed

Organization, Position

Place, Day of Interview

Audio Recording

1 GV Greek Attica police/anti-trafficking unit, head of anti-trafficking unit

Athens, 16/12/2009

Yes

2 IC Greek Coastguard headquarters/security dept, head of security dept

Athens, 08/01/2010

Yes

3 L and C Kenyan Community in Greece, secretary general and member of board

Athens, 11/01/2010

Yes

4 AS Sudanese Refugees Association, secretary general

Athens, 13/01/2010

Yes

5 G Somali Community in Greece, secretary general

Athens, 15/01/2010

Yes

6 MM Areios Pagos/Hellenic Supreme Court of Civil And Penal Law, prosecutor

Athens, 19/01/2010

No

7 AD Directorate of Aliens in Athens, head of directorate

Athens, 28/01/2010

Yes

8 LX Greek Coastguard Patras/security dept, head of security dept

Athens, 29/01/2010

Yes

9 KL and GM Community of Guinea, ex-president and community of Gambia/member

Athens, 22/01/2010

Yes

10 NR Greek European Network of Women, president

Athens, 06/02/2010

Yes

Continued

Annex I 207

Reference Number

Initials of Person/People Interviewed

Organization, Position

Place, Day of Interview

Audio Recording

11 LM United African Women Organization (UAWO), president

Athens, 15/01/2010

Yes

12 YJ Athens Municipality, special advisor to the Mayor of Athens on immigration

Athens, 25/01/2010

Yes

13 TO Nigerian Community in Greece, president

Athens, 26/01/2010

No

14 CD shelter ‘PHOEBE’, president

Athens, 27/01/2010

Yes

15 SL and RM shelter ‘STORGI’ of the NGO ‘Solidarity’, psychologist and social worker

Athens, 27/01/2010

Yes

16 OT NGO Klimaka, secretary/ political scientist

Athens, 12/02/2010

Yes

17 EG Lawyer/ Legal advisor to NGOs

‘Solidarity’ and ‘Diethis Etaireia Stiriksis Oikogeneias’

Athens, 10/02/2010

Yes

18 EB (headquarters)/ GK and MB (shelter)

National Centre for Social Solidarity [Ethiko Kentro Koinonikis Allilegyhs (EKKA)], social workers

Athens, 04/02/2010/ 12/02/2010

Yes

19 GK Greek Coastguard Mytilene/security dept, head of security dept

Mytilene, 16/2/2010

Yes

20 GK and TD ‘Villa Azadi’ irregular migrant minors’ shelter, social worker/legal expert

Mytilene, 16/2/2010

Yes

Annex I Continued

An

nex

II:

Lis

t of

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An

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An

nex

II

Con

tin

ued

213

Annex III: List of Interviews with Asian Migrants and Smugglers

Reference Number Sex Nationality

Date of Arrival in Greece

Date of Interview

Place of Interview

Taped/Notes

51 M Bangladeshi 2000 26 May 2010 Athens taped 52 M Bangladeshi 2009 23 May 2010 Athens taped 53 M Bangladeshi 2009 29 May 2010 Athens taped 54 M Bangladeshi 2008 26 June 2010 Athens taped 55 F Afghan 2009 30 June 2010 Athens taped 56 M Afghan 2009 21 June 2010 Athens taped 57 M Afghan 2008 5 July 2010 Athens taped 58 M Afghan 2009 21 June 2010 Athens taped 59 M Afghan 2009 9 July 2010 Athens taped 60 M Afghan 2009 16 July 2010 Athens taped 61 M Pakistani 2000 29 June 2010 Athens taped 62 M Afghan 2010 28 October 2010 Athens taped 63 M Pakistani 2005 11 October 2010 Athens taped 64 M Pakistani 2009 11 October 2010 Athens taped 65 M Pakistani 2010 29 October 2010 Athens taped 66 M Pakistani 2003 29 October 2010 Athens taped 67 M Pakistani 2009 3 November 2010 Athens taped 68 M Afghan 1998 15 October 2010 Athens taped 69 M Pakistani 2009 4 November 2010 Athens taped 70 M Pakistani 2007 4 November 2010 Athens taped 71 M Pakistani 2001 4 November 2010 Athens notes 72 M Pakistani 2010 11 November 2010 Athens taped 73 M Pakistani 2010 12 November 2010 Athens taped 74 F Afghan 2008 15 Nov. 2010 Athens taped 75 M Afghan 2007 15 Nov. 2010 Athens taped 76 M Afghan 2010 15 November 2010 Athens taped 77 M Afghan 2010 15 November 2010 Athens taped 78 M Afghan 2005 October 2010 Athens notes 79 M Afghan 2007 May 2011 Athens notes 80 M Bangladeshi 2006 31 July 2010 Lapa taped 81 M Bangladeshi 2009 31 July 2010 Lapa taped 82 M Bangladeshi 2008 30 July 2010 Patras taped 83 M Afghan 2008 29 July 2010 Patras taped 84 M Pakistani 2007 30 July 2010 Patras taped

Continued

214 Annex III

Reference Number Sex Nationality

Date of Arrival in Greece

Date of Interview

Place of Interview

Taped/Notes

85 M Bangladeshi 2005 30 July 2010 Patras taped 86 M Bangladeshi 2005 30 July 2010 Patras taped 87 M Bangladeshi 2009 31 July 2010 Lapa taped 88 M Bangladeshi 2009 29 July 2010 Patras taped 89 M Pakistani 2009 Apr 2010 Thes/nike notes 90 M Iraqi 2009 Apr 2010 Thes/nike notes 91 M Afghan 2009 June 2011 Mytilene Taped 92 M Afghan 2005 June 2011 Mytilene taped 93 M Pakistani 1998 July 2011 Athens taped 94 M Afghan 2005 August 2010 Evros notes

Annex III Continued

215

1 Irregular Migration and Human Smuggling from Asia and Africa to Europe

1 . An international migrant is a person who crosses the borders of two coun-tries and lives in a country other than her/his country of citizenship for more than one year. However, different countries adopt different defini-tions when counting what ‘international migrants’. Some count those who are foreigners (i.e. of different citizenship regardless of where they were born), others count those who are foreign born (and may be citizens of that country or aliens) and some countries like France for instance, count both categories and hence are able to distinguish between those native born and with native citizenship, foreign born with native citizenship, foreign born with foreign citizenship and native born with foreign citi-zenship. In Germany by contrast, for instance, there is only a distinction between German citizens and aliens regardless of where they were born. In the Netherlands a distinction is drawn between those who have at least one grandparent born abroad (allochtones) and those who do not (authoch-tones). In Greece, Italy and Spain, national statistics distinguish between citizens and foreigners.

2 . Data taken from Eurostat, see http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/table.do?tab=table&plugin=1&language=en&pcode=tps00001, last accessed 13 July 2011.

3 . Data taken from http://www.migrationinformation.org/Resources/united-states.cfm, last accessed 13 July 2011.

4 . For the UNODC see http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-trafficking/smuggling-of-migrants.html?ref=menuside and for IOM see http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/pid/748.

5 . The United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, adopted by General Assembly Resolution 55/25 of 15 November 2000, is the main international instrument in the fight against transnational organised crime. It opened for signature by member states at a high-level political conference convened for that purpose in Palermo, Italy, on 12 December 2000 and entered into force on 29 September 2003. The Convention is supplemented by three Protocols, which target specific areas and manifes-tations of organised crime: the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children; the Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air; and the Protocol against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms, their Parts and Components and Ammunition. For more information see: http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/treaties/CTOC/index.html , last accessed 10 July 2011.

6 . According to the Geneva Convention, a refugee is a person who, owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality,

Notes

216 Notes

political opinion or membership of a particular social group, is outside the country of nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself or herself of the protection of that country, or a stateless person, who, being outside of the country of former habitual residence for the same reasons as mentioned before, is unable or, owing to such fear, unwilling to return to it. (European Migration Network Glossary, 2010)

7 . This section is based on Triandafyllidou, A. and Ilies, M. (2010) ‘EU policies on irregular migration’ in A. Triandafyllidou (ed.) Irregular Migration in Europe. Myths and Realities , Aldershot: Ashgate, pp. 23–41.

8 . Article 100 of the EEC Treaty (now Article 94 TEC). 9 . Although a Commission Communication of March 1985 on ‘Guidelines for

a Community policy on migration’ reiterated the link between the single market and irregular migrant workers, subsequent action at European level aimed at tackling irregular immigration took a predominantly intergovern-mental form and was not linked to employment and economic migration directly, but rather at border controls and security aspects.

10 . The Schengen Agreement was signed on 14 June 1985. In this Agreement, Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg and the Netherlands agreed that they would gradually remove controls at their common borders and intro-duce freedom of movement for all nationals of the signatory Member States, other Member States or third countries. The Schengen Convention was signed in 1995 and supplements the Agreement as it lays down the arrange-ments and safeguards for implementing freedom of movement. (see also European Migration Network Glossary, 2010).

11 . COM/2001/672 final. 12 . Ibidem. 13 . COM (2004) 401 final. 14 . Ibid., p. 10. 15 . www.frontex.europa.eu 16 . Details are listed on the FRONTEX website: http://www.frontex.europa.eu/

examples_of_accomplished_operati, last accessed 8 July 2009. 17 . Directive 2008/115/EC; the Directive does not apply to the UK or Ireland

because they have a JHA opt-out. 18 . SEC (2009) 320 final. 19 . The Return Fund started operating on 1 January 2008. 20 . SEC (2009) 320 final. 21 . Ibidem. 22 . Re-admission Agreements have been signed with Hong Kong, Sri Lanka,

Macao, Ukraine, FYROM, Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, Moldova and the Russian Federation; negotiations with Pakistan have been completed, with Morocco are in their final phase, and with Algeria and Georgia should start in 2009. Negotiations with Turkey have been blocked since December 2006. Informal discussions with China are currently taking place with a view to launching formal negotiations as soon as possible (Peers, 2003; SEC (2009) 320 final).

23 . MEMO/05/351. 24 . SPEECH/07/80. 25 . See for instance Article 13 (5c) of the Cotonou Agreement. 26 . Council Regulation (EC) No. 1932/2006.

Notes 217

27 . SEC (2009) 320 final. 28 . For instance, under the current visa facilitation agreement with Russia, EU

visa fees are fixed at €35, the issuing period is limited to ten days and the number of required documents has been reduced. Students, schoolchildren and disabled people are exempt from visa fees.

29 . European Council (2004). 30 . Agreements on visa facilitation are in force between the European

Community and the Russian Federation, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Serbia and Ukraine.

2 Migrant Smuggling from Africa to Spain, Italy and Malta: A Comparative Overview

1 . This chapter concentrates on the cases of Spain and Italy while Greece is discussed in more detail in chapters 4–6.

2 . For the period 2008–10: Ministry of Interior and Red Cross Spain, Press Release, Spanish government, http://www.mpt.gob.es/ministerio/dele-gaciones_gobierno/delegaciones/ceuta/actualidad/notas_de_prensa/notas/2011/01/2011_01_18-2.html, last accessed 19 July 2011.

3 . European Agency for the Management of Operational Cooperation at the External Borders (FRONTEX); see also: http://www.frontex.europa.eu.

4 . The fall in the number of apprehensions of irregular migrants at Spain’s southern borders does not mean that irregular migrants have stopped arriving in Spain. It means that fewer of them are crossing the Spanish border illegally and more are choosing other means to enter the country.

5 . Press Release, Spanish government, http://www.mpt.gob.es/ministerio/delegaciones_gobierno/delegaciones/ceuta/actualidad/notas_de_prensa/notas/2011/01/2011_01_18-2.html, last accessed 19 July 2011.

6 . According to the data presented in the Dossier Statistico Caritas Migrantes (2010), only 5 per cent of all irregular immigrants arrived in Italy by sea; see also de Haas, 2007.

7 . The Minister of Defence, La Russa, has commented thus on the UNHCR: ‘[it is] one of these organizations that nobody cares about until the Press decides that they are important [ uno degli organismi che non contano un fico secco, finché la stampa non decide che conta ]’, Il Messaggero , 16 May 2009. The head of the Senate group of the governing PdL party, Gasparri, added the following day: ‘We do not understand in whose name this lady is speaking. To speak in line with my colleague La Russa, we do not care [about what she says] [ Non si capisce a che titolo parli questa signora Boldrini e, per dirla con La Russa, ce ne freghiamo ], Corriere della Sera , 17 May 2009.

8 . In Europe, the country closest to Malta’s population density is the Netherlands, with 395 people per square kilometre.

9 . The European Neighbourhood Policy includes sixteen countries and while it is based on a bilateral framework (each neighbouring country’s relations with the EU) it has also adopted a strong regional character, which in the case of the Mediterranean is expressed by the Union for the Mediterranean, launched in Paris in July 2008 to revamp the former Barcelona Process. The

218 Notes

European Commission’s first effort to assess the outcomes of the European Neighbourhood Policy started in the summer of 2010 and intensified in the face of the socio-political changes that took place in Tunisia, Egypt and Libya in the early months of 2011.

10 . We provide more detailed data below.

3 The Southeastern Mediterranean: The Greece–Turkey Irregular Migration System

1 . An irregular migrant may be arrested by British officers in trying to cross from France to the UK via the Channel Tunnel. The person may have in his pocket an expulsion decision from the island of Mytilini, issued three months earlier (professional no. 2).

2 . A list of interviews with state authorities and other stakeholders (NGOs, migrant community leaders, experts) conducted for the purposes of this study is given in the Annex at the end of this chapter.

3 . We explore these changes in detail through our fieldwork and qualitative interviews with migrants, authorities, interpreters, NGOs and experts over the period 2009–11 in Chapters 4 and 5 .

4 . There has been a lot of speculation as to why the migrant-smuggling routes have shifted so dramatically and in such a short period (during the first months of 2010) from the Aegean islands to the Evros river but there is no reliable empirical research on the issue so far. While government authorities and EU institutions have indirectly attributed the change to the success of the FRONTEX operations in the Aegean, this does not seem to be a defend-able view, as FRONTEX was operating in the Aegean sea for several years before this without preventing the increase in irregular migration flows into the country through the Greek–Turkish sea borders on the Aegean.

5 . See http://www.frontex.europa.eu/rabit_2010/news_releases, last accessed on 24 July 2011.

6 . http://www.migrationnewssheet.eu/, last accessed on 25 July 2011. 7 . Indicated by an orange line in Figure 2.2. 8 . They involve double counting; they do not include those who illegally

crossed the borders and were not detected; they do not reveal the substan-tial numbers of migrants who entered the country legally with a short-term visa and overstayed; they do not reveal much about the routes the migrants took; the nationalities registered do not always match the actual national-ities of the apprehended migrants because often it is in the latter’s interest not to reveal their true identity to the Greek authorities (Maroukis, 2008).

9 . The law concentrated on the development of stricter police controls throughout the country and in the border regions in particular. Its main objectives were to prevent the entrance of illegal immigrants and to facilitate the expulsion of those already present in Greek territory, by means of simplifying the expul-sion procedures, giving a certain degree of autonomy to local police and judi-ciary authorities, and penalizing aliens remaining illegally in the country. The law thus aimed to bring Greece into line with its European partners, co-signa-tories of the 1990 Dublin Convention (ratified by Greek law 1996/1991) and members of the 1990 Schengen treaty, to which Greece was accorded observer status at the time (see Triandafyllidou, 2001, Chapter 5 for further details).

Notes 219

10 . Law 3274/2004 ‘Organization and Operation of Local Government Institutions of 1st and 2nd Degree’ [Οργάνωση και λειτουργία των Οργανισμών Τοπικής Αυτοδιοίκησης πρώτου και δεύτερου βαθμού].

11 . See also: http://www.isotita.gr/index.php/docs/c101. 12 . Law 3625/24-12-2007 ‘Validation, implementation of the Provisional

Protocol in the Contract for the Rights of the Child with regard to child-trafficking, child prostitution and pornography’ makes amendments and additions to the relevant articles of the Penal Code (323 A and 348 A ).

13 . In the meantime, a new EU Directive (2011/36/EU) on the prevention and combating of trafficking in human beings and protecting its victims has been adopted ( Official Journal of the European Union , OJ L 101, 1, 15 April 2011). The adoption followed a Commission Directive proposal in spring 2010, with binding legislation to prevent trafficking, to effectively pros-ecute criminals, and to better protect victims.

14 . The rest of this chapter concentrates on the Greek–Turkish border, which is the border most commonly used or migrant smuggling across the Mediterranean.

15 . The provision of first aid and assistance by Greek Coastguard officers upon their apprehension has been mentioned by Coastguard officers as well as migrants interviewed for this study. However, it was mostly those travel-ling with families who noted that they received assistance from coastguard officers (a woman mentioned that they saved her little boy, who she feared would die from the cold: migrant no. 9 and professionals no. 8 and 19). In contrast, NGO reports (Human Rights Watch, 2008; Pro Asyl, 2007; Dutch Refugee Council et al., 2009) note that Coastguard officers treat appre-hended migrants harshly.

16 . Data on migrants apprehended, held in police detention, released, re-ad-mitted and expelled, asylum seekers and minors for the period 2000–9 are provided in Annex 4 at the end of this chapter.

17 . See Dimitriadi and Triandafyllidou (2009, p. 11) with regard to the different terms used in Greece (expulsion decision, deportation order, removal, refoulement) and the related procedures.

18 . It is common for irregular migrants attempting to cross the Turkish–Greek border to conceal their identity. They do this in order to avoid being returned to their country of origin (Maroukis, 2008).

19 . Data taken from the Hellenic Police, http://www.astynomia.gr/images/stories/2011/statistics2011/0102aithm-epan2006-2010.pdf, last accessed on 10 June 2011.

20 . http://www.astynomia.gr/images/stories/STATS/011009meta16.pdf. 21 . Rates are calculated by the authors on the basis of data taken from the

Hellenic Police website http://www.astynomia.gr/index.php?option=ozo_content&perform=view&id=3665&Itemid=429&lang=, last accessed on 13 June 2011.

22 . On 30 June 2009, Presidential Decree (PD) 81/2009 was passed in Parliament, amending several of the articles of the previous PD 90/2008 relating to the process of granting and denying asylum. According to PD 90/2008, first deci-sions on asylum were made by the Director of the Department of Immigration Headquarters of the Hellenic police ( Διευθυντής της Διεύθυνσης Αλλοδαπών του Αρχηγείου της Ελληνικής Αστυνοµίας ). P.D.90/2008 prescribed that in cases where first asylum applications were denied, applicants had the right

220 Notes

to appeal within 30 days. If their second application was also denied, they could refer to the Council of the State and its decision would be considered final. If refused asylum, they were asked to depart within 30 days. The new framework introduced in June 2009 provided that the Director of Attica Aliens Directorate, or Thessaloniki Aliens Directorate, or any Police Directorate in the Region, could make the primary decision. Every police division would have a Refugee Committee to consider asylum applications comprising members of the police force, a representative of UNHCR Greece, and members of the Aliens and Immigration Service ( Υπηρεσία Αλλοδαπών και Μετανάστευσης ). In effect, the new PD decentralized initial asylum decision-making to over 50 under-resourced Police Directorates across the country. Changes were also made to the second decision procedure, which bypassed the appeal stage and went directly to the Council of State. Specifically under the 2009 Presidential Decree, responsibility laid fully with the Greek Police. The existing decision-making body at second instance retained only a limited judicial review role before the Council of State, thus not guaranteeing the right to an ‘effective remedy’. The amendments to the law were heavily criticized by human rights organizations and the Greek Ombudsman, while the UNHCR in Greece with-drew its participation from the examination of first asylum requests (see also Dimitriadi and Triandafyllidou, 2009). Eventually this system was scrapped by the new law on asylum and irregular migration management voted in the Greek Parliament in February 2011 (Law 3907/2011).

23 . Press release regarding the discussion with the press held by the Minister for the Protection of the Citizen, Christos Papoutsis, on the asylum policy of Greece, 18 November 2010, available at: http://www.yptp.gr/index.php?option=ozo_content&lang=&perform=view&id=3353&Itemid=458, last accessed on 7 July 2011.

24 . For a detailed discussion see Triandafyllidou, A (2011) ‘Managing Asylum Seeking in Europe: How to Revise the Dublin II Convention’, in Fabry, E. (ed.) Think Global Act European, The Contribution of 16 European Think Tanks to the Polish, Danish and Cypriot Trip Presidency of the European Union. Paris: Notre Europe, pp. 192–8, available at: http://www.notre-eu-rope.eu/en/axes/visions-of-europe/projects/projet/eu-presidenciesthink-

global-act-european/

4 Human Smuggling from/via North Africa and Turkey to Greece

1 . We have examined the media coverage (both press and television) during the period 2008–9 with a view to identifying any recent trends in terms of routes, places of arrival, modes of smuggling, nationalities of smuggled migrants or the effectiveness of or problems related to border surveillance. Media news items focus on irregular migration and its consequences at national level with little reference to or interest in the smuggling of migrants per se or as a form of organized crime or as a factor that promotes and/or channels irreg-ular migration to specific destinations or from specific countries. The main fact emphasized is that migrants are smuggled into the country through the sea borders. Details about the smugglers are rarely mentioned, if ever. The

Notes 221

press also refers to NGO initiatives aimed at providing assistance to recently arrived smuggled migrants (mainly referring to Médecins sans Frontières , other Greek NGOs, and local authorities). Press quotes of statements by Greek poli-ticians and civil society representatives often extend the discourse on irreg-ular migration to regular migration, thus mixing the two, without focusing on the smuggling of migrants as a criminal activity. The usual conclusion of press debates is generic and rather self-evident proposals/statements such as ‘it is important to fight the smuggling of migrants’.

2 . More specifically, we conducted six interviews with the Coastguard and police officers at national (Athens) and regional (Mytilene and Patras) levels, seven interviews with migrant communities and associations of African countries, whose citizens are smuggled into Greece, and nine inter-views with Greek civil society actors (including one representative of the Municipality of Athens) supporting irregular migrants and social workers working in shelters for victims of human trafficking. A list of these inter-views is provided in Annex I .

3 . Thirteen interviews were conducted in Thessaloniki, four in Patras and 27 in Athens.

4 . http://fortresseurope.blogspot.com/2006/01/m.html, last accessed on 26 July 2011.

5 . It remains unclear to the authors whether this was a case of actual or attempted abuse. We considered it unethical to insist that the parents give more details of the incident, as they were both visibly shaken by the overall experience and in particular by what happened to their boy. The mother said, ‘[the smugglers] only give orders and they make you do things you would rather avoid doing’ (migrant no. 6).

6 . Some are indeed hotels. In other cases, they are apartments or houses used for this purpose.

5 Human Smuggling from/via Asia and Turkey

1 . There are also other nationalities (for example, Sub-Saharan, East and West Africans) using the services of these smuggling networks, albeit in much smaller numbers. Afghans, Pakistanis and Bangladeshis constitute the main ‘clientele’ of these networks.

2 . In several interviews of Afghans and Pakistanis, Bangladeshis are mentioned as co-travellers on different legs of the journey.

3 . http://www.thefreelibrary.com/SAFRON-UNHCR+conduct+population+verification+survey+of+Afghans+in ... -a0252594582, last accessed 26 July 2011.

4 . Although in the same group one encounters migrants from different coun-tries having deals with different smugglers, in the case of Pakistanis one sometimes finds a smuggled group consisting of Pakistani migrants only.

5 . According to our case study, Pakistani migrants pay the sum agreed only when they reach Athens.

6 . It should be noted that the head smuggler does not necessarily live in the country of origin of the migrants. For example, the Pakistani head smug-gler interviewed is a migrant with legal residence status in Greece, who can travel back and forth when necessary.

222 Notes

7 . Falling prey to mafias, at times connected to smuggling networks, also happens to migrants who arrive in Istanbul without specific arrangements for housing or for the next leg of the journey (migrants no. 74 and 81).

Migrant no. 81: After we reached Istanbul, Bangladeshi and Kurdish mafia found us. They caught us. They got us in a safe house. The amount of money we had to pay in order to be released was 1 000 dollars. They beat us. They wanted the money. They asked us to call our family.

Interviewer: Who paid for you? Migrant: My broker! He knew the mafia and he made the arrangement. He

let them know that we were his people so they released us. He arranged everything. I don’t know if he paid for us or not. The sure thing is that they knew each other.

Interviewer: What happened next? Migrant: After the mafia’s safe house, we got ourselves trapped in another

safe house and we stayed there for nine months. They locked us inside. No light. No freedom. They gave us food once a week.

7 Trafficking in Human Beings

1 . Law 324/2004 ‘Organization and Operation of Local Government Institutions of 1st and 2nd Degree’ [Οργάνωση και λειτουργία των Οργανισμών Τοπικής Αυτοδιοίκησης πρώτου και δεύτερου βαθμού].

2 . See also: http://www.isotita.gr/index.php/docs/c101/. 3 . Law 3625/24-12-2007 ‘Validation, Implementation of the Provisional

Protocol in the Contract for the Rights of the Child with regard to child-trafficking, child prostitution and pornography’ makes amendments and additions to the relevant articles of the Penal Code (323 A , 348 A ).

4 . No data available.

223

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235

Africa North-, 16–7, 31, 33–65Sub-Saharan-, 16–7, 28, 31, 33–65

apprehensions data, 37–8, 39, 43, 44, 44, 47, 52, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 74, 81, 83, 84, 117, 128

Asia, 16, 31, 60–1asylum data, 83, 84asylum seeking, 7, 8, 9, 11, 82

barriers to, 42, 85, 86

border actors, 5controls, 19, 21 (see also under

European Pact on Immigration and Asylum), 28, 70

crossing point, 10death at the, 95–6, 125–6enforcement, 13, 69, 70, 125external, 23, 35, 69, 162Greek-Turkish, 18, 69, 95–6internal, 22

chain migration, 55, 112, 129–30, 136, 141

Common Market, 19

displaced persons, 49Dublin II (or Dublin Regulation), 83,

86, 87

Egypt, 49, 50, 92emigration countries, 16, 52, 73European Borders Fund, 50European Neighbourhood Policy

(ENP), 35 (see also cooperation with transit and sending countries), 49

European Pact on Immigration and Asylum, 21

EU policies for combating irregular migration

border management policies, 18, 21, 23, 36–8, 50, 70

cooperation with transit and sending countries, 18, 21 (see also under Hague Programme), 23 (see also under integrated border management), 25–8, 47, 205

expulsions, 23re-admission, 21, 23, 26, 27returns, 21 (see also under European

Pact on Immigration and Asylum), 23–5 (see alsoReturn Directive)

European Refugee Fund, 50European Return Fund, 25

FRONTEX (European Agency for the Management of Operational Cooperation at the External Borders), 23, 50, 61, 70

funding of the journey, 108, 133, 134, 136–7, 160, 168, 170

Greece, 17, 30–1asylum system of, 66expulsions from, 77, 80, 81immigration control policies of, 66,

76–8, 95, 175re-admissions from, 79–80search-and-rescue-operations, 97voluntary returns from, 80

Greece as destination country, 130, 131, 150–1, 152–3

Hague Programme, 21

immigration and control policies effect on smuggling, 102–3, 123, 149, 175–6, 200, 201–3, 205

informal/shadow economy, 18, 21, 138, 175, 204–5

integrated border management, 23intermediaries/cashiers involved in

smuggling activity, 56, 57, 99, 127, 134, 135, 138, 169–71

IOM, 5

Index

236 Index

irregular entrants, 10irregular migration

definition of, 8, 9, 20estimating the size of, 3–4percentage of, 4

irregular residents, 10Italy, 16, 17, 38–42

border patrols, 39, 41–2, 200‘collaboration’ with Libya, 40, 41,

47, 64expulsions from, 40, 48, 64re-admissions from, 40, 42, 48, 162

Libya, 34, 47, 48, 50, 53, 94

Malta, 17, 42–6Mediterranean region, 16–7, 30,

33–65‘meso-structures’ of migration, 193,

205migration

illegal, 9, 10international, 9irregular, 8, 9, 10unauthorized, 10undocumented, 10

migration push- and pull- factors, 53, 131, 132, 150, 196

migration systems, 17, 67–8Morocco, 36

organisation of smuggling deals along social features and resources, 14, 31, 55, 56, 57, 62, 73, 101, 110, 111, 122, 126, 129–30, 132, 135, 136, 141, 142, 152, 153, 155, 165–6, 168, 170, 171, 174, 199–200

organised crime, 14, 102, 103, 105, 113, 149, 198

Palma Document, 19profiles of

smuggled migrants, 40, 48, 52–5, 56–7, 111–2, 129–32, 152, 162, 166, 174, 177, 196

trafficked migrants, 179–80, 189traffickers, 178, 181–2, 190

protection international, 11, 29, 42, 85–6to irregular migrants, 29subsidiary, 11temporary, 11to victims of trafficking in human

beings, 29, 186, 187–8, 190–1

re-admissions from other countries, 61

relations between smuggler and smuggled migrants, 13, 31, 56, 57, 63, 73, 96, 98, 99, 101, 105, 110, 122, 133, 135, 136, 170, 171

repeat migration, 152Return Directive, 24

Schengen Agreement, 20Area, 20, 22Convention, 20

Single European Act (SEA), 19smugglers

apprehended, 13, 75corrupt officers collaborating with,

54, 56, 62, 73, 100, 104, 109, 122, 125

drivers, 14, 56, 73, 100, 102, 109, 124, 126–8

guides, 14, 56, 73, 124, 127locals randomly employed by, 14–5,

55, 73, 104, 105, 110, 126, 144, 146–8, 198–9

migrants becoming, 60, 105, 134, 135, 145, 158, 168, 199

migrants used as guides/transporters by, 57, 101, 102

profile of, 173–4recruiters/brokers, 14, 73, 104,

110, 133, 138, 158, 166, 167–8, 198, 199

and their ‘jobs’ in safe houses, 105, 134, 139, 147, 148, 199

smuggling ‘business’ aspects of, 12–5, 56, 63,

72, 76, 99, 101, 102, 103, 108, 110, 124, 128, 129, 130, 134, 139, 140, 141, 142, 160, 199–200

Index 237

smuggling – continueddeals (incl. modes of payment),

58–60, 61, 62, 98–9, 106, 108, 109, 113, 122, 127, 132, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 142, 149, 161, 168–9, 196–7, 204

duration of, 94, 118, 122, 124, 132and exploitation/danger from

criminal mafias or competing smuggling networks, 118, 125, 139, 140, 166, 168, 171–3, 197

fees of, 13, 48, 55, 56, 63, 92, 100–1, 103, 105, 106–8, 109, 113, 118, 122, 135, 164, 165

human-, 5, 6local accommodation arrangements

around, 61, 92, 99, 105, 126, 139–41, 146, 156–7, 166, 172

migrant- , 6, 7, 9routes, 33, 36, 38–40, 41, 50, 51, 52,

58, 62, 66–7, 69, 71, 91, 92–5, 113, 117–24, 127, 140, 164–5, 199, 203

social embeddedness of, 14–5, 73, 110, 117, 126–7, 134, 141, 143–4, 146–7, 169, 170–1, 174, 199–200

smuggling modus operandi from Africa to Italy, 47–9, 51, 52,

55, 56–7, 196, 197from/via Africa to Spain, 50, 58, 59,

60, 63from Bangladesh, Pakistan or

Afghanistan to Turkey, 118–9, 122, 123–4

from Greece to Europe, 73, 109, 130, 150, 160, 161–2, 163–5, 171

from Iran, Iraq or Syria to Turkey, 72–3, 126, 197–8

from North Africa to Turkey, 73, 92from Turkey to Greece, 72, 73, 92,

94–5, 96, 99, 100, 102, 113, 122, 127–8

from West, East Africa to Turkey, 73, 92–4, 196

smuggling switching to trafficking, 56, 106, 168, 177, 181, 191–3, 204–5

Southern EU member states, 16, 33–65

Spain, 17, 28, 35–8, 58–65cooperation with transit and

sending countries, 38, 47, 64, 200–1

expulsions, 38, 63re-admissions, 38, 63, 64

Stockholm Programme, 21–2structure of a trafficking network,

184–5structure of smuggling networks,

14–5, 31, 62–3, 72, 73, 100, 101, 104–5, 110, 113, 117, 122, 124, 126–7, 133, 134–5, 138–9, 140, 141, 142–3, 145–7, 149, 163, 165, 166–7, 168, 198, 199

trafficking drug-, 105, 108, 113, 142,

158, 192in human beings (or in persons), 7,

8, 177, 193labour-, 1, 106, 108, 113, 142, 168,

183, 191routes, 179–81sex-, 1, 106

trafficking victims’ entrapment, 179, 180, 182–3, 186–7,

192recruitment, 177–9, 181, 182

transit countries and hubs, 16, 52, 56, 60,

73, 82, 92, 94, 104, 113, 119, 122, 131, 132, 136, 137–8, 161, 165, 166, 198–9

migrants (definition and typology), 16, 17, 57, 60, 73, 99, 105, 109, 150–1, 152

migrants’ living conditions, 109–10, 112, 116, 119, 141, 150, 155–7, 160, 163, 166

migrants’ survival strategies, 111, 122, 131–2, 150, 155, 157–8, 159

migrants’ work options, 105, 106, 108, 109, 113, 142, 156, 158, 159, 168, 199

Treaty of Amsterdam, 20of Maastricht, 20

238 Index

Tunisia, 47, 48, 50Turkey, 30–1, 113

Unaccompanied minors, 24United Nations

Convention against Transnational Organised Crime, 6

Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), 5

unlawful return and push-back, 81, 95, 97–8

visa overstay, 10–1, 20policies, 10–1, 20–1, 26–7, 73, 76