Ancientsmoderns Rosen

8/9/2019 Ancientsmoderns Rosen

1/10

Symposium Terror Short Run and Long Run

IS THERE A QUARREL

BETWEEN THE ANCIENTS

A N D THE MODERNS

Stanley osen

t h a s b e e n f r e q u e n t l y s a i d a f t e r t h e e v e n t s o f

S e p t e m b e r 1 1 t h a t l if e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i s

n o l o n g e r t h e s a m e . T h e a s s e r t i o n i s tr i v ia l l y t r u e

t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t r e f e r s to o u r d i r e c t e x p e r i -

e n c e o f t e r r o r i s m o n a m a s s i v e s c a l e , a n d t o t h e

r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t w e a r e n o t i m m u n e t o t h e a tt a c k s

t h a t h a v e b e e n s u f f e r ed b y o t h e r n a t i o n s a t m a n y

t i m e s i n t h e r e c e n t p a s t . N o t o n l y a r e w e n o t i m -

m u n e , b u t d e s p i t e o u r w e a l t h a n d t e c h n o l o g y , w e

c a n b e h it e v e n h a r d e r t h a n l e s s p r o s p e r o u s n a -

t i o n s . B u t w e a l s o h e a r a m o r e r a d i c a l c l a i m ,

n a m e l y , t h a t h i s t o r y i t s e l f h a s c h a n g e d , a n d t h a t

w e a r e n o w l i v i n g i n t h e a g e o f t e r r o r i s m . I t h i n k

t h a t t h i s s e c o n d c l a i m a b o u t t h e c h a n g e i n h i s -

t o r y i s a n e x t r e m e e x a g g e r a t i o n . I n m y v i e w , a n d

c e r t a i n l y n o t m y v i e w a l o n e , w e h a v e r a t h e r e n -

t e r e d i n t o a n i n t e n s i f i e d s t a g e o f a p r o c e s s t h a t

h a s b e e n a c c u m u l a t i n g i n m o m e n t u m s i n c e t h e

t i m e o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t , a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e

F r e n c h E n l i g h t e n m e n t .

S t a t e d a s s u c c i n c t l y a s p o s s i b l e , t h e p r o c e s s i s

t h a t o f w h a t i s o f t e n c a l l e d t h e q u a r r e l b e t w e e n

t h e a n c i e n t s a n d t h e m o d e r n s . T h i s e x p r e s s i o n

r e f e r r e d i n i t i a ll y t o t h e l i t e r a r y q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r

a n c i e n t p o e t r y i s s u p e r i o r t o m o d e r n p o e t r y . T h e

v a r i o u s m o v e m e n t s c a l l e d t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t

e f f e c ti v e l y t r a n s f o r m e d t h is q u e s t i o n i n t o a m u c h

m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e , a n d f u nd a m e n t a l , d e b a t e

a b o u t t h e r e l a t i v e m e r i t s o f a n c i e n t c i v i l iz a t i o n

a n d t h e n e w o r d e r t h a t is a c o n s e q u e n c e o f m o d -

e r n s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e r e -

p u d i a t i o n o f o l d r e l i g i o u s a n d p o l i t i c a l f o r m s , I n a

w o r d , t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f t r a d i t i o n w a s c h a l l e n g e d

b y t h e r h e t o r i c o f f r e e d o m .

L e t m e s a y at o n c e t h a t t h e q u a r r e l b e t w e e n

t h e a n c i e n t s a n d t h e m o d e r n s i s n o t o n e b e t w e e n

t w o h o m o g e n e o u s a n d o p p o s i n g f o r c e s . T h e r e a re

a t l e a s t t h r e e m a j o r p a r t i e s t o t h is q u a r r e l : G r e e k

p h i l o s o p h y , r e v e a l e d r e l i g io n , a n d m o d e r n n a t u-

r al s c i e n c e . F u r t h e r d i s t i n c t i o n s c o u l d b e m a d e

w i t h i n e a c h o f t h e s e p a r t i e s . I t w o u l d b e e a s y t o

s a y t h a t th e q u a r r e l b e t w e e n t h e a n c i e n t s a n d t h e

m o d e r n s , i n t h is w o r l d - h i s t o r i c a l o r g l o b a l f o r m ,

i s t o o c o m p l e x t o b e t r e a t e d p r o p e r l y i n a s i n g l e

e s sa y . U p t o a p o i n t , 1 w o u l d a g r e e . B u t i m m e r s i o n

i n h i s t o r i c a l a n d p h i l o l o g i c a l d e t a i l s , if i t i s t o c a s t

a n y l ig h t u p o n t h e g e n e r a l d i r e c t i o n o f o u r l i v es ,

m u s t i t s e l f b e a c c o m p a n i e d , a n d e v e n r e g u l a t e d ,

b y p h i l o s o p h i c a l r e f l e c t i o n . I s a y r e f l e c t i o n , n o t

d o g m a . T h e p r o b l e m i s t h a t r e f l e c t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y

b u t n o t o n l y w h e n t h e y a r e c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d t o

t h e n e e d f o r p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n , t o o e a s i l y d e t e r i o -

r a t e i n t o d o g m a o r i d e o l o g y . B u t t h a t i s a r i s k t h a t

p h i l o s o p h e r s a r e r e q u i r e d t o t ak e .

D e s p i t e a ll th i s c o m p l e x i t y , t h e f a c t r e m a i n s

t h a t w e s t e r n E u r o p e a n t h i n k e r s o f t h e s e v e n -

t e e n t h a n d e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s d i d c o n c e i v e o f

t h e i r e p o c h a s o n e o f a r e v o l u t i o n a g a i n s t a n c i e n t

p h i l o s o p h y a n d s c i e n c e , r e v e a l e d r e li g i o n , a n d t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s o f p o l i t i c a l li fe . S o m e o f t h e

m o s t i m p o r t a n t f i g u r es in t h i s p e r i o d s p o k e o u t

a g a i n s t t h e m o d e r n r e v o l u t i o n t o o n e d e g r e e o r

a n o t h e r ; I m e n t i o n P a s c al a n d R o u s s e a u a s i m p o r -

t a n t e x a m p l e s . O t h e r s , l ik e L e i b n iz , s o u g h t a r a p -

p r o c h e m e n t b e t w e e n t h e a n c i e n t s a n d t h e

m o d e r n s . B u t d e s p i t e t h e v a r i o u s c o u n t e r - E n l i g h t-

e n m e n t m o v e m e n t s , t h e g e n e r a l d i r e c t i o n o f h is -

t o r y w a s t o w a r d a n e m b r a c e a n d c e l e b r a t i o n o f

t h e n e w c o n c e p t i o n s o f t r u t h, f r e e d o m , a n d t h e

g o o d . T h i s c e l e b r a t i o n t a k e s a n e x t r e m e f o r m i n

t h e w r i t i n g s o f F i c h t e , a c c o r d i n g t o w h o m B e i n g

i s a d e r i v a t i v e f r o m a n d a n e g a t i o n o f f r e e d o m .

IS THERE A QUARREL BETWEEN THE ANCIENTS AND THE MODERNS? 7


2/10

A ll B e i n g s i g n i f i e s a r e s t r i c t i o n o n f r e e a c t i v i t y .

T h i s a x i o m , i f I m a y c a l l i t t h a t , s o o n c a m e t o b e

u n d e r s t o o d a s t h e a s s e r ti o n th a t h u m a n b e i n g s

a r e f r e e t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e w o r l d , a n d s o h u m a n

l if e, i n a c c o r d w i t h t h e i r o w n i n t e r e s t s , p u r p o s e s ,

a n d d e s i re s . A n o t h e r c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h is a x i o m

i s t h e v i e w t h a t , s i n c e t h e w o r l d i s a h u m a n a r t i-

f a ct , i t c a n b e r e a d i l y r e p l a c e d b y a n o t h e r , a n d t h a t

t h e r e i s n o s t a n d a r d i n d e p e n d e n t o f o u r f r e e d o m ,

o r in o t h e r w o r d s , o u r o p i n i o n s a n d d e s i r e s . T h i s

f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e l e d to t h e d e v a l u a t i o n o f

t h e m o d e r n p r o j e c t t h r o u g h t h e s a m e fo r c e s t h a t

i n i t i a t e d a n d s u s t a i n e d i t.

T h e r e i s m o r e t h a n o n e w a y i n w h i c h t o d e f i n e

f r e e d o m . ' T h e d e c i s i v e l y m o d e r n s e n s e o f f r ee -

d o m is c l o s e ly c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e d e s i re t o k n o w .

B u t i n m o d e r n t i m e s , t h e s e n s e o f k n o w i n g

c h a n g e s f r o m t h a t o f g r a s p in g t h e w a y s o f t h e

w o r l d a s t h e y p r e s e n t t h e m s e l v e s t o u s , t o fo r c -

i n g , e v e n t o r t u r i n g n a t u r e t o r e v e a l h e r s e c r e t s .

S o o n e r r a t h e r t h a n l a t e r t h e i n s t r u m e n t s o f t o r-

t u r e t h e m s e l v e s d e t e r m i n e t h e n a t u r e o f w h a t

t h e y d i s c o v e r . K n o w i n g is g ra d u a l l y t r a n s f o r m e d

i n t o m a k i n g . T h i s i s i m p l i c i t i n t h e m o d e r n r e v o -

l u t i o n ; fo r e x a m p l e , i t i s e s p e c i a l l y e v i d e n t i n

G a l i le o ' s d i s t i n c t io n b e t w e e n p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d -

a r y a t t r i b u t e s . I n t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n , t h e r e a l w o r l d

b e c o m e s a m a t h e m a t i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e m o-

t i o n s o f m a t e r i a l p a r t ic l e s , w h e r e a s t h e w o r l d o f

h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e is r e d u c e d t o t h e s t a t us o f a n

i l l us i o n . E v e n t u a l l y t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n

i s i t s el f s e e n a s a p r o d u c t o f h u m a n l a b o r, i n w h i c h

t h e i m a g i n a t i o n , d o w n g r a d e d b y t h e a n c i e n t p h i -

l o s o p h e r s a n d s c i e n t i st s , a s s u m e s a n e q u a l r o l e

w i t h r e a s o n , a n d p e r h a p s a s u p e r i o r r o l e . W e t h u s

f i n d o u r s e l v e s i n t h e p a r a d o x i c a l p o s i t i o n o f at -

t r i b u t i n g t o s c i e n c e t h e t a s k o f d e f i n i n g r e a l it y ,

e v e n a s w e i d e n t i f y s c i e n t i f ic t h e o r i e s a s i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n s o r m o d e l s , w h i c h i s t o s ay , h u m a n

c r e a t i o n s .

T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e m o d e r n w o r l d i s o f

c o u r s e n o t s i m p l y a h o m o g e n e o u s o r c o n t i n u o u s

p r o c e s s . I f r e a l i t y i s a n a r t i f a c t o f h u m a n c r e a t i v -

i ty , i t is d i f f i c u l t if n o t i m p o s s i b l e t o r a n k - o r d e r

t h e d i f f er i n g c r e a t i o n s b y a n y c r i t e r i o n o t h e r t h a n

t h e w i l l t o p o w e r . T h i s i s b e c a u s e , i n c r e a t i n g o u r -

s e l v es , o r o u r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f o u r s e l v e s , w e c r e -

a t e th e v e r y s t a n d a r d s b y w h i c h r a n k - o r d e r i n g i s

a c c o m p l i s h e d . A s F i c h t e e x p r e s s e s t h is t h o u g h t ,

t h e p h i l o s o p h e r i s i n t e r e s t e d i n h im s e l f , a n d t h e

k i n d o f p h i l o s o p h y o n e c h o o s e s , d e p e n d s u p o n

w h a t k i n d o f p e r s o n o n e i s . F o r th i s r e a s o n t h e

m o d e r n E n l i g h t e n m e n t p r o c e e d s i n f i ts a n d s t ar t s ,

w i t h m a n y c o u n t e r - E n l i g h t e n m e n t s . T h e a p p a r -

e n t l y u n i n t e r r u p t e d p r o g r e s s o f s c i e n t i f i c a n d

t e c h n o l o g i c a l d i s c o v e r y i s i n f a c t o n e p o l e o f

a h i s t o r i c a l d e b a t e a b o u t t h e f a t e o f t h e E n l i g h t -

e n m e n t .

I c a n n o t g i v e t h e f u l l s t o r y o f t h i s e x t r a o r d i -

n a r y d e v e l o p m e n t , b u t i t h a d t o b e m e n t i o n e d

b e c a u s e i t l i e s a t t h e h e a r t o f th e q u a r r e l t h a t c o n -

c e r n s u s , a n d s o o f o u r c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n . T h e m a i n

p o i n t o f m y r e m a r k s t h u s f a r i s a s f o l l o w s . T h e

m o d e r n E n l i g h t e n m e n t , t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t it f ol -

l o w s t h e F r e n c h m o d e l , i s b a s e d u p o n t w o m a i n

a s s u m p t i o n s ; f i rs t , t h a t m a t h e m a t i c s i s t h e h i g h -

e s t f o r m o f h u m a n r e a s o n a n d t h a t m a t h e m a t i c a l

s c i e n c e n o t s i m p l y d i s c o v e r s b u t m a k e s o u r r e al -

i ty ; a n d s e c o n d , t h a t p e a c e a n d p r o g r e s s d e p e n d

u p o n t h e s o f t e n i n g o f a n c i e n t v i r t u e , t h a t i s, t h e

r e p l a c e m e n t o f a u s t e r i t y b y c o m f o r t . T h e d i l e m m a

o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t i s t h a t b o t h t h e s e a s s u m p -

t i o n s h a v e v e r y s e r i o u s n e g a t i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s

t h a t t e n d t o u n d e r c u t t h e i r a d m i r a b l e p o s i t i v e

i n f l u e n c e . S c i e n c e d i s s o l v e s o u r v a l u e s , o r p r o -

v i d e s n o r a t i o n a l b a s i s f o r t h e p r e f e r e n c e o f s c i-

e n c e i t s el f t o i g n o r a n c e . A n d t h e i n s i s t e n c e u p o n

c o m f o r t m a k e s u s t o o s o f t t o d e f e n d o u r s e l v e s

a g a i n s t t h e e x t r e m e f o r m s o f c o u n t e r - E n l i g h t e n -

m e n t . T h e c o u r a g e u p o n w h i c h t h e m o d e r n r e v o -

l u t i o n r e s t s i s w e a k e n e d b y v i c t o r y .

I f w e r e s i st t h e t e m p t a t i o n t o d e f i n e t h e c o n -

t e m p o r a r y s i t u a t i o n in t e r m s o f t e r r o r i s m a l o n e ;

t h a t i s, i f w e s e e t e r r o r i s m a s a n e x t r e m e f o r m o f

t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y c o u n t e r - E n l i g h t e n m e n t m o v e -

m e n t , b u t b y n o m e a n s t h e o n l y f o r m , a n d n o t b y

a n y m e a n s t h e m o s t d a n g e r o u s , t h e n w e c a n p o s e

t h e d i l e m m a o f o u r o p p o n e n t s i n a w a y t h a t p a r-

a l le l s o u r o w n . T h e o n l y w a y i n w h i c h t o b r i n g

d o w n t h e m o d e r n s i s b y a d o p t i n g t h e i r w e a p o n s

a n d t e c h n i q u e s , a n d t h i s r e q u i r e s a g r e a t d e a l o f

m o n e y a n d te c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e . B u t a n a n c i e n t

w a y o f l i fe c a n n o t r e t a i n i t s p u r i t y i f t h a t p u r i t y

d e p e n d s u p o n a n a s s i m i l a t io n o f t h e w a y s o f t h e

i n f i d e l. I r e f e r i n t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n n o t j u s t t o a c t s

o f t e r r o r i s m b u t t o h i g h e r f o r m s o f c o u n t e r- E n -

l i g h t e n m e n t . T o r e d u c e t h e w h o l e p o i n t t o o n e

e x a m p l e , d r a w n f r o m d e b a t e s i n r e c e n t p o l i t i c a l

t h e o r y , i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o o v e r t h r o w t h e c o n s e -

q u e n c e s o f m o d e r n m e d i c i n e b y c i t i n g t h e w o r k s

o f A r i s t o t l e o r E d m u n d B u r k e , e s p e c i a l l y w h e n

t h o s e w h o q u o t e t h e s e t e x t s ar e t h e m s e l v e s p a -

t i e n t s o f m o d e r n p h y s i c i a n s . In c i t in g e x a m p l e s

o f t h e t y r a n n i c a l e n f o r c e m e n t o f s u p e r s t i t i o n b y

a w e a l t h y f ew , w h o d o n o t h e s i t a t e t o m a k e u s e

o f t h e c o m f o r t s o f m o d e r n w e s t e r n c i v i l iz a t i o n ,

8 SO CIETY 9 J U LY / A U G U ST 2002


3/10

w e t e n d t o t a k e t o o s h o r t - s i g h t e d a v ie w . M o d e r n -

i z a t i o n i s a l s o to b e f o u n d i n r e a c t i o n a r y r e v o l u -

t i o n s a n d s o o n e r o r l a t e r i t s e r v e s t o m i t i g a t e t h e

r e a c t i o n a r y e l e m e n t s t h r o u g h a n i n c r e a s i n g a p-

p e t i t e f o r t h e f r u i t s o f e v i l.

F o r e a c h g e n e r a t i o n t h e s e r i o u s p r o b l e m i s a l-

w a y s t h a t o f t h e s h o r t r u n s i n c e i n th e l o n g r u n

a s a w i s e m a n p u t i t w e w i l l al l b e d e a d . I n t h e

l o n g r u n i f t h e r e i s a l o n g r u n I a m r e a s o n a b l y

c o n f i d e n t t h a t t h e f o r c e o f E n l i g h t e n m e n t w i l l

p r e v ai l . B u t th e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d w e a k n e s s e s o f t h e

W e s t w h i c h i n t h i s c o n t e x t s t a n d s f o r t h e

m o d e r n s a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y s t r o n g t o m a k e t h e s h o r t

r u n a n e x c e e d i n g l y d a n g e r o u s p l a c e . A s a lw a y s in

h u m a n a f f ai r s t h e e l e m e n t o f c h a n c e i s a t l e a s t a s

p o w e r f u l a s t h e r a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s o f t w o c o n -

f l i c t i n g w a y s o f li fe . C h a n c e t o o n e s i d e I c a n i l-

l u s t r a t e t h e g r e a t d a n g e r t h a t t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t

f a c e s b y r e f e r r i n g t o t h e w i d e s p r e a d f e a r t h a t a

c u r t a i l m e n t o f o u r c i vi l l i b e r t i e s in p r o s e c u t i n g

t h e w a r a g a i n s t t e r r o r i s m w i l l l o w e r u s t o t h e l e v e l

o f o u r o p p o n e n t s . I f t h i s i s t h o u g h t t h r o u g h i t

c o m e s d a n g e r o u s l y c l o s e to t h e a d m i s s i o n t h a t w e

c a n n o t d e f e n d o u r s e l v e s a g a i n s t r u t h l e s s r e p r e -

s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e c o u n t e r - E n l i g h t e n m e n t . I t i s a n

o p e n q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h is is b a l a n c e d b y t h e

i n a b i l it y o f o u r o p p o n e n t s t o d e f e a t us w i t h o u t

a d o p t i n g o u r t e c h n o l o g y . I t w o u l d b e a r a t h e r

t e n u o u s c o n s o l a t i o n t o s a y t h a t a l t h o u g h w e m a y

b e d e s t r o y e d o u r v a n q u i s h e r s w i l l e v e n t u a l l y

e v o l v e i n t o r e p l i c a s o f o u r s e lv e s .

I n t h e p r e c e d i n g i n t r o d u c t o r y r e m a r k s I h a v e

t r i e d t o s u g g e s t t h e f o l l o w i n g t h e s i s . T h e E n l i g h t -

e n m e n t i s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f c a r r y i n g o u t i ts a g e n d a

b u t i t is a l s o d e s t r o y i n g i t s e l f f r o m w i t h i n i n ad -

d i t i o n t o b e i n g a t t a c k e d f r o m t h e o u t s i d e . It i s n o t

c l e a r d e s p i t e m y o w n m o d e r a t e o p t i m i s m

w h e t h e r t h e p r o g r e s s o r t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e

E n l i g h t e n m e n t w i l l c a r r y t h e d a y . A n d it i s a t t h i s

p o i n t t h a t t h e is s u e o f c o u r a g e b e c o m e s a p p o -

s i te . L e t u s n o w p u t t e r r o r i s m o f th e i m m e d i a t e

k i n d t o o n e s i d e ; i t s e r v e d a s a p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e

f o r t h e g e n e r a l a r g u m e n t o f t h i s e s sa y . I w a n t

r a t h e r to c o n s i d e r t h e q u a r r e l b e t w e e n t h e a n-

c i e n t s a n d t h e m o d e r n s a t a m o r e p h i l o s o p h i c a l

l e v e l . A s I s h a l l a r g u e i n t h e b a l a n c e o f m y t a l k

t h e r e i s n o q u e s t i o n o f a b o l i s h i n g t h e E n l i g h te n -

m e n t o r r e t u r n i n g t o s o m e m o r e e l e g a n t a rr a n g e -

m e n t o f o u r p o l i t i c a l a n d s p i r i t u a l a f f a ir s t h a n i s

t o b e f o u n d i n m o d e r n i n d u s t r ia l d e m o c r a c i e s . O n

t h i s p o i n t I a m i n c o m p l e t e a g r e e m e n t w i t h

T o c q u e v i l l e . W e m u s t l i v e o r d i e i n o u r o w n h i s-

t o r i c a l e p o c h . U n f o r t u n a t e ly t h e p r o b l e m a s s u g-

g e s t e d b y c o n t e m p o r a r y t e r r o r i s m i s t h a t w e m a y

d i e i n o u r o w n e p o c h t h a t i s b e m u r d e r e d b y

t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f f a n a t ic a l o p p o n e n t s o f E n-

l i g h t e n m e n t a d e t e r m i n a t i o n t h a t i s r e n d e r e d e f-

f e c t i v e b y t h e w e a p o n s o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t i t-

se l f .

I s h a l l r e s t r i c t m y s e l f in w h a t f o l l o w s t o t h e

i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f a c o u n t e r - E n l i g h t e n m e n t m o v e -

m e n t t h a t a t t e m p t s t o r e p l a c e l a t e - m o d e r n d e c a -

d e n c e w i t h t h e w i s d o m o f t h e a n c i e n t s . I h a p p e n

t o b e l i e v e t h a t e v e n i f s u c h a r e t u r n t o t h e p a s t

w e r e p o s s i b l e i t w o u l d b e u n d e s i r a b l e . W h a t w e

r e q u i r e i s t o e x h i b i t t h e s a m e c o u r a g e t h a t w a s

d i s p l a y e d b y t h e f o u n d i n g f a t h e r s o f th e m o d e r n

a g e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e t a s k w e f a c e is i n m a n y

w a y s m o r e d i f f ic u l t t h a n t h e i r s . O u r p r o b l e m s

s p r i n g f r o m t h e i r su c c e s s n o t f r o m t h e i r f a i lu r e s.

T o m a k e t h i s l a s t p o i n t i n a n o t h e r w a y I a m i n

g e n e r a l t e r m s a p r o p o n e n t o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t .

B u t I d o n o t s e e t h i s a l l e g i a n c e t o t h e E n l i g h t e n -

m e n t a s a r e j e c t i o n o f t h e w i s d o m o f t h e a n c i e n t s .

I f t h i s w e r e a n o t h e r e s s a y I w o u l d d i s c u s s a t

l e n g t h t h e w a y s i n w h i c h I b e l i e v e t h a t t h e s a lv a -

t i o n o f m o d e r n i t y d e p e n d s u p o n t h e a d o p t i o n o f

t h a t w i s d o m . T o d a y h o w e v e r i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o

m e t o m a k e c l e a r t h a t i n t h e d e e p e s t s e n s e t h e r e

i s n o q u a r r e l b e t w e e n t h e a n c i e n t s a n d t h e

m o d e r n s i f w e m e a n b y th i s e x p r e s s i o n a r e a l d i s-

p u t e b e t w e e n t w o r a d i c a ll y d i f f e r e n t a n d s i m u l -

t a n e o u s l y a c t u a l e p o c h s f o r t h e m a s t e r y o f t h e

m o d e r n o r l e t u s s a y t h e p o s t - m o d e r n w o r l d .

I t i s a n e s s e n t i a l c o r o l l a r y t h a t j u s t a s t h e r e i s

n o r ea l q u a r r e l b e t w e e n e p o c h s s o t o o t h e r e is

n o g e n e r i c d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e c o u r a g e o f t h e

a n c i e n t s a n d t h a t o f t h e m o d e r n s . C o u r a g e i s e x -

e r c i s e d a g a i n s t p e r c e i v e d d a n g e r s . It i s a s o m e -

t i m e s u s e f u l b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s f a c il e o v e r si m p l i f i -

c a t i o n t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e a n c i e n t s a r r i v e d

c o l l e c t i v e l y a t th e a b y s s s e p a r a t i n g t h e m f r o m t h e

a d v e n t o f m o d e r n i t y a n d d r e w b a c k w h e t h e r o u t

o f f e a r o r a h i g h e r c o u r a g e r o o t e d i n a g e n u i n e

c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f h u m a n n a t u r e a n d i ts l i m it s . I n

f a c t t h e a n c i e n t s o r t h e i r m e d i e v a l a n d re n a i s -

s a n c e s u r r o g a t e s d i d n o t d r a w b a c k _ T h e y s t e p p e d

o v e r t h e l i n e i n t o th e m o d e r n e p o c h . S o t o o it

w o u l d b e a b s u r d t o a s k t h e m o d e r n s t o r e v e r s e

c o u r s e a n d t o l e a p b a c k w a r d s o v e r t h e a b y s s i n t o

t h e a r m s o f t h e w a i t i n g a n c i e n t s i n t h e h o p e o f

m o v i n g f r o m d e c a d e n c e i n t o g e n u i n e v i r t u e .

T h e r e s i d e n c e o f c o u r a g e i s s o t o s p e a k n e i-

t h e r i n t h e p a s t n o r t h e f u t u r e b u t i n t h e p r e s e n t .

W e h a v e t o f ac e u p t o o u r i m m e d i a t e s i t u a t io n

a n d i n o r d e r t o d o t h i s e f f e c t i v e ly w e r e q u i r e n o t



4/10

only courage bu t sou nd jud gmen t . If there i s a

quar re l be t ween t he anc i en t s and t he m oderns ,

i t i s not one that could be se t t l ed by a re turn to

the pas t .T he resusc i ta t ion of c lass ical v i r tue , for

example , i s something which , i f i t i s poss ib le a t

a ll , can be a t t e mpte d only by the mo dern s . But

we ca nno t r ep r oduce anc i en t cus t om s and in s ti -

t u t i ons by decons t ru c t i ng ou r h i s t o r i ca l i den t i t y

wi t hou t i nduc i ng cu l t u ra l s ch i zoph ren i a a t t he

bes t and obl i t era t ion a t the wors t .

I wi l l come back in a moment to th i s impor-

tan t poin t . Second, as I men t ion ed a t the begin-

n ing of th i s ar ti c le , as soon as we de sce nd f rom

an excess ively general v iewpo int for a c loser look

at the historical terrain, i t bec ome s clear that th ere

i s more than one bran ch of the anci ent army. In

add i t i on t o t he equa l l y f am ous qua r re l be t ween

Athen s and Jerusalem, one c anno t ass imi la te al l

aspect s of pagan c iv i l i zat ion in to an amal gam of

P lato and Ari s to t le . How, for examp le , cou ld we

iso la te f rom our hypothet ical res torat ion of an-

cient v i r tue those e l emen ts of the pas t that gave

r i se to the present? And i t is far f rom evide nt that

P l a to ' s r evo l u t i ona ry i n t roduc t i on o f ph i l o s oph y

i n t o po l i t i c s i s com pa t i b l e w i t h t he m odera t i on

of Ari s to t le ' s separ at ion of theor y an d pract ice .

In sum, I v iew the quarre l betw een the ancie nts

and m ode rns a s the und er l y i ng s t ruc t u re o f h is -

tor ical ref lect ion , ra ther than as a speci f ic h i s tor i -

cal or pol i t i ca l prob lem that requi r es a def in i t ive

solu t ion . Every re tur n to the pas t i s ar t i f ic ia l and

resul t s only in a decadent vers ion of the present .

This is the advice that Nietzsche gives to the con-

servat ive in paragraph 43 of The Twilight of the

Idols:

Spoken in to the ear of the c onser vat iv e . .. .

What on e d id not kno w previously , what one

know s today, wha t one ca n know today . .. a

backward educa t i on , a t u rn i ng back i n any

sense and degree a t al l, i s not poss ib le .We

phys io logis t s a t l eas t know that . But a l l

pr ies t s and moral i s t s have bel ieved in that

[ r e t u rn ] .They wan t ed t o r e t u rn m ank i nd t o

an ear l i er measure of v i r tue , to scre w him

back [ i n t o t he pas t :

zuri~ckschrauben].

Moral i ty was a lways a bed of Procrus tes .

E v e n t h e s t a t e s m e n h a v e i m i t a t e d t h e

preachers of moral i ty in th i s respect : there

are today st il l part ies that dre am of the c rab's

mot i on as the goal of a ll things . But no on e

is f ree to be a crab .The re i s no choice: one

must go forward, so to say step by step far-

t he r i n t o d~ cadenc e (w h i ch i s m y de f i n i t i on

of mode rn progress . . .) .

I want to re ta in what i s val id in Nietzsche ' s

advice whi le a t the same t ime al ter ing it s impo rt

by a sh i f t in rhetor ic . Nietzsche i s cer ta in ly cor-

r ec t t o say t ha t we ca nno t s c rew hu m an i t y back

into a past ep oc h of history. But it does n ot fol-

l ow t ha t a ll fo rward m ove m en t t akes u s deeper

i n t o decaden ce . N i e t z s ch e i s i n f ac t m i s t ake n

about the mo t ion of the crab; it scu t t l es s ideways ,

not backward . Somet imes one must t ake a crab-

s tep to the s ide of an obs tacle in order to c i rcum-

vent i t . Ther e ma y be space in the sha dows of

decade nce t o m aneuve r fo r t he bes t pos s i b l e ex it .

M y own c rab - s t eps a re i n t ende d t o con t r i bu t e

to the res tor at ion of s tab i l i ty to the pre sent , and

not a t a ll to re tu rn us to the pas t or to pro ject us

in to the fu tur e .A nd by s tab i li ty I do not mean

the r ig id i ty of dogma. I can therefore agree wi t h

Ni e t zs che when , a s fo r exam pl e i n Beyond Good

and Evil he speaks of the huma n bei ng as the

not yet es tab l i sh ed animal . He mean s by th is , of

course , that our natur e i s to be inc omple te , or that

i t i s ou r na t u re t o be pe rp e t ua l l y enga ged i n t he

a t t em p t t o com pl e t e ou r s e l ves . I d i s ag ree wi t h

Nietzsche, however , on one crucia l poin t , o r at

l east pu t a d i f f e ren t em phas i s on t he c oncep t o f

i ncom pl e t enes s . To be i ncom pl e t e , o r t o s tr i ve to

comp lete onesel f , i s to have a nature of a cer ta in

k i nd, and t hus t o be p rov i de d wi t h c r i t e r i a by

wh i ch t o r egul a t e ou r s t r i vi ng , however f l ex i b le

these cr i t er ia may be.

F o r N i e t z s che ' s Za ra t hus t r a on t he o t he r hand ,

man i s an animal that mus t be ov ercom e. By over-

coming, Zarathus t ra refers to surpass ing , and th i s

i n t u rn r e st s upon a s t andard by wh i ch p rog res s

can be d i s t i ngu i s hed f rom re t rog res s i on .Th i s cen -

t r a l i s s ue i s con fus ed i n N i e t z s che becaus e he

vaci l l a tes bet wee n tw o qui te d i f ferent s tandards .

On the one h and, Nietzsche ' s values are c lear ly

those of the paga n and re naissan ce ar t i st -warr iors ;

in general , he prai ses the ar i s tocra cy of the sp i r i t

and i s t hus com m i t t e d t o a d i s t i nc t i on be t wee n

n o b i l i t y a n d b a s e n e s s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,

Ni e t z s che de f i nes ove rcom i ng as an i nc reas e i n

power , and he s upp o r t s t h i s de f i n i t i on wi t h ap -

peal s to phys ics . Nobi l i ty is the a ccu mula t ion of

energy, whe rea s b asen ess or de cad enc e i s i t s d i s-

s i pa t ion . In t he f l uc t ua t i on be t w een t hes e t wo

s t andards , we s ee Ni e t z s che ' s i nne r qua r re l be -

t w e e n h i s v e r s i o n s o f t h e a n c i e n t s a n d t h e

m oderns .

10 SOCIETY 9 JULY /AUGUST 2002


5/10

N i e t z s c h e is f o r u s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t e x a m p l e

o f t h e b a d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e e x c e s s i v e d o m i -

n a n c e o f t h e m o d e r n p a r a d i g m o f r e a s o n . D e s p i t e

h i s p h i l o l o g i c a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l g e n i u s , h e a c-

c e p t s t h e p a r a d i g m o f m a t h e m a t i c a l p h y s i c s , o r

m o r e g e n e ra l ly , o f n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y m a t e r i a l i s m

a n d d e t e r m i n i s m , a s a c o r r e c t a c c o u n t o f r a ti o -

n a l it y . A n d t h i s i n t u r n l e a d s h i m t o r e j e c t r a t i o -

n a l i s m a n d s o t o a n e x c e s s i v e p r a i s e o f p a s s i o n s

a n d e m o t i o n s , w h i c h c a n b e e x p r e s s e d p r o s a i c a l l y

i n n e u r o p h y s i o l o g i c a l t e r m s o r p o e t i c a l l y as t h e

d o c t r i n e o f w i l l t o p o w e r . T h i s i s a n u n s a t i s f a c -

t o r y f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f n o b i l i t y . I t

c a n n o t w i t h s t a n d t h e s t e a d y d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f sp i ri -

t u al w o r k , w o r k w h i c h N i e t z s c h e f a v or s , i n t o t h e

s a t i s fa c t i o n o f m a t e ri a l d e s i r e s , w h i c h e n c o u r a g e s

a n e x c e s s i v e e m p h a s i s u p o n c o m f o r t , t h e

p e n u l t i m a t e s t e p t o w a r d t h e d e c a d e n c e t h a t

N i e t z s c h e o p p o s e s . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h e c e l e b r a t i o n

o f th e w i l l to p o w e r c a n l e a d t o e x c e s s i v e h a r s h -

n e s s a n d t y r a n n i c a l p o l i t i c a l r e g i m e s l i ke t h a t o f

t h e T a l i b a n .

I h a v e m a d e t h i s e x t e n d e d r e f e r e n c e t o

N i e t z s c h e b e c a u s e h e i s p e r h a p s t h e h i g h e s t m a n i-

f e s t a t i o n o f a t y p i c a l m o d e r n f i g u re , n a m e l y , a g r e a t

s o n o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t w h o s e e s t h e fa u l ts o f

h i s fa t h e r w i t h s p e c i a l c la r i ty , b u t w h o i s h i m s e l f

f i n al l y b r o u g h t d o w n b y h i s g e n e t i c d e s ti n y . O n e

m u s t n o t p u s h t h e c o m p a r i s o n t o o f ar , b u t i n s o m e

w a y s N i e t z s c h e is a l a t e - m o d e r n O e d i p u s w h o

i n s t r u c t s u s t h a t w e c a n o v e r c o m e b l i n d n e s s w i t h

c o u r a g e , a n d n o t m e r e l y w i t h a m o r f a t i o r t h e a c -

q u i e s c e n c e i n f a t e . T h i s i s m a d e c l e a r in th e m o s t

i m p o r t a n t r e f e r e n c e t o c o u r a g e i n

Thus Spoke

Zarathustra

I t o c c u r s i n t h e f i rs t s e c t i o n o f t h e

o p e n i n g e p i s o d e o f B o o k I II , a n d i s e n t i t l e d " O n

t h e V i s i o n a n d t h e R i d d l e ; " i n t h i s e p i s o d e ,

N i e t z s c h e i n t r o d u c e s t h e c e n t r a l d o c t r i n e o f t h e

e t e r n a l r e t u r n . C o u r a g e i s t h e r e d e f i n e d a s t h e

d e c i s i v e h u m a n a t t r i b u t e t h a t p r e s e r v e s u s f r o m

f a l l i n g i n t o t h e a b y s s o f l if e ; t h a t i s t o s a y, i t p r e -

s e r v e s u s f r o m d i z z i n e s s b u t a l s o f r o m p i t y f o r

h u m a n s u f f e ri n g . C o u r a g e l e a d s u s to c o n q u e r

e v e n d e a t h i n t h e a f f i r m a t i o n o f li f e :" W a s t h a t l i fe ?

W e l l , t h e n , o n c e m o r e "

A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e e l e m e n t s o f S t o i c i s m i n

N i e t z s c h e , h e i s n o t a n a n c i e n t b e c a u s e h e r e f u s e s

t o a c q u i e s c e i n t h e s i m p l e l o v e o f f a t e t h a t ig -

n o r e s a n d t r i v i a l i z e s l i fe r a t h e r t h a n i n v e s t i n g i t

w i t h v a l u e . It i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t t o c o n t r a s t

N i e t z s c h e ' s a t t i t u d e o n t h i s p o i n t w i t h t h e

S o c r a t i c t h e s i s , p r e s e n t e d e x p l i c i t l y i n t h e

T h e a e t e t u s a n d P h a e d o , t h a t p h i l o s o p h y i s a d e -

t a c h m e n t f r o m l i fe a n d a p r e p a r a t i o n f o r d y i n g .

P e r h a p s o n e c o u l d s a y th a t t h e r e i s i n d e e d a q u a r -

r e l b e t w e e n t h e a n c i e n t s a n d t h e m o d e r n s o n h o w

t o r e s p o n d t o d ea t h . T h e d e c i s i v e l y m o d e r n p h i -

l o s o p h e r s d i s p u t e t h e e f f i c a c y o f t h e o r e t i c a l c o n -

t e m p l a t i o n o n b e h a l f o f t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e

c o s m o s a s a w o r l d f i t f o r h u m a n h a b i t a t i o n .

D e s c a r t e s , t h e f a t h e r o f m o d e r n p h i l o s o p h y ,

w i s h e d f o r a n d b e l i e v e d i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e

c o n q u e s t o f d e a t h t h r o u g h m o d e r n s c i e n c e .

P o s t m o d e r n d e c o n s t r u c t i o n , w h a t e v e r i ts p o s i t i v e

a t t r i b u t e s , m u s t b e s e e n i n t h i s c o n t e x t a s t h e a s -

s e r t i o n o f t h e f a i lu r e o f t h e m o d e r n a t t e m p t t o

b e c o m e m a s t e r s a n d p o s s e s s o r s o f n a t u r e .

T h e s e r io u s q u e s t i o n a b o u t p o s t m o d e r n i s m i s

w h e t h e r i t p o s s e s s e s a m o r a l c o r e , t h a t i s, a c o u n -

t e r p a r t t o N i e t z s c h e ' s c o u r a g e t h a t is n o t a t b o t -

t o m a n i r o n i c w i n k a t th e t r i v i a l i t y o f d i f f e r e n c e .

T h e p o s t m o d e r n i s t s , e x a c t l y l ik e t h e ir c o n t e m p o -

r a r y e n t h u s i a s t s f o r c o m p u t e r s a n d r o b o ts , a r e t o o

c l o s e t o t h e " l as t m e n " o f

Thus Spoke Zarathustra

t o

q u a l if y a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f Z a r a t h u s t r a ' s c o u r a g e .

N i e t z s c h e p r o v i d e s u s w i t h t h e t r a g i c c o -o r d i -

n a t e t o M a c h i av e l l i 's c o m i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e

p l i a n c y o f f o r t u n e t o th e h u m a n w i l l. A c y n i c m i g h t

s a y t h a t m o d e r n i t y b e g i n s i n l o w c u n n i n g a n d t e r -

m i n a t e s i n h i g h b r a v a d o . S o m e o f us , h o w e v e r , I

a m o n g t h e m , w i ll p r e f e r a r h e t o r i c a l e x c e s s i n t he

a f f i r m a t i o n o f l if e t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l d i s t a n c e t h a t

d e t a c h e s u s f r o m it . O d d l y e n o u g h , i t i s p r e c i s e l y

a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t I d e v i a t e f r o m N i e t z s c h e ; h i s

r h e t o r i c a l e x c e s s i s t h e m a s k o f a n i n n e r e m p t i -

n e s s o r i n c a p a c i t y t o g r o u n d t h e m e a n i n g a n d s i g-

n i f i c a n c e o f h u m a n e x i s t e n c e , w h i c h i s i n h i s

t e r m s a p e r t u r b a t i o n o n t h e s u r f a c e o f c h a o s .

I t w o u l d t a k e u s t o o f a r a f i e l d t o c o n s i d e r t h e

i s s u e i n d e t a il , b u t I w a n t a t le a s t to m e n t i o n t h e

d e t e r i o r a t i o n f r o m t h e n o b i l i t y o f N i e t z s c h e ' s

r h e t o r i c t o t h e v u l g a r i t y o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y

m a t e r i a l i s m , t h at s p e a k s i n th e i d i o m o f s c i e n c e

f i c t i o n , n e u r o p h y s i o l o g y , a n d t h e e n g i n e e r i n g

m a n u a l . T h i s i s o n e c o n s e q u e n c e o f N i e t z s c h e ' s

d e e p l y f l a w e d a n d h y p n o t i c a l l y a r t i c u l a t e d c r i-

t i q u e o f r a t i o n a l is m , w h i c h l e a v e s us , o r s e e m s t o

l e a v e u s, w i t h t h e p r a c t i c a l a l t e r n a t i v e o f r h e t o -

r i c o r m a t h e m a t i c s . B u t m a t h e m a t i c s c a n n o t t ri -

u m p h p o l i t i c a l l y w i t h o u t t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f r h e t o -

r i c , n o r c a n r h e t o r i c s u s t a i n i t s e l f w i t h o u t

m a t h e m a t i c s . T h e m e r e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e t w o ,

h o w e v e r , i s u n s t a b l e ; w h a t w e r e q u i r e i s t h e s y n -

t h e s i s o f p h i l o s o p h y .

I h o p e i t i s c l e a r f r o m m y a n a l y s i s o f N i e t z s c h e

t h a t I a m i n n o s e n s e a n u n q u a l i f i e d p r o p o n e n t o f



6/10

the so-called coura ge of the moder ns. But the at-

tempt to choose bet ween the courage of the an-

cients and that of the mod ern s is a mistake, and it

leads directly to ideology, not to a genuinel y philo-

sophical pol i t ics or pol i t ical phi losophy.

T h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t an d P o l it i c al o n s e r v a t i s m

Let me introduc e the next por t ion of my essay

with a quotat i on that i l luminates the defect of an

unmit igated repudiat ion of the Enl ightenment ,

and in general , the defect of pol i t ical conserva-

tism.The quot ed stat ement is by Leo Strauss, who

can hardly be accused of a b l ind admirat ion for

the do ctri ne of historica l progress. In his evalua-

t ion of Hermann Cohen 's in t erpret at ion of Juda-

ism, Strauss write s: One must say that in his cri-

t ique o f Sp inoza Cohen com m its the typ ic a l

mis take of the conse rvat ive, whic h cons is ts in

conceali ng the fact that the conti nuous and chang-

ing t radi t ion which he cher i shes so great ly would

never have come into being through conservatism,

or witho ut d iscont inui t ies , revolut ions , and sacri -

leges commit ted at the beginning of the cher ished

t rad i t ion and a t l eas t s i l en t ly r epea t ed in i ts

course. This important passage exhibi ts S trauss ' s

ag reem ent w i th the s o b e r c o r e of N ie tzsche ' s

advice to conservat ives , a l though i t in no way

transforms him into the Nietzschean revolut ion-

ary nihi l is t conj ured up by Shadia Drury and

Lawrence Lampert.

With al l due acknowledgment of the defects

of the Enl ightenment , there is no way in which

to extr icate ourselves f rom i ts embrace except

thro ugh the de str ucti on of history. I wan t to ar-

gue this poi nt in some detail , and I will do so by

offering a radical ly revised and e xpa nded vers ion

of an argu ment that I emp loy ed in an old essay, A

Modest Proposal to Rethink the Enlightenment.

Like all arguments about history and politics, mine

is dialect ical and rhetor ical ; i t proceed s by way

of p robab i l i t i e s , p sycho log ica l hypo theses , and

prudent ia l es t imat ions.Yet I do not bel ieve that i t

v iolates any laws of logic .Whethe r the ar gument

is plausib le or not is for you to judge.

The conclus i on of my argument has already

been stated. Not only is it impossible to reverse

the Enli ghtenment, but it is also undes irab le.Wh at

we call moderni ty is not some alien body in-

serted by force into the spirit of antiquity; it is

the consequen ce, s ometimes successful and some-

times not, of the long effort to mitigate the defi-

ciencies of human exis tence.This ef for t is in my

view noble and courageous . It is nobler and more

courageous than the te nden cy to acquiesce in the

aforementioned def iciencies , or to paint them o v e r

with salubr ious rhetor ic while seeking refuge in

pure conte mplat ion. In the long run, the heal th

of the human spir i t dep end s upon i ts f reedo m to

funct ion, and the reby to put i tself a t r isk .

Let us now turn to the details of the argument.

Some woul d say that if the Enli ghte nmen t is al-

lowed to cont inue, the resul t wil l be ei ther out-

r ight des truc t ion or a t the very leas t the t r iumph

of baseness, and so that we ne ed to ret urn to so me

ear l ier pol i t ical model , such as that of Aris tote-

lian or, mor e realistica lly,Burkean prudent i al con-

servat is m.And indeed, one of ten meets with the

view that the ancient th inkers advoc ated the con-

s t ruc t ion o f po l i t i es in accord w i th a pe rcep t io n

of a noble and wise l ife, where as the f ounders of

moderni ty were motivated by the excess ive dar-

ing that led them to at tempt to mas ter nature for

ut i l i tarian or broadly phi lanthro pic motives.As my

own teacher, Leo Strauss, often state d this view,

the mode rns a imed lower than the ancients , in

order to accomp lish the a meliorat ion of the hu-

man condi t ion; in so doing, however , they made

courage a v i r tue o f h igher r ank than w isdom ,

which was i tself reco ncei ved as an ins trument of

the wil l .The twin sovereigns of courage and the

wil l , accor ding to th is thes is , have p rodu ced the

vulgar izat ion of the human spir i t to which I a l-

luded above.

The mode rn reply , to count er one overs impli-

fication with another, is of course that the Enlight-

enment , and more broadly the mod ern revolut ion,

i s nob le r in p r inc ip le than the p rudence o f the

ancients . I t i s ent i re ly noble to s t r ive to extend

the oppor tuni ty of a comfor table l i fe to the ma-

jor i ty of human beings , and i t is a lso nobler to

exten d the joys of the in tel lect and spir i t to those

who can benefit from them, than it is to keep them

for a favored minor i ty in a necessar i l y res tr ic ted

form. It is , howeve r, one t hing to e ndo rse the no-

bi l i ty of the pr incip le of Enl ightenment , and some-

thing else again to become masters and possess-

ors of that pr incipl e , ra ther than being mas t ered

and posse ssed by i t .

My f i rs t r ecom m enda t ion w i th r espec t to the

quar re l be tween the anc ien t s and the m oderns

has to do with the recip rocal wel l -being of phi-

losophy and pol i t ics . In my view, the welfare of

phi l osop hy requires that i t have a legi t imate pres-

ence wi thin our publ ic or pol i t ical ar rangements .

The convers e is a lso t rue; pol i t ical l i fe depen ds

for its spir i tual heal th up on the pre senc e of phi lo-

12 SOCIETY 9 JULY/AUGUST 2002


7/10

sophi cal activity. I do not mean by this that phi-

losophy n eeds to be a pol i t ical ideology; what I

urge is rather that no politi cal ideolo gy is adequate

to the needs of the huma n spir i t i f i t suppresses

philos ophy. In orde r to see this , one has only to

observe the d i s as t rous conseque nces tha t fo l low

upon the radical res tr ic t ion of theoret ical inquiry .

I would of course not deny that phi l osoph ers

have been ingenious in f inding ways to jus t i fy

their pursui t on the bas is of prevai l ing rel ig ious

and pol i t ical doctr ines . Medieval Arabic and Jew-

ish phi lo sophy is perha ps the greates t but not the

only examp le of this ingeniousness.At first glance,

one might reasonabl y argue that the accommo-

dat ion of phi losophy to rel ig ion and pol i t ics is

actually neces sary for the welfare of the non-philo-

sophical major i ty .As I under s tand the his t ory of

phi losophy, however , the resul ts of th is accom-

modat i on soon deviate f rom the salutary to the

malignant . Ei ther dogmati c conformit y s t i f les in-

te l lectual and spir i tual perfect ion, or the inner

tens ion of the repressed spir i t leads to rel ig ious

and political quarrels , sects, revolutions, and wars.

S tated with excess ive but not mis leading conci-

s ion, suppress ion resul ts e i ther in s tagnat ion or

chaos.

This of course does not a l ter the fact that an

unmit igated mater ial is t or pos i t iv is t Enl ighten-

ment, to use old-fashioned but still effective terms,

leads to the s teady lowering of spir i tual and so

phil osoph ical s tandards. I t is precisely the succe ss

of the En l ightenment that accounts for the cha-

ot ic cont empo rary s i tuation, in large par t because

that success is i tself dep end ent upon a cons ider-

able degree of suppress ion, a lways of course in

the n ame of scienc e and democra cy. But it is a

ques t ion here of balancing one evi l agains t an-

other. Perhaps one could say that chaos is mar-

ginal ly super i or to s tagnat ion, because i f every-

thing is a l lowed, then good things are at least

poss ible .

One m us t no t , the re fo re , m isunder s tand m y

asse r tion tha t ph i losophy fecunda tes the hum an

spirit in such a way as to invigorate and render

noble pol i t ical li fe . In reco mmen din g the pol i t i -

cal prese nce of phi losophy, I am not ident i fying

it with material ism, positiv ism, or anti-the ologi-

cal i re .The openn ess of phi l osoph y within a t ra-

di t ional society is not necessar i ly and perha ps in

no genuine sense, tanta mount to the des t ruct io n

of the bes t in that t radi t ion. The iconoclas t s of

the F rench En l igh tenm ent were no t suppor te r s

of a genuine openness of theoret ical ref lect ion

but res tr i c ted f reedom of reason to mode rn sci-

ence.The human spir i t is impover ished as much

by the el imi nat ion of re l ig ion and metaphys ics as

i t would be by the suppres s ion of science and

conc eptua l analys is .

One might acc ept most of the prec eding re-

flecti on and neverthele ss conte nd that it is equally

or even more dange rous not to res tr ic t the funda-

mental impulse of the Enl ightenment , namely, the

free and public pursuit of truth as well as its dis-

seminat ion by universal educat io n and the s teady

appl ic at ion of science to the amel iorat ion of the

human condi t ion by means of technology. Is the

greater danger of the grat i f icat ion of th is impulse

no t a neces sa ry conseq uence o f m y own accoun t

of the inner f law or contra dict i on of the Enl ight-

enment? Does the Enl ightenment not lead inevi-

tably to the t r iumph of technology and mater ial-

ism, and correla tively to a trans valuati on of values

in which the high becomes low and the low be-

comes high? This is a reasonable ques t i on.

Let us therefore cons i der the poss ibi l i ty of a

com prom is e w i th the im pulse o f En l ightenm ent .

The thesis befo re us has t wo main pa rts . First, i t

is held that phi l osophy should be reserve d for the

few who are capable of d iscover ing i t through

their own efforts , s ince i t i s too dange rous to the

moral and pol i t ical order wh en i t beco mes acces-

sible to the multitude. Second, it is held that the

na tu ra l and exper im en ta l s c iences m us t them -

selves be re s tr ic te d to an in t el lectual e l i te , who

wil l regulate the development of technology in

such a way as to preve nt the dete r iorat ion of the

afore menti oned order . In shor t , the thes is res ts

upon the assumption that there is a natural and

so unbr idgeab le gap be tween the f ew and the

many.This makes poss ible a res tr ic ted or masked

Enlightenment , of a k ind indicated by Bacon in

T h e N e w A t la n t i s and Rousseau at the end of his

D isc o u rse o n t h e A r t s a n d S c i en c e s

I begin my reply to this thesis wit h a bri ef ob-

se rva t ion abou t con tem p orary phys ical s c ience .

Interes t ingly enough, i t i s not so much the con-

servatives as the liberal progressives, to use the

popu lar terminology, who favor the res tr ic t ion or

even el iminatio n of all scientific researc h that may

be misdirec ted toward the de s truct ion of the hu-

man race.To this extent a t least , progress ive l ib-

eral ism should rather be cal led romantic conser-

vatism, in the style of the Roussea u of the

Firs t

D i s c o u r s e T h e

c i r cum s tances that m ot iva te the

con tem p orary ver s ion o f phi lan th rop i sm , how-

ever , have taken us beyo nd the point a t which



8/10

w e c a n t a k e s e r i o u s l y R o u s s e a u s p r o p o s a l t h a t

s c i e n ti f i c r e s e a r c h b e r e s t r i c t e d t o a f e w g e n i u s e s

a n d c o n d u c t e d i n s e c r e t , a s i n B a c o n s

N e w

Atlantis This

i s b e c a u s e l a te m o d e r n t e c h n o l o g y

e x c e e d s i n p o w e r a n y t h i n g t h a t R o u s s e a u c o u l d

h a v e i m a g i n e d . It is n o w t o o l a t e t o i m p l e m e n t

R o u s s e a u s v e r s i o n o f a r e s t r i c t e d E n l i g h t e n m e n t ,

s h o r t o f i n s t i t u t i n g a g l o b a l d i c t a t o r s h i p t h a t

w o u l d i t se l f d e p e n d u p o n m a s s i v e t e c h n o l o g i c a l

s u p p o r t .

S u c h a s o l u t i o n is o b v i o u s l y n o t w o r t h f u r t h e r

p r a c t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , f o r t h e s a k e

o f t h e o r e t i c a l c l a r it y , l e t us a s k w h a t w o u l d b e

r e q u i r e d i n o r d e r t o sa v e o u r s e l v e s f r o m t h e p o -

t e n t i a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e o f s c i e n t i f i c E n l i g h t e n -

m e n t . W h e r e a s n o o n e w o u l d a r g u e a g a i n s t th e

w i s d o m o f a t t e m p t i n g t o p r e v e n t a n u c l e a r h o l o -

c a u s t o r t h e b i o c h e m i c a l p o l l u t i o n o f t h e e n v i -

r o n m e n t , n o t m a n y a r e p r e p a r e d t o a d m i t th a t t h e

o n l y s e c u r e w a y i n w h i c h t o p r o t e c t o u r s e l v e s

a g a i n s t s c i e n c e i s t o a b o l i s h i t e n t i r e l y . Y e t h o w

c o u l d t h i s c o n c l u s i o n b e a v o i d e d ? T h e o n l y p os s i -

b i l i t y o f k e e p i n g s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o v e r i e s s e c r e t i s

b y t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f ty r a n n i c a l p o w e r , a p o w e r

t h a t c o u l d u s e s c i e n t i f i c k n o w l e d g e a n d i t s a s s o -

c i a t e d t e c h n o l o g y t o e n s l a v e th e h u m a n r a c e . E v e n

i f w e w e r e b l e s s e d w i t h a r e g i m e o f p h i l o s o p h e r -

s c i e n t i s ts w h o w o u l d r u l e w i t h w i s d o m a n d j us -

t i c e, t h e c o n t i n u e d p o s s e s s i o n o f s c i e n t if i c k n o w l -

e d g e w o u l d l e a v e u s a t t h e m e r c y o f a d e c l i n e i n

t h e q u a l i t y o f o u r r u l e r s . N o r d o I n e e d t o e m p h a -

s iz e t h e p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d i n i d e n ti f y i n g p h i l o s o -

p h e r - k i n g s , le t a l o n e i n a r r a n g i n g f o r t h e i r a s c e n t

t o p o w e r , s i n c e th i s h as a l r e a d y b e e n d o n e b y

P l a t o .

I d o n o t s e e h o w w e c a n a v o i d c o m i n g t o t h e

c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e m a c h i n e s m u s t b e b r o k e n a n d

t h e b o o k s b u r n t , i f w e a r e to f r e e o u r s e l v e s f r o m

t h e d a n g e r s o f s c i e n t if i c E n l i g h t e n m e n t . A n d w e

s h a ll r e q u i r e t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d p h i l o s o p h e r -

k i n g s , o r f a i l i n g t h e s e , m e r c i l e s s t y r a n t s , to w e e d

o u t a n d d e s t r o y t h e p o t e n t i a l s c i e n t i s t s o f e a c h

s u c c e s s i v e g e n e r a t i o n . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , it is n o t p o s -

s i b le t o i d e n t i fy w i t h c e r t a i n t y e v e r y c h i l d w h o

i s a p o t e n t i a l s c i e n t i f i c g e n i u s . L e s t t h e w h o l e h i s-

t o r y o f s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o v e r y r e p e a t i t s el f , p r u d e n c e

r e q u i r e s t h a t w e d e s t r o y a l l c h i l d r e n w h o s e i n te l -

l i g e n c e e x c e e d s a c e r t a i n l e v e l . B u t w h i c h l e v e l?

A n d t o t h e d e g r e e t h a t w e a r e s u c c e s s f u l , w i l l

t h e r e n o t c o m e a t i m e w h e n t h e g u a r d i a n s a r e

t h e m s e l v e s t o o d u l l - w i t te d to s e p a r a t e t h e d a n -

g e r o u s c h i l d r e n f r o m t h e i r i n n o c u o u s b r o t h e r s

a n d s i s t e r s ? E v e n g r a n t i n g t h e s t e a d y d e t e r i o r a -

t i o n o f t h e g e n e - p o o l , t h e r e m a y b e s p o r t s , o r e x -

c e p t i o n s w h o h a v e e s c a p e d a t t e n t i o n . T h e r e i s

a l w a y s th e d a n g e r o f c h a n c e g e n i u s e s w h o w i l l

h a v e c o n c e a l e d t h e i r s u p e r i o r i t y , o r b e e n c o n -

c e a l e d b y s i m p l e a n d l o v i n g p a r e n t s . S a f e ty r e-

q u i r e s t h a t a l l c h i l d r e n b e d e s t r o y e d ; t h i s is t h e

u l t i m a t e a b s u r d i t y o f t h e a t t a c k a g a i n s t E n li g h t-

e n m e n t .

S o m e w i l l a c c u s e m e o f m a k i n g m y p o i n t b y a

r e d u c t i o a d a b s u r d u m , t h a t i s, b y p r e s s i n g l o g i c

t o f r i g h t e n m y a u d i e n c e w i t h a n e x t r e m e c a s e ,

a n d f o r t h at r e a s o n w i t h a s o l u t i o n t h a t w i ll n e v e r

b e r e q u i r e d . I a m h o w e v e r n o t a t a ll e x c l u d i n g

t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a w i s e m o d i f i c a t i o n o f th e g o a l s

o f E n l i g h t e n m e n t . M y p o i n t i s r a t h e r t h a t t h e s e

m o d i f i c a t i o n s c a n t a k e p l a c e o n l y w i t h i n e n l i g h t -

e n e d s o c i e t i e s . W h a t w e r e q u i r e i s n o t l e s s En -

l i g h t e n m e n t , b u t m o r e . B y t h i s I d o n o t m e a n

m o r e p u r e s c i e n c e o r m o r e p o w e r f u l t e c h n o l o g i -

c a l e q u i p m e n t , b u t m o r e w i s d o m . W e n e e d t o

m o d i f y o u r c o n c e p t i o n o f r e a s o n , o r a s o n e c o u l d

a l s o p u t i t , w e r e q u i r e a m o r e r e a s o n a b l e i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n o f w h a t i t m e a n s t o b e e n l i g h t e n e d . A n d

s u c h a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a s s u m i n g i t t o b e a v a i l a b le ,

c a n n o t b e i m p o s e d o n t o t h e p o p u l a c e f o r r e a s o n s

a n a l o g o u s t o , o r t h e s a m e a s , t h o s e I h a v e j u s t

g i v e n . I m p o s i t i o n d e p e n d s u p o n p o w e r t h a t i s i t-

s e l f a c c e s s i b l e o n l y u n d e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t a re

a s u n d e s i r a b l e a s t h e d a n g e r s w e w i s h t o a v o i d .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n o r d e r t o b e c e r t a i n t h a t w e

h a v e c o n s i d e r e d t h e w h o l e p i c t u r e , l e t u s n e x t

a s s u m e t h a t i t i s i n d e e d w i t h i n o u r p o w e r t o r e g u -

l a te s c i e n ti f i c a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l p r o g r e s s b y r e-

c o n s t i t u t i n g p o l i t i c a l s o c i e t y i n a c c o r d w i t h t h e

w i s d o m o f th e a n c i e n t s , o r l e t u s s a y o f B a c o n

a n d t h e e a r l y R o u s s e a u . A c c e s s t o s c i e n ti f i c e d u -

c a t i o n w i l l b e r e s t r i c t e d t o a n a r r o w m i n o r i t y o f

c a r e f u l ly s e l e c t e d a n d e d u c a t e d c i t i z e n s . T h e d e -

v e l o p m e n t o f t e c h n o l o g y w i l l b e d e t e r m i n e d b y

t h e r u le r s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e p r u d e n t a n d v i r tu -

o u s e x i s t e n c e o f t h e c o m m u n i t y . A d v a n c e s i n m e d i -

c i n e , c o m m u n i c a t i o n , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , i n d u s t r y ,

c o n s t r u c t i o n , a n d t h e l i k e, w i l l c o m e t o a r a p i d

a t t e n u a t i o n i n s o m e a r e a s a n d a n o u t r i g h t h a l t in

o t h e r s . W e a p o n s t e c h n o l o g y p o s e s a s p e c i a l p r o b -

l e m u n l e ss t h e e n t i r e g l o b e h as s o m e h o w b e e n

t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a G r e e k p o l i s . S u c h a p o s s i b i l i t y

i s c o n t r a d i c t e d b y t h e v e r y n a t u r e o f a p o l i s; w e

a r e in f ac t ta l k i n g a b o u t w h a t A l e x a n d r e K o j ~ v e

c a ll s t h e u n i v e r s a l a n d h o m o g e n e o u s w o r l d s t a t e .

O r r a t h e r , w e a r e a t t e m p t i n g t o c o n s t r u c t a u n i -

v e r s a l a n d h o m o g e n e o u s w o r l d - s t a t e t h a t is a l s o

a G r e e k p o l i s . I n o t h e r w o r d s , i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o

14 SO CIETY 9 J U LY / A U G U ST 2002


9/10

p o s s e s s a n c i e n t v i rt u e u n d e r m o d e r n h i s t o r i c a l

c o n d i t i o n s . C o r r e l a t i v e l y , o n e c a n n o t c o n t r o l s c i-

e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y e x c e p t t h r o u g h i ts u s e .

W e m u s t t h e r e f o r e a d j u s t o u r r e a s o n i n g a c c o r d -

i n g ly an d a s s u m e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a s m a l l a n d

i s o l a te d c o m m u n i t y t h a t d u p l i c a t e s t h e p r i n c i p l e s

o f S o c r a t i c o r A r i s t o t e l i a n w i s d o m . A s w e h a v e a l-

r e a d y s e e n , s u c h a c i ty is m a r k e d b y a n e c o n o m y

o f s c a r c it y , a n d s o b y t h e n e e d f o r a c l as s o f l a b o r -

e r s, j u s t a s v i r t u o u s g o v e r n m e n t d e p e n d s u p o n

t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a w e l l - t o - d o c l as s w h o s e m e m -

b e r s p o s s e s s t h e l e i s u re , u p b r i n g i n g , a n d e d u c a -

t i o n r e q u i r e d f o r p o l i t i c a l l i fe in t h e f u ll s e n s e o f

t h e t e r m . T h e s o c ia l s tr u c t u r e o f t h e c i t y m u s t b e

t h a t o f t h e f e w a n d t h e m a n y , a n d s o t h e r e c a n b e

n o e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e l a rg e m i d d l e c l as s o f m o d e r -

n i t y . T h e s o c i e t y w i l l b e a r i s t o c r a t i c , a n d n e i t h e r

d e m o c r a t i c n o r b o u r g e o i s . T h e a r t s w i l l b e e i t h e r

d i r e c t l y c e n s o r e d b y p o l i ti c a l la w s o r k e p t f r e e o f

i n n o v a t i o n b y t r a d it i o n a n d i n c u l c a t e d t a s te .

P a t r i o t i s m w i l l b e b u t t r e s s e d b y l o v e o f t h e

l o c a l g o d s a n d h a t r e d o f s t r a n g e r s . P e r s o n a l r e la -

t i o n s w i l l b e r e g u l a t e d b y t h e c i ty . O l d m o n e y , t h e

p r i n c i p l e o f a r i s t o c r a c y , w i l l b e r e g a r d e d a s b e t -

t e r t h a n n e w m o n e y , ju s t as th e l a n d e d g e n t r y w i l l

b e a c c o r d e d a h i g h e r s t a t u s t h a n t o w n - d w e l l e r s .

A s a c o n s e q u e n c e , f a r m i n g w i l l b e p r e f e r r e d t o

m a n u f a c t u r e a n d o f c o u r s e t o c o m m e r c e . T h e d is -

t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e f e w a n d t h e m a n y l e a d s t o a

s m a l l e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m a n d h e n c e t o t h e e li m i-

n a t i o n o f t h e c l a s s o f in t e l l e c t u a l s a s w e l l a s

m i d d l e - c l a s s c u l t u r e . B u t s u r e l y i t i s u n n e c e s s a r y

t o c o n t i n u e t h i s r a t i o n a l f a nt a sy . H o w e v e r w e l o o k

a t t h e m a t t e r , i t p r o v e s t o b e c o r r e c t t h a t m a n i s

n o t a c r a b , i n N i e t z s c h e ' s s e n s e o f t h at m e t a p h o r .

T h e a t t e m p t t o p r o d u c e a m o d e r a t e E n l i g h te n -

m e n t t a k e s u s st e p b y s t e p b a c k w a r d s i n t o a p a s t

t h a t is a c c e s s i b l e o n l y t h r o u g h t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f

o u r c i v i l i z a t i o n . I n t h e p r e s e n t h i s t o r i c a l c i r c u m -

s t a n c e s o f o u r p o l i t i c a l l i fe , a n d c e r t a i n l y i n t h e

u n i v e r s a l a n d h o m o g e n e o u s s t a te , i t is i m p o s s i b l e

t o r e p r o d u c e t h e v i r tu e o f p r e - m o d e r n t i m e s . N o t

o n l y t h a t , b u t i t i s d u b i o u s , t o s a y t h e l e a s t , t h a t

p r e - m o d e r n v i r t u e is s u p e r i o r o n a l l c o u n t s t o

m o d e r n v i r t u e .

L e t m e e m p h a s i z e t h e m a i n p o i n t i n t h e p r e -

c e d i n g r e m a r k s . A r e t u r n t o t h e p a s t i s n o t s im -

p l y a r e v e r s a l o f f o r w a r d m o t i o n t h r o u g h a r e t ra c -

i n g o f o u r f o o t s t e p s ; i t i s a r e t r e a t a n d a s s u c h , a n

a d m i s s i o n o f th e f a i l u r e o f t h e h u m a n s p i r i t . I a m

e n o u g h o f a N i e t z s c h e a n t o b e l i e v e t h a t l i fe i s

d e g r a d e d a n d d e - s p i r i tu a l i z e d , n o t m a d e n o b l e r o r

m o r e v i r t u o u s , b y s u c h a n a d m i s s i o n . E v e n t h o s e

w h o w o u l d p r e f e r t o r e t r a c e t h e c o l l e c t i v e f o o t-

p r i n t s o f t h e w e s t e r n t r a d i t i o n c a n n o t t h e r e b y

r e t u r n t o l o st i n n o c e n c e ; t h e y w o u l d c a r r y w i t h

t h e m t h e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e i r r e t r e a t , a n d t h i s

k n o w l e d g e w o u l d i n e v i t a b l y a l t e r t h e c h a r a c t e r

o f th e d e s i r e d v i r t u e i t se l f.

T h u s f a r I h a v e a r g u e d t h a t t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t

i s i n t e r n a l l y f l a w e d a n d a l so i n d i s p e n s a b l e . I f t h e

a r g u m e n t i s s o u n d , i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e b e s t w e c a n

h o p e f o r i s t h a t t h e f u t u r e o f h u m a n h i s t o r y i s

g o i n g t o l o o k v e r y m u c h l i ke t h e p a st . H u m a n l o-

c o m o t i o n w i l l c o n s i s t i n a n i r r e g u l a r c o n c a t e n a -

t i o n o f f o r w a r d a n d b a c k w a r d s t e p s. S o m e p a r t s

o f t h is s e q u e n c e w i l l b e r e g a r d e d b y r e a s o n a b l e

o b s e r v e r s a s p r o g r e s s a n d s o m e a s d e c l i n e . B y t h e

i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f E n l i g h t e n m e n t , t h e n , I d o n o t m e a n

p e r p e t u a l p r o g r e s s b u t t h e e n d u r i n g c a p a c i t y to

d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n p r o g r e s s a n d d e c l i n e . A n d

m u c h o f t h e t i m e , I s u s p e c t , w e w i l l s e e m t o o u r -

s e l v e s to b e s c u t t l i n g s i d e w a y s , t h u s b o t h a g r e e -

i n g a n d d i s a g r e e i n g w i t h N i e t z s c h e ' s d i c t u m t h a t

m a n i s n o t a c r a b .

F o r r e a s o n s o f t h e s o r t t h a t I h a v e s k e t c h e d i n

t h i s ta l k , I w a n t t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e h i s -

t o r i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n a n t i q u i t y a n d m o d e r -

n it y, a n d t h e i d e o l o g i c a l d o c t r i n e s t h a t h a v e b e e n

i n v e s t e d w i t h t h e m e l o d r a m a t i c t it le o f t h e q u a r -

r e l b e t w e e n t h e a n c i e n t s a n d t h e m o d e r n s . I c a ll

t h e s e d o c t r i n e s i d e o l o g i c a l r a t h e r t h a n p h i l o -

s o p h i c a l b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e b e e n d e t a c h e d f r o m

t h e i r h i st o r i c a l c o n t e x t a n d t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o po -

l i t ic a l s l o g a n s . T o t a k e a n i m p o r t a n t e x a m p l e , i t i s

a g r e a t m i s t a k e t o i n f e r f r o m A r i s t o t l e ' s t e l e o l o g i -

c a l p h y s i c s t h a t h e w o u l d h a v e r e j e c t e d m o d e r n

s c i e n c e o n m o r a l a n d p o l i t i c a l g r o u n d s . I t is c e r -

t a i nl y tr u e t h a t A r i s t o t l e ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f h u m a n

p o l i t i c a l n a t u r e a s f u l f i l le d i n t h e p o l l s i s e n t i r e l y

i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f m o d e r n

p o l i t i c a l e x i s t e n c e . B u t t h e c r u c i a l r e a s o n f o r th a t

i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y i s t h e s t e a d y p r o g r e s s o f s c i e n c e

a n d t e c h n o l o g y . A r e w e s e r i o u s l y to b e l i e v e t h a t

A r i s t o t le , w h o i s u n e q u i v o c a l i n h i s s t a t e m e n t o f

t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f t h e o r y t o p r a c t i c e , w o u l d h a v e

a d v o c a t e d t h e s u p p r e s s i o n o f s c i e n c e a n d t e c h -

n o l o g y f o r p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s ? O n e s h o u l d n o t f o r -

g e t t h a t f o r A r i s t o t l e , t h e r e i s n o s p l i t b e t w e e n

s c i e n c e a n d p h i l o s o p h y . A p h i l o s o p h y t h a t r e s tr i c ts

s c i e n c e r e s t r i c t s i t s e l f .

O n e m a y r e p l y t h a t fo r A r i s t o tl e , t h e o r y h a s

n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h t e c h n o l o g y o r e x p e r i m e n t a l

s c i e n c e , b u t e v e n i f w e a c c e p t t h i s a s s e r t i o n ( a n d

I a m n o t s u r e t h a t i t i s u n q u a l i f i e d l y t r u e ) , i t h a r d l y

f o l l o w s t h a t w e w o u l d b e w e l l - a d v i s e d to r e p e a t



10/10

h i s e r r o r . I e n t i r e l y r e j e c t h y p o t h e t i c a l a r g u m e n t s

b a s e d u p o n t h e c l a i m t h a t i f A r i s t o t l e w e r e a l i v e

t o d ay , h e w o u l d b e u n t o u c h e d b y m o d e r n c iv il i-

z a t i o n a n d w o u l d c o n t i n u e t o b e a n A r i s t o t e li a n .

T h i s m a k e s a b o u t a s m u c h s e n s e a s t h e c l a i m t h a t

i f R u d o l p h C a r n a p h a d b e e n b o r n i n f o u r t h - c e n -

t u r y A t h e n s , h e w o u l d n e v e r t h e l e s s h a v e i n v e n t e d

l o g i c a l p o s i t i v is m . O n e d o e s n o t n e e d t o b e a n

A r i s t o t e l i a n i n o r d e r t o s e e t h e d a n g e r s o f u n r e -

s t r i c t e d t e c h n o l o g y a n d t h e m e r i t s o f

c o m m u n i t a r i a n i s m . B u t n e i t h e r i s a p e r c e p t i o n o f

t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e G r e e k p o l i s a v a i l a b l e e x c l u -

s i v el y to l i b e r a l p r o g r e s s i v i s t s o r p o s t - m o d e r n

a n a r c h i s t s .

I h a v e i n n o w a y d e n i e d t h a t w e h a v e m u c h t o

l e a r n f r o m t h e w i s d o m o f t h e a n c i e n t s , a n d i n

p a r t i c u l a r w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e d e f e c t s o f m o d e r n

p o l i t i c a l l i f e. B u t t h e a n c i e n t s , i f I m a y p u t i t so ,

h a v e m u c h t o l e a r n f r o m u s , a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r w i t h

r e s p e c t t o t h e d e f e c t s o f a n c i e n t p o l i t i c a l li fe . S e c-

o n d , I h a v e s u g g e s t e d o r i m p l i e d t h a t i t m a y b e

w i s e t o r e t ir e t h e e x p r e s s i o n , w h i c h I m y s e l f h a v e

u s e d a ll t o o f r e q u e n t l y , o f th e q u a r r e l b e t w e e n

t h e a n c i e n t s a n d t h e m o d e r n s .

I n m y o w n w o r k o n P l a t o , I h a v e s o m e t i m e s

b e e n a c c u s e d b y o s t e n s i b l e d e f e n d e r s o f h i s to r i -

c a l o b j e c t i v i t y o f r e a d i n g c o n t e m p o r a r y d o c t r i n e s ,

a n d e v e n m y o w n p e r f e r v i d f a n t a s i e s, i n t o t h e t e x t .

T h i s i s n o t t h e p l a c e t o r e v i e w t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e

h e r m e n e u t i c a l p r o b l e m o f h i s t o r i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p .

S u f f ic e it t o sa y t h a t n o o n e c a n u n d e r s t a n d P l a t o

w h o i s i n c a p a b l e o f r e t h i n k i n g h i s d i a l o g u e s i n

s u c h a w a y a s to m a k e t h e m s p e a k t o t h e c o n t e m -

p o r a r y r e a d e r . T h e r e i s n o o t h e r w a y i n t o t h e p a s t

t h a n t h r o u g h t h e p r e s e n t . W e c a n b r i n g t h e p a s t

i n t o th e p r e s e n t m o r e e a s il y t h a n w e c a n s c r e w

t h e p r e s e n t i n t o th e p a s t , t o b o r r o w N i e t z s c h e ' s

t e r m .

I n o r d e r t o d e f e n d t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t , o n e m u s t

u n d e r s t a n d i t s f a i l u r e s a s w e l l a s i ts s u c c e s s e s . I t

h a s b e e n m y c o n t e n t i o n t o d a y t h a t t h e E n l i g h t en -

m e n t c a n s u c c e e d o n l y w h e n w e u n d e r s ta n d

t h o s e f a i l u r e s . B u t u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s n o t r e p u d i a -

t i o n .T o r e p u d i a t e t h e p r e s e n t i s o f c o u r s e a l so t o

r e p u d i a t e t h e f u t u r e ; o n e t h i n g i t i s n o t , h o w e v e r ,

i s a g e n u i n e r e t u r n t o t h e p a s t . T h e c o u r a g e t h a t

i s r e q u i r e d t o d a y i s t h u s v e r y m u c h t h e s a m e a s

t h e c o u r a g e t h a t is d e s c r i b e d b y A r i s t o t l e . B u t t h is

d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t t h e d a n g e r s a g a i n s t w h i c h w e

d i r e c t o u r c o u r a g e a r e t h e s a m e a s t h o s e f a c e d

b y A r i s t o t l e . T h e s u c c e s s o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t

d e p e n d s u p o n o u r a b i l i ty t o p r e s e r v e t h e e n -

t r a n c e o f p h i l o s o p h y i n t o t h e m a r k e t p l a c e t h a t

w a s i n i t i a t e d b y S o c r a t e s , w i t h o u t t h e d e s t r u c -

t i o n o f p h i l o s o p h y o r t h e m a r k e t p l a c e . I n t h i s

s e n s e , t h e g e n u i n e p r o c e s s o f e n l i g h t e n m e n t b e -

g a n , n o t i n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h o r e ig h t e e n t h c e n t u -

r i e s o f t h e m o d e r n e p o c h , b u t i n f i ft h - c e n t u r y B C

A t h e n s . I n s a y i n g t h i s , I d o n o t f o r g e t t h e g r e a t

d i f f e re n c e s b e t w e e n t h e S o c r a ti c a c h i e v e m e n t a n d

i ts m o d e r n c o n s e q u e n c e s . B u t t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s

a r e t h e m o s t e l o q u e n t t e s t i m o n y t o t h e c o n t i n u -

o u s n e e d f o r t h e c o u r a g e o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s .

W i t h o u t t h a t c o u r a g e , t h e r e i s n o i l l u m i n a t i o n ,

w h e t h e r a n c i e n t o r m o d e r n , b u t o n l y, i n t h e w o r d s

o f M a t t h e w A r n o l d , i g n o r a n t a r m i e s t h a t c l a s h b y

n i g h t .

Stanley Rosen is Borden Parker Bowne Professor

of Philosophy and University Professor at Boston

University He is author most recently o f T h e E x -

a m i n e d L i f e .

Excellent, this journal is a real gem

a n s c e n d i n g t h e a l l - t o o - c o m m o n p o l i t i c iz a t i o n a n d s u -

e r f i c ia l i t y o f p u b l i c p o l i c y r e s e a r c h a n d d e b a t e ,

The

INDEPENDENT REVIEW i s th e q u a r t e r l y j o u r n a l d e v o t e d

to exce l l ence in the c r i t i ca l ana lys i s of gov ernm ent pol i cy .

E d i t e d b y R o b e r t H i g g s ,

The INDEPENDENT RE-VIEW

is

s u p e r b l y wr i t t e n a n d b a s e d o n s o l i d s c h o l a r s h i p , f e a t u r i n g

p a t h - b r e a k in g s t u d i e s b y m a n y o f th e w o r l d ' s o u t s t a n d i n g

s c h o l a r s a n d p o l i c y e x p e r ts .

The INDEPENDENT REVIEW

f e a t u re s i n - d e p t h e x -

a m i n a t i o n s i n c o m p r e h e n s i v e h i s t or i c a l, e th i c a l, a n d e c o -

n o m i c p e r s p e ct i v e s. U n d a u n t e d a n d u n c o m p r o m i s i n g ,

this is

the journal

t h a t wi l l p i o n e e r f u t u r e d e b a t e

1 P H O N E : 8 0 0 " 9 2 7 " 8 7 3 3 F A X : 5 1 0 " 5 6 8 " 6 0 4 0 I

T he I N D E P E N D E N T W E B S I T E : http:l/www.independent.or~,

IT UT E Ind ivid ual: 28.95/yr., 54.95/2 vr. Institu tional: 84.95/yr., 159.95/2 yr.

--

In t ern a t i o n a l o rd ers

add 28

p e r s u b s c r i p t i o n

for shipping

--IRVINGLOUISHOROWlTZ

utgers University

A ~reat read.

- - CHARLETON HESTON,

A c t o r

Of great interest.

- - C. VANN WOODWARD

Yale University

'An exciting journal

- - JOHN DIGGe,'S

City Universityof New

York

Distinctive n neededways.

LELAND YEAGER

Auburn Univers i ty

Highest standards.

-- TIMURKURAN

U. of Southern California

Ve~ in teresting and

etqoyable.

D A V I D

FRUM

The Weekly Stamlard

Great team and tough

analysis.

- - BRUCE YANDLE

The Independ en t Ins t i t u t e , Dep t . 9ZA, 100 Swan W ay , Oak land , CA 94621-1428

16 SOCIETY 9 JUL Y/A UG UST 2002

Ancientsmoderns Rosen

Documents

Transcript of Ancientsmoderns Rosen