Anatomy & Physiology II Unit Four

Anatomy & Anatomy & Physiology IIPhysiology II

Unit Four Unit Four

11stst Law of Law of ThermodynamicsThermodynamicsEnergy is neither created or Energy is neither created or

destroyed, but can change destroyed, but can change formsforms

22ndnd Law of Law of ThermodynamicsThermodynamicsWhen energy changes forms it When energy changes forms it

becomes more disordered becomes more disordered (entropy)(entropy)

Photosynthesis Photosynthesis (an endergonic reaction)(an endergonic reaction)

COCO22 + H + H22O + E CO + E C66HH1212OO66 + + OO22

Cellular respiration Cellular respiration (an exergonic (an exergonic

reaction)reaction)

CC66HH1212OO66 + O + O22 CO CO22 + H + H22O + EO + E

Cellular respirationCellular respiration

CC66HH1212OO66 + O + O22 CO CO22 + H + H22O + EO + E

PhotosynthesiPhotosynthesiss

COCO22 + H + H22O + E CO + E C66HH1212OO66 + O + O22

This energy is used to form This energy is used to form ATP!ATP!

Adenosine Adenosine triphosphattriphosphat

ee

The fuel of The fuel of living cellsliving cells

Energy released from food Energy released from food (glucose)(glucose)

Energy released to do work in Energy released to do work in cellcell

CC66HH1212OO66 + 6O + 6O22 6CO 6CO22 + 6H + 6H22O O

36ADP + 36P36ADP + 36Pii 36ATP 36ATPEE

MetabolismMetabolism

all the chemical reactions in a all the chemical reactions in a body that involve the transfer of body that involve the transfer of energyenergyanabolic - building up reactions anabolic - building up reactions

catabolic - tearing down catabolic - tearing down reactions reactions

Oxidation-Reduction ReactionsOxidation-Reduction Reactions

ATP production is the ATP production is the goal of cell goal of cell respiration!respiration!

One molecule of One molecule of glucose yields 36 glucose yields 36

ATPs!ATPs!This process is This process is actually four:actually four:

Glycolysis Glycolysis Transition Reaction Transition Reaction Krebs Cycle Krebs Cycle

Electron Transport Electron Transport SystemSystem

GlycolysisGlycolysis

Anaerobic respiration – no Anaerobic respiration – no oxygenoxygen

CytoplasmCytoplasm

MitochondrionMitochondrion

In: In:

1 1 glucose glucose 2 ATPs2 ATPs

Out: Out:

2 NADH + H2 NADH + H+ +

4 ATPs (2 net) 4 ATPs (2 net) 2 pyruvic acids 2 pyruvic acids (C(C33))

Anaerobic respiration – no Anaerobic respiration – no oxygenoxygen

MitochondrionMitochondrion

No oxygen No oxygen presentpresent

Ethanol

OR

Aerobic respiration – oxygen is presentAerobic respiration – oxygen is present

MitochondrionMitochondrionTransition Transition ReactionReaction

In: In:

2 pyruvic acids (C2 pyruvic acids (C33))

Out: Out:


2 Acetyl CoA (C2 Acetyl CoA (C22))

Decarboxylation – 2 Decarboxylation – 2 COCO22


MitochondrionMitochondrionKrebs CycleKrebs CycleIn:In:

2 acetyl CoA (C2 acetyl CoA (C22))

Out: Out:


2 2 FADHFADH2 2

2 ATPs2 ATPsDecarboxylation – 4 Decarboxylation – 4 COCO22


MitochondrionMitochondrionElectron Electron Transport Transport SystemSystemIn: In:

2 NADH + H2 NADH + H++ (Glycolysis) (Glycolysis) 2 NADH + H+ (Transition 2 NADH + H+ (Transition Reaction)Reaction) 6 NADH + H+ 6 NADH + H+ (Krebs Cycle) (Krebs Cycle) 22 FADH FADH22 (Krebs Cycle)(Krebs Cycle)

Out: Out:

32 ATPs32 ATPs

6 H6 H22OO

X 2 = 4 ATPs X 2 = 4 ATPs

X 3 X 3 = 6 ATPs= 6 ATPs

X 3 = 18 X 3 = 18 ATPs ATPs

X 2 = 4 X 2 = 4 ATPs ATPs

----------- -----------

32 32 ATPsATPs

Oxygen is Oxygen is the final Hthe final H++

acceptoracceptor

ATP production is the ATP production is the goal of cell goal of cell respiration!respiration!

One molecule of One molecule of glucose yields 36 glucose yields 36

ATPs!ATPs!

Glycolysis – 2 ATPs Glycolysis – 2 ATPs Transition Reaction – 0 Transition Reaction – 0

ATPs Krebs Cycle – ATPs Krebs Cycle – 2 ATPs Electron 2 ATPs Electron

Transport System – 32 ATPsTransport System – 32 ATPs

DefinitionsDefinitionsGlycogen – the animal Glycogen – the animal storage form of glucose storage form of glucose

Dehydration synthesis – the Dehydration synthesis – the assembling of organic assembling of organic molecules by extracting molecules by extracting waterwaterHydrolysis – the breaking Hydrolysis – the breaking up of organic molecules up of organic molecules using waterusing water

http://www.grsites.com/modperl/tile.cgi?dir=cloth&fn=cloth095&ext=jpg

DefinitionsDefinitions

Glycogenesis – the formation Glycogenesis – the formation of glycogen from glucoseof glycogen from glucose

Glycogenolysis – the Glycogenolysis – the conversion of glycogen to conversion of glycogen to glucoseglucoseGluconeogenesis – the Gluconeogenesis – the conversion of non-conversion of non-carbohydrates into glucosecarbohydrates into glucose


Examples of Lipid Examples of Lipid AnabolismAnabolism

TriglyceridesTriglycerides

PhospholipidsPhospholipids

Steroids (cholesterol, Steroids (cholesterol, sex hormones, etc.)sex hormones, etc.)

ProstaglandinsProstaglandins

WaxesWaxes

Examples of Protein AnabolismExamples of Protein Anabolism

GlycoproteinsGlycoproteins

HemoglobinHemoglobin

EnzymesEnzymes

CollagenCollagen

AntibodiesAntibodies

Cholesterol MetabolismCholesterol Metabolism

Cholesterol is a lipid that has Cholesterol is a lipid that has several functions in the body:several functions in the body: # enhances cell membrane # enhances cell membrane flexibilityflexibility # structural basis for bile # structural basis for bile saltssalts # structural basis for # structural basis for steroid steroid hormoneshormones # structural basis for # structural basis for vitamin Dvitamin D


Approximately 85% of the Approximately 85% of the body cholesterol is produced body cholesterol is produced by the liver and the by the liver and the remaining 15% comes from remaining 15% comes from the dietthe dietAs it is a lipid, it is insoluble As it is a lipid, it is insoluble in plasma so it is combined in plasma so it is combined with proteins to form with proteins to form lipoproteinslipoproteins


LDL (low density LDL (low density lipoproteins)lipoproteins) - high % of lipids to proteins- high % of lipids to proteinsHDL (high density HDL (high density lipoproteins)lipoproteins) - high % of proteins to lipids- high % of proteins to lipids


LDLs transport cholesterol to LDLs transport cholesterol to tissues to be used in their tissues to be used in their membranes, hormone membranes, hormone synthesis or storagesynthesis or storage

LDLs also stimulate the LDLs also stimulate the production of more production of more cholesterol in the tissuescholesterol in the tissues


HDLs transport excess HDLs transport excess cholesterol from the tissues cholesterol from the tissues to the liver to be catabolizedto the liver to be catabolized

Therefore, HDLs can reduce Therefore, HDLs can reduce cholesterol amountscholesterol amounts


Dietary saturated fats Dietary saturated fats stimulate the liver to produce stimulate the liver to produce more cholesterol and inhibit more cholesterol and inhibit its catabolization and its catabolization and excretionexcretion

HormonesHormones

Biological regulatory Biological regulatory compounds secreted by compounds secreted by endocrine glands that alter endocrine glands that alter the metabolism of the body the metabolism of the body cells they targetcells they target

Hormones function to Hormones function to regulate body metabolism, regulate body metabolism, growth and reproductiongrowth and reproduction

Endocrine SystemEndocrine System

Lipid Lipid Based Based

HormonHormone Actione Action

Non-Lipid Based Hormone Non-Lipid Based Hormone ActionAction

HomeostatiHomeostatic Control c Control

of of Hormone Hormone SecretionSecretion

Homeostatic Control of Homeostatic Control of Blood GlucoseBlood Glucose

Imbalances in the Imbalances in the Homeostatic Control of Homeostatic Control of

Metabolic HormonesMetabolic Hormones

Cretinism is caused by Cretinism is caused by hypothyroidism in infancyhypothyroidism in infancy

Cretinism - individual is small, Cretinism - individual is small, malproportioned and exhibits malproportioned and exhibits sever mental retardationsever mental retardation



Gigantism is caused by Gigantism is caused by hypersecretion of GH during hypersecretion of GH during childhoodchildhood

Gigantism - individual exhibits Gigantism - individual exhibits abnormally long growth in the abnormally long growth in the length of boneslength of bones



Dwarfism is caused by Dwarfism is caused by hyposecretion of GH during hyposecretion of GH during childhoodchildhood

Dwarfism - individual exhibits Dwarfism - individual exhibits abnormally short growth in abnormally short growth in the length of bonesthe length of bones



Acromegaly is caused by Acromegaly is caused by hypersecretion of GH in adultshypersecretion of GH in adults

Acromegaly - individual Acromegaly - individual exhibits abnormal thickening exhibits abnormal thickening of bones and growth of of bones and growth of connective tissues in the face, connective tissues in the face, hands & feet, changing their hands & feet, changing their appearance appearance



Diabetes mellitus Diabetes mellitus (Type I & Type II)(Type I & Type II) ~ destruction of pancreatic ~ destruction of pancreatic beta beta cellscells ~ reduced sensitivity of ~ reduced sensitivity of insulin insulin receptors in body cell receptors in body cell membranesmembranes



Hypoglycemia - low blood Hypoglycemia - low blood glucoseglucose

Hyperglycemia - high blood Hyperglycemia - high blood glucoseglucose

Anatomy & Physiology II Unit Four

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