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SCIENCE MODULE 3


ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY


WHAT WE WILL COVER IN THIS MODULE

•  Organization of the Body and Organ Systems•  Cells•  Tissues•  Sensory Organs•  Body Systems




ORGANIZATION OF THE BODY AND ORGAN SYSTEMS


•  Characteristics of Life•  Levels of Structural Organization•  Body Cavities and Serous Membranes•  Planes of the body and other sections

WHAT WE WILL COVER IN THIS SECTION


CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

•  There are 7 characteristics of life–  All living things must be composed of cells–  Not all living things have the same levels of organization –  All living things need energy–  All living things respond to their environment in some way–  Living things grow and develop–  Living things are capable of reproduction –  Living things adapt to their environment




LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION

•  The human body is made up of many levels of structural organization, from the simplest to the most complex


THE CHEMICAL LEVEL

•  The most simple level of structural organization•  Begins with the smallest building blocks of matter, or atoms such as

carbon or oxygen•  Also includes the combinations of these atoms as molecules or

compounds such as water or carbon dioxide


THE CELLULAR LEVEL

•  Molecules form organelles, or the basic components of cells•  Cells are the smallest units of life




THE TISSUE LEVEL

•  Tissues are groups of cells that have a similar structure that perform a common function

•  The most common form of tissue is connective tissue, which is found abundantly in the skin

•  Functions of connective tissue are to connect, protect, and insulate body parts as well as storing reserve fuel (macronutrients) and transporting substances

•  Some other types of tissue include epithelial, muscle, and nervous tissues


THE ORGAN LEVEL

•  Organs are parts of the body made up of types of tissues that work together to perform a specific function

•  Examples of organs are the heart, liver, brain, and even skin


THE ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL

•  A group of organs that work together to accomplish a certain function–  Example: the heart and blood vessels work together to carry blood

throughout the body via the cardiovascular system•  Other organ systems include the integumentary, skeletal, muscular,

nervous, endocrine, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems




THE ORGANISM LEVEL

•  The highest level of structural organization is the organism, or the entire living thing

•  Usually organisms are made up of multiple organ systems but there are some living things made of only one cell like bacteria

•  Examples include humans, amoebas, and mushrooms


ORGANIZATION OF THE BODY

•  Body Cavities – Two main types:–  Dorsal cavity–  Ventral cavity

•  These cavities are enclosed and provide protection to the organs contained within them





THE DORSAL CAVITY

•  Protects the nervous system organs•  Contains two subdivisions:

–  Cranial Cavity•  Located in the skull•  Encloses the brain

–  Cerebral or Spinal Cavity•  Runs down the vertebral column •  Encloses the spine


THE VENTRAL CAVITY

•  Larger than the dorsal cavity•  Houses visceral organs•  Contains two major subdivisions:

–  Thoracic cavity –  Abdominopelvic cavity


THE THORACIC CAVITY

•  Located within the ventral cavity•  Surrounded by the chest muscles and the ribs•  Can be further broken down into two additional cavities:

–  Pleural Cavities•  Each contain one lung

–  Mediastinum•  Contains the pericardial cavity which houses the heart and surrounds the

esophagus and trachea




THE ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY

•  Located below the thoracic cavity within the ventral cavity•  Consists of two parts:

–  Abdominal Cavity•  Contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver

–  Pelvic Cavity•  Contains the bladder, rectum, and some reproductive organs


SEROUS MEMBRANES

•  Thin, double layered membrane located in between walls of the ventral body cavity and the organs it contains

•  Made up of two layers: Visceral and Parietal•  Layers are separated by a thin layer of fluid called serous fluid

–  Serous fluid allows organs to slide around without harming one another giving organs freedom of movement


SEROUS MEMBRANE EXAMPLE




OTHER BODY CAVITIES

•  Oral and digestive cavities, which contain the teeth, tongue and digestive organs

•  The nasal cavity contains the nose and the air filled space behind the nose

•  The orbital cavity contains the eyes•  The middle ear cavity is located in between the eardrum and the

inner ear•  The synovial cavities are the fluid filled cavities of synovial joints

found in places like the knee, elbow, shoulder, and vertebre


PLANES OF THE BODY

•  A plane is a term used to describe the way in which the body is sectioned along a flat surface

•  The most common body planes are the sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes

•  These planes are positioned at right angles to one another


PLANES OF THE BODY




CELLS



•  What are cells? •  Cell theory and cell structure•  Movement of cells (osmosis and diffusion)•  Cell growth and cell division (mitosis)


CELLS: WHAT ARE THEY?

•  Cells are the structural units of all things that are alive•  The smallest living unit•  The human body contains 50 to 100 trillion cells •  Cells arise from other cells




CELL THEORY

•  Cell theory describes the properties of cells•  This theory states:

–  All living things are made of cells–  Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things–  Living cells come only from other living cells


CELL STRUCTURE

•  There are 200 different types of cells•  All cells have three basic parts:

–  Plasma membrane•  The outer layer or the wall of the cell

–  Cytoplasm•  The fluid located within the cell that contains organelles

–  Nucleus•  The overall control center of the cell


CELLULAR TRANSPORT

•  Cellular transport refers to the movement of substances across the cell wall or membrane

•  Necessary for things like maintaining fluid balance, the intake of oxygen, and the removal of waste

•  Two types of transport–  Active Transport (requires energy)–  Passive Transport (does not require energy)

•  Two examples of passive transport are diffusion and osmosis




DIFFUSION

•  Diffusion is the way in which molecules spread out within a solution•  This is caused by the random movement of the molecules or

particles moving from an area of high concentration into an area of low concentration

•  This can happen more rapidly in high temperatures or when the difference in concentration is very great

•  Example:–  A sugar cube dissolving in water or perfume spreading throughout a

room


DIFFUSION


OSMOSIS

•  Takes place when two solutions are separated by a partially permeable membrane, such as the cell wall

•  Water is able to pass freely through this membrane, while other substances are not

•  Osmosis is the way in which water moves in and out of a cell •  Occurs when water concentration is different between the inner and

outer environment of a cell •  This is important for maintaining water balance within the cell and

the body




OSMOSIS


CELL GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION

•  A cell cycle is the series of events a cell goes through from the time it is first formed until the time it is ready to reproduce

•  Two main phases: –  Interphase

•  Occurs when cells grows •  Cells maintain normal function during this phase

–  Cell division (mitotic phase)•  Occurs when the cell divides into two cells


MITOSIS

•  Mitosis is the process in which the cell’s nucleus divides and creates two daughter cells; or cell division

•  Cell division is needed for the body to grow and repair tissues•  In humans, mitosis usually lasts less than one hour




MITOSIS


TISSUES



•  What is tissue?•  Types of tissues




TISSUES

•  Tissues are groups of cells that have a similar structure and work together to carry out a similar function

•  There are four main types of tissue:–  Epithelial–  Connective–  Muscle–  Nervous


EPITHELIAL TISSUE

•  A layer of cells that covers a body surface or lines a body cavity•  Functions include:

–  Protection–  Absorption–  Filtration–  Secretion–  Sensory Reception

•  Examples: –  The lining of the digestive tract organs and the surface of the skin


CONNECTIVE TISSUE

•  Supports, protects, and binds different tissues together•  The most abundant and primary tissue in the body •  Functions include:

–  Protection–  Insulation–  Storage of fuel–  Transportation of substances

•  Examples include how fat insulates and protects the body and provides fuel; how blood transports substances inside the body; and how bone and cartilage protect the organs




MUSCLE TISSUE

•  A group of tissues that work together to promote movement•  Examples:

–  The muscles attached to bones, and the muscles of the heart


NERVOUS TISSUES

•  Act as the body’s internal communication system•  The main component of the nervous system•  Controls and regulates body functions •  Nervous tissues include:

–  Brain–  Spinal cord–  Nerves


SENSORY ORGANS





•  Sensory Organs•  Anatomy of the eye•  How vision works•  Anatomy of the ear•  How hearing works•  Anatomy of the tongue•  Olfactory organs


SENSORY ORGANS

•  The sensory organs include:–  Eyes–  Ears–  Tongue–  Skin–  Nose


ANATOMY OF THE EYE

•  Vision is the dominant sense•  Approximately 70 percent of all sensory receptors in the body are in

the eyes •  The diameter of the adult eye is about 1 inch •  Only one sixth of the eye is exposed and the rest is protected and

enclosed by fat pads and the walls of the orbit•  The most anterior (front) point of the eye is the anterior pole and the

most posterior (back) point is the posterior pole•  The lens divides the eyeball between its anterior and posterior poles




ANATOMY OF THE EYE

•  Accessory structures of the eye include:–  Eyebrows–  Eyelids–  Conjunctiva–  Lacrimal apparatus–  Extrinsic eye muscles


ANATOMY OF THE EYE

•  The eyeball’s wall is composed of three layers: –  Fibrous layer

•  The outermost layer made up of connective tissue •  The fibrous layer is divided into two parts: the sclera and the cornea

–  Vascular layer •  The middle layer of the eyeball•  Subdivided into the choroid, the cilary body, and the iris

–  Inner layer •  The retina, which contains millions of photoreceptors that process light


HOW VISION WORKS

•  Visual processing of the eye begins in the retina•  Cells in the retina read information that is collected by rods and

sends this information out into a number of different channels•  These channels carry out messages of brightness, color, angle,

direction, and speed of movement through the optic nerve, to the brain where an image is produced





ANATOMY OF THE EAR

•  The ear is divided into three parts: –  External Ear

•  Consists of what you see when you look in the mirror, or the outer appearance of the ear

–  Middle Ear•  A small cavity that is filled with air and lined with mucosa•  Surrounded by the eardrum and the outer portion of the ear

–  Internal Ear•  Located in a secure spot deep behind the eye socket


HOW HEARING WORKS

•  The auditory pathway in the ear transfers information to inner hair cells

•  From there, information is sent to the cerebral cortex•  Sound information eventually ends up in the primary auditory cortex,

where conscious awareness of sound occurs





ANATOMY OF THE TONGUE

•  The tongue is a muscle that is covered in mucous membrane•  There is a heavy supply of nerves in the tongue so that it can

manipulate food easily without being bitten•  It also is important for making sounds•  The surface of the tongue is covered in papilla and taste buds•  The average adult has around 9,000 taste buds on each surface of

the tongue, roof of the mouth, and throat•  The underside of the tongue contains salivary glands


HOW TASTE WORKS

•  All taste buds have microvilli, or tiny hairs, that send messages to the brain about the taste of something

•  The nose and olfactory system play a major role in taste as well•  When you chew food, the food releases chemicals that travel quickly

to the nose•  This triggers the olfactory receptors which work with your taste buds

to create the actual flavor in your mouth





OLFACTORY ORGANS AND SMELL

•  The organs that are used to help us smell•  The human nose contains 400 genes that are used for smelling•  The organ we used to smell is called the olfactory epithelium, which

is located at the top of the nasal cavity •  When you smell, the scent is drawn in through the nose and then

comes in contact with little hairs called cilia on the surface of the exposed olfactory neurons

•  This triggers the neuron to send a message to the brain and causes you to perceive a smell





BODY SYSTEMS



•  Integumentary System•  Skeletal System•  Nervous System•  Muscular System•  Cardiovascular System•  Endocrine System

•  Lymphatic System•  Immune System•  Respiratory System•  Digestive System•  Urinary System•  Reproductive System


THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

•  Comprised of the skin, hair and nails•  Forms external body covering and protects tissues and organs that

are located underneath•  The skin is responsible for the synthesis of vitamin D •  Also responsible for housing pain receptors as well as sweat and oil

glands





HOW IT WORKS

•  Covers the entire body and accounts for 7 percent of body weight •  Protects our internal body parts from the outside world; namely

infection and bacteria •  The skin is responsible for storing fat and anchoring the skin to its

underlying structures•  It also acts as a shock absorber and an insulator by reducing heat

loss •  The skin controls body temperature by inducing sweat during

periods of heat •  Sweating also enables the body to get rid of toxins


SYSTEM SUPPORT NUTRIENTS

•  The skin soaks up vitamin D from sunlight, which is then transported by the blood to other areas of the body

•  Vitamin C aids in the formation of collagen, a substance that keeps the skin flexible

•  Carotenoids (the pigment that gives fruits and vegetables their color) protect against skin UV exposure and may help prevent skin cancer

•  Leafy vegetables, olive oil, prunes, apples, and legumes have been shown to prevent skin wrinkling

•  A low-glycemic diet may help prevent acne•  Studies show that green leafy vegetables have been associated with a

reduced risk of skin cancer by 54 percent




THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

•  Supports and protects body organs•  Provides framework for muscles so that they can properly move•  Houses blood cells that are formed within the bone•  Bones are responsible for storing minerals



HOW IT WORKS

•  Bones provide framework for the organs within the body•  The fused bones of the skull provide protection for the brain•  Skeletal muscles are responsible for providing the movement that

occurs when we walk, breathe, and grasp objects•  Bones are able to store minerals, especially calcium and phosphate•  These minerals can be deposited or withdrawn from bones as

needed




HOW IT WORKS

•  Bones support blood cell formation, which occurs in the red marrow cavities of certain bones

•  Triglycerides, or fats, can be stored in bones •  Bones produce a hormone called osteocalcin, which regulates bone

formation and may protect against obesity and diabetes by improving glucose intolerances



•  Calcium aids in bone formation•  Vitamin D helps bones absorb calcium, and promotes bone growth

and maintenance•  Vitamin K helps bones maintain calcium levels, and also strengthens

bones to prevent fractures•  Phosphorus also helps strengthen bones


THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

•  Maintains posture and produces heat•  Allows for locomotion and facial expression •  There are different types of muscle tissue

–  Skeletal Muscle•  Occurs in muscles attached to skeleton •  The only voluntary type of muscle

–  Smooth or Visceral Muscle •  Occurs in the hollow walls of visceral organs and are involuntary

–  Cardiac Muscle•  Occur in the heart, have electrical potential, and are involuntary





HOW IT WORKS

•  Muscles never push; they can only pull•  Muscle contraction is a very complex process that depends on many

factors•  Muscles are classified into four functional groups:

–  Prime movers –  Antagonists –  Synergists–  Fixators


HOW IT WORKS

•  Prime movers–  Their main responsibility is conducting a certain movement–  Example:

•  The biceps brachii muscle is responsible for forearm flexion •  Antagonists

–  Muscles that oppose or reverse when a movement occurs –  Located on opposite sides of the joint from the prime mover –  Example:

•  How the triceps brachii extend the forearm




HOW IT WORKS

•  Synergists –  Assist prime movers by adding extra force to the movement that the

prime mover is already doing–  Reduce undesirable movements that might occur when the prime mover

is in motion–  An example is how the brachoradialis, in the forearm, and brachialis,

deep in the upper arm, both aid in biceps brachii flexion•  Fixators

–  Muscles that immobilize a bone so that the prime mover has a solid platform to act on



•  Protein and amino acids aid in the formation of muscles •  Vitamin C helps maintain the structure of muscles •  Potassium supports muscle function and prevents fatigue •  Magnesium may prevent muscle cramping•  B vitamins help provide energy needed for muscle functions


THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

•  Comprised of nerves that connect to various parts of the body, spinal cord, and the brain

•  Helps coordinate all movements, thoughts, and feelings•  Coordinates involuntary movements such as blood pressure, body

temperature, heart rate, and breathing•  Can be further divided into two systems

–  Peripheral Nervous System (sensory receptors and motor effectors)–  Central Nervous System (brain and spinal cord)





HOW IT WORKS

•  The brain is the main part of the nervous system•  Think of it as a computer; the spinal cord and nerves are the “wires”

that help the computer run properly•  Nerves commute messages back and forth from the brain to various

organs of the body through the spinal cord•  After the message is delivered, it comes back to the brain and the

brain tells the body how to respond to the message


HOW IT WORKS

•  There are four classes of nerves that help relay messages: –  Central Nerves–  Autonomic Nerves–  Cranial Nerves–  Peripheral Nerves




HOW IT WORKS

•  Central nerves–  Connect the spinal cord and brain to other parts of the body

•  Autonomic nerves–  Connect the spinal cord and brain to the heart, intestines, blood vessels,

and stomach•  Cranial nerves

–  Connect organs that involve sense, smell, and taste such as the nose, eyes, mouth, and ears

•  Peripheral nerves–  Connect the limbs to the spinal cord



•  B-vitamins increase neurotransmitter function•  Vitamin E has antioxidant properties which battles nerve damaging

free radicles•  Omega 3 fatty acids may help prevent brain degeneration•  L-Carnitine may help with memory and clarity of thought•  Magnesium and potassium help with blood flow and nerve

circulation


THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

•  Comprised of the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries•  Provides blood to tissues•  Your heart is located in the left side of your chest, which pumps

blood through the body•  The blood carries oxygen and other nutrients the body needs and

carries carbon dioxide away in chemical waste that the body can get rid of

•  Movement of the blood through the body is called circulation





HOW IT WORKS

•  The heart propels blood throughout the body via the blood vessels•  The heart has four chambers; right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium and

left ventricle •  Blood flows through the atria first then is sent down through the

ventricles to be pumped out•  The right side of your heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body

and pumps it into the lungs where gas exchange occurs and oxygen is picked up

•  The left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it throughout the body


HOW IT WORKS

•  Blood is able to travel through the body via the blood vessels•  There are 3 main types:

–  Arteries carry blood away from the heart–  Veins carry blood back to the heart–  Capillaries are the tiny vessels where blood and chemical exchange

takes place between the blood and tissues of the body•  Typically arteries carry oxygen rich blood and veins carry oxygen

depleted blood•  The exceptions to this rule are the pulmonary arteries and

pulmonary veins




HOW IT WORKS

•  Blood pressure is the measure of pressure within the cardiovascular system

•  The larger number is the systolic pressure, which is when your heart is contracting

•  The smaller number is the diastolic pressure, which is when the heart is relaxed

•  The rhythmic continuous squeezing action of the heart pumps blood through the arteries to all of the tissues of the body

•  Normal blood pressure for an adult is considered less than 120/80



•  Support nutrients include omega-3 fatty acids, Vitamin C, Coenzyme Q, Vitamins B6 and B12, Vitamin E, magnesium, and pectin

•  Omega-3 fatty acids help maintain blood pressure and cholesterol levels

•  Vitamin C has antioxidant properties that help protect the lining of the blood vessels

•  Pectin prevents plaque buildup within arteries and protects against high cholesterol


SYSTEM SUPPORT OF NUTRIENTS

•  Coenzyme Q Helps mitochondrial functioning in the heart by providing energy

•  Vitamin B6, Vitamin B12, and folate help control levels of homocysteine in the bloodstream

•  Vitamin E has antioxidant properties and protects the cells and the walls of the blood vessels

•  Magnesium is commonly found to be a muscle relaxant to control stress levels




THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

•  This system aids in cell growth•  Works with the nervous system to help the body’s overall function•  Comprised of hormones and glands:

–  Hormones are the body’s chemical messengers that relay messages to cells

–  Glands are comprised of cells that help produce and secrete chemicals


Major Glands of the Endocrine System

1.  Hypothalamus2.  Thalamus 3.  Pituitary Gland4.  Pineal Gland5.  Parathyroid Glands6.  Thyroid Gland7.  Thymus Gland8.  Adrenal Gland9.  Pancreas10. Ovaries11. Testes



•  Hypothalamus –  The link between the endocrine and nervous systems. It’s also

responsible for maintaining your body’s internal balance (homeostasis)•  Thalamus

–  Is located in the center of the brain and is responsible for regulating sensory perception and motor function





•  Pituitary Gland–  Referred to as the “master” gland and helps control other glands and

bodily functions, as well as produces growth hormone•  Pineal Gland

–  Historically referred to as the “third-eye” this gland is located deep in the center of the brain and is responsible for producing melatonin which is important for regulating the sleep-wake cycle and regulating reproductive hormones



•  Parathyroid Glands –  Produce a parathyroid hormone that helps control the amount of

calcium in the blood–  Humans usually have four parathyroid glands, which are located on the

rear surface of the thyroid gland•  Thyroid Gland

–  Located in the neck and shaped like a butterfly–  Important for growth and development, as well as in keeping the body

alert and energized



•  Thymus Gland–  Grows to it’s peak size at puberty and then slowly shrinks with age–  Responsible for producing T-cells for the immune system and plays a

major role in developing and improving the immune system in children•  Adrenal Gland

–  Helps with stress and illness by releasing the hormone adrenaline, which helps give your body a boost when needed

•  Pancreas–  Produces important enzymes and hormones that help break down foods





•  The reproductive glands are the main source of sex and reproductive hormones like estrogen, testosterone and progesterone. Located in the testes for men and in the ovaries for women.


HOW IT WORKS

•  The effect the endocrine system has on the body lasts longer than the effects of the nervous system

•  Controls biochemical pathways in our body with hormones, which are used to control many bodily functions such as digestion, body temperature, growth, and glucose metabolism

•  Also uses glands and cells that are connected to various organs within the body to control bodily functions


SYSTEM OF SUPPORT NUTRIENTS

•  Many vitamins and nutrients help support the endocrine system•  Vitamins A and D both communicate with cells in the thyroid gland to

control thyroid hormone production•  Selenium activates enzymes that are used to activate thyroid

hormones•  Iodine also helps with thyroid health•  Vitamins B5 and B6 both help your brain produce melatonin to

support your internal clock




THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

•  Often referred to as the “drainage” system•  Important for immune health•  Comprised of many organs, such as the spleen, lymph vessels that

assist in carrying lymph to and from tissues back to the blood stream, lymph nodes and lymph ducts


THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

•  Lymph is a clear, white fluid made up of white blood cells, protein, and fat molecules from intestines

•  Lymph nodes are characterized as soft, bean shaped structures and are found throughout the body including in the groin, neck, armpit, chest, and abdomen





HOW IT WORKS

•  Helps defend the human body against infection and disease•  Maintains fluid balance by collecting lymph between tissues and

sending it through lymph nodes to be filtered and then returning it back into the bloodstream

•  Before the lymph is returned to the blood, a large number of white blood cells produce antibodies and fight off any foreign material that is in the lymph

•  Doesn’t move on it’s own. You must move it through activities like exercise, massage and dry body brushing



•  There are many vitamins that help support the lymphatic system including all of the B Vitamins, mainly B5 and B6 , and Vitamins A, C, & E

•  Selenium is needed for producing antibodies and for supporting the lymphatic system


THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

•  Not always recognized as one of the body systems •  Made up structures within the lymphatic system and other processes

that work together to protect the body from disease and foreign substances




THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

•  It works to keep “foreign” substances from entering the body, as well as destroy “foreign” substances that invade the body

•  Composed of complex networks of organs and cells that also assist in protecting the body from foreign invasions, or infections


HOW IT WORKS

•  When foreign invaders enter the body, they are discovered by several cells within the body

•  Once these invaders are found, the cells send a signal to B lymphocytes to produce antibodies and destroy the foreign invaders

•  When the antibodies are produced by B lymphocytes, the antibodies linger around within the body to protect and fight against future antigens, or invaders that may cause the person to become ill


HOW IT WORKS

•  Example:–  If the person has chicken pox, the antibodies attach themselves to the

antigens that caused chicken pox and then destroy them–  Extra antibodies stay within the body so that the person doesn’t get

chicken pox again•  Immunizations are designed to help the body familiarize itself with

the antigen present within the body and prevent the person from getting sick

•  The body will make antibodies to help prevent that person from getting sick from the same infection





•  Antioxidants help support the immune system•  A balanced diet consisting of fresh fruits and vegetables can also

help strengthen the immune system•  The major nutrients that protect and support the immune system

include Vitamins C, A, E, B3, and the mineral Zinc•  These vitamins protect and repair cells that are damaged by free

radicals


THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

•  Essential for bringing oxygen to your body and getting rid of carbon dioxide from your body

•  Also known as air distribution and gas exchange


THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

•  Composed of the:–  Nose–  Mouth–  Pharnyx–  Larnyx (Voice box)–  Trachea (Windpipe)

–  Bronchi and Bronchioles–  Lungs

•  Alveoli–  Diaphragm





HOW IT WORKS

•  When you breathe in: –  Oxygen passes through the mouth or nostrils, into the nasal cavity or

throat, through the larynx, and then passes through the trachea, down into your lungs

–  The diaphragm contracts, pulling air in through your nose and your mouth, down through your trachea and inflates your lungs

•  When you breathe out: –  Eliminates carbon dioxide–  The diaphragm relaxes and moves back up to help push the air out of

your lungs, nose and mouth


HOW IT WORKS

•  The air you breathe in passes through tubes that branch throughout your lungs; the smaller tubes are called bronchioles

•  At the end of each bronchiole are tiny air sacs called alveoli•  Oxygen you breathe in passes through the alveoli into very small

blood vessels called capillaries•  This is where the oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged in the

body




HOW IT WORKS

•  The oxygen rich blood is pumped out to your body•  Carbon dioxide produced by the body is pumped into the lungs•  Carbon dioxide passes through the capillaries, into the alveoli and

leaves the body when you breathe out



•  The major nutrients that help support the respiratory system are Vitamins B6, Vitamin C, and Magnesium

•  Vitamin C strengthens the immune system and protects the airway against pollutants

•  Magnesium is essentially important for the contraction/relaxation state of smooth muscle


THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

•  Breaks down and handles food•  Comprised of organs that help break down food for energy•  Organs involved in digestion include the mouth, esophagus, liver,

stomach, gall bladder, pancreas, large intestine, small intestine and the rectum





HOW IT WORKS

•  Digestion begins in the mouth and ends at the rectum•  Food is chewed into small pieces by the teeth and saliva begins the

digestive process•  Food then moves down the throat into the esophagus and then

reaches the stomach•  Once food enters the stomach, the “mashed up food” is mixed with

stomach acid and enzymes for further breakdown•  The mashed food then moves into the small intestine where most of

digestion takes place


HOW IT WORKS

•  What isn’t needed is then passed into the large intestine where feces is formed

•  The rectum then passes the feces out of the anus




ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE ORGANS

•  Accessory organs to the digestive system include the salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder

•  The salivary glands moisten and begin the breakdown of food•  The pancreas secretes insulin into the blood to regulate blood sugar.

It also secretes digestive enzymes •  The liver has many important functions including bile synthesis,

secretion, storage, detoxification, macronutrient metabolism, filtering, excretion, and plasma protein synthesis

•  The gallbladder stores, concentrates, and releases bile into the small intestine to aid in fat digestion



•  Soluble fiber affects the absorption of cholesterol and glucose in the bloodstream

•  Insoluble fiber helps escort waste out of the body•  Probiotics help produce healthy bacteria in the intestine for better

digestion and absorption•  Digestive enzymes such as protease, lipase, amylase and cellulase aid

in digestion of protein, fat, carbohydrates and fiber•  Hydrochloric acid (HCl), as betaine hydrochloride, is often taken in

cases of low HCl production •  Niacin stimulates HCl production


THE URINARY SYSTEM

•  The urinary system consists of the kidneys, bladder, and other supportive veins, arteries and glands

•  Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body•  Regulates water and electrolytes •  Controls the acid-base balance of the blood





HOW IT WORKS

•  Kidneys are responsible for filtering 200 liters of fluid from our body •  They help move toxins, metabolic wastes, and excess ions out of

the body via the urine while returning good nutrients back to the blood

•  Kidneys also regulate the total volume of water in the body•  They also produce molecules that are responsible for regulating red

blood cell production and blood pressure•  The urinary system is also responsible for converting vitamin D to its

active form



•  Flavonols found in berries may be able to help prevent urinary infections

•  Fermented foods may be able to prevent urinary infections by up to 80 percent

•  Garlic may be able to reduce the risk of bladder cancer •  Certain antioxidants found in foods such as cocoa, apples, grapes,

peanuts, and cinnamon may help maintain urinary health




THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

•  Houses the overall functions of reproduction in males and females•  Males

–  Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones –  Male ducts and glands are responsible for delivering sperm to the

female reproductive system•  Females

–  Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones –  Houses sites of fertilization in females and development of the fetus–  Also includes the mammary glands, which are responsible for producing

breast milk


SYSTEM SUPPORT OF NUTRIENTS

•  Zinc is needed for the growth of the reproductive organs •  Folic acid may help prevent birth defects during fetus development •  B vitamins help red blood cell production, which is needed for fetal

development •  Ginger may improve blood circulation that is needed for male

reproductive organs


END OF SCIENCE MODULE 3

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