ANALYZING MACROEVOLUTION

SCIENCE REFUTES MACROEVOLUTION

DEFINING MACROEVOLUTION

• “Evolution occurring above the species level, including the origination,

diversification, and extinction of species over long periods of evolutionary

time”

• “Evolution above the species level.” There is however, no agreed upon

definition of macroevolution in evolutionary biology

• Macroevolution theory gives no mechanism for abiogenesis which is still

believed by some to explain the origin of life even though it is an: “obsolete

concept that life originated from non-life”Zimmer C, Emlen D. 2013. Evolution: Making Sense of Life. Greenwood Village: Roberts and Company Publishers, Inc.

Jablonski D. 2017. Approaches to Macroevolution: 1. General Concepts and Origin of Variation. Evolutionary Biology 44:427-450.

McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms Sixth Edition,3

DEFINING SPECIES

• There is no agreed upon definition of the term species makes the

assessment of macroevolution more complicated

• “There are approximately 30 different definitions of species in the biological,

philosophical, and taxonomical literatures”

Stoeckle M, Thaler D. 2018. Why should mitochondria define species? Human Evolution 33. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/early/2018/03/07/276717

RANDOM MUTATION

• Random mutation is proposed to provide the variation required for “building” new

organisms.

• Researchers collaborating with The University of California Museum of Paleontology,

Berkeley, and the Regents of the University of California confirm the randomness of

mutations. They state that “mutations do not ‘try’ to supply what the organism ‘needs’.

• In other words, the process of random mutation is unguided, yet is expected to provide the

building blocks for new organisms above the species level. Illogical!

Mutations. 2019. Evolution.berkeley.edu. [https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/evo_18

THE SCIENCE OF SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING TO DNA CODING

• It has been well established that DNA is a type of sophisticated software programming and is referred to by the National Institutes of Health as a language

• Bill Gates, the co-founder of Microsoft stated: “Human DNA is like a computer program but far, far more advanced than any software we’ve ever created”

• Computer analysts use what is known as fault injection techniques to analyze software. This is done by inputting software faults or mistakes into coding and then analyzing the effects on performance. This type of analysis is not used to evaluate coding mistakes that improve software function since such a concept is considered illogical.

• Geneticist Sanford notes that most nucleotides [parts of DNA] are “polyfunctional, having multiple roles,” and so the “genome’s functionality exceeds 100%”

A Brief Guide to Genomics. 2019. Genome.gov. https://www.genome.gov/about-genomics/fact-sheets/A-Brief-Guide-to-Genomics

Gates B. 1995. The Road Ahead. New York: Penguin Group.

Sanford J. 2014. Genetic Entropy. 4th ed. FMS Publications.

DNA CODING CONTINUED

• It is illogical to expect coding mistakes to produce the building blocks of increasingly complex organisms in a polyfunctional system since there is a greater likelihood of disruption.

• Montañez et al. note that a random mutation is more likely to damage a coding system rather than improve it, particularly in the polyfunctional system of DNA.

• Specialized enzymes are required for DNA to be functional. Any mechanisms involving random mutation would require a change in the function of the present enzyme system

• DNA requires enzymes to function. Reeves et al. conducted research that demonstrated that “enzymes are not readily converted to new functions by just one or two mutations in their encoding genes”. For just two changes to the coding regions, it was estimated to occur “about once in 1015 years” and would be “multiplied a million-fold if three changes to the coding region are required” .

Montañez G, Marks II R, Fernandez J, Sanford J. 2013. Multiple Overlapping Genetic Codes Profoundly Reduce the Probability of Beneficial Mutation. Biological Information. https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/pdf/10.1142/9789814508728_0006

Reeves, Axe D, Gauger A. 2014. Enzyme Families--Shared Evolutionary History or Shared Design? A Study of the GABA-Aminotransferase Family. BIO-Complexity 2014.

NATURAL SELECTION

• Natural Selection is the second mechanism proposed to be involved in macroevolution.

• The authors of the textbook, Evolution: Making Sense of Life, define natural selection as

“a mechanism that can lead to adaptive evolution, whereby differences in the phenotypes

of individuals cause some of them to survive and reproduce more effectively than others”

• Natural selection is dependent on the new information provided by random mutations for

macroevolution to occur. Since random mutations rarely provide beneficial mutations

and typically results in a loss of information, it renders natural selection impotent in

creating new organisms.

Zimmer C, Emlen D. 2013. Evolution: Making Sense of Life. Greenwood Village: Roberts and Company Publishers, Inc.

NATURAL SELECTION

Darwin proposed an anti-design, externalistic framework where natural

selection gives agency and volition to nature

the reality is that selectionism is internally engineered selection, not external

biological functions are best explained by engineering principles, a designer

(God); not giving deity to nature which has no mind

NATURAL SELECTION

Creatures use properties of design to adapt to their environment. These

include:

1) input sensors to gather data on external conditions

2) innate programming with logic mechanisms that carry out a suitable

response in adaptation through gene regulatory networks

3) output actuators to execute responses

Guliuzza R. 2019. Engineered Adaptability: Continuous Environmental Tracking Wrap-Up. ICR.org. [accessed 2019 Aug 2]. https://www.icr.org/article/continuous-environmental-tracking-

wrap-up

BOGUS EXAMPLES OF MACROEVOLUTION

Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria

• The conclusive evidence is that antibiotic resistance demonstrates adaptive evolution and is reflective of epigenetics

Darwin’s Finches

• Darwin’s finches have a rapid adaptation to their environment where diversity in their phenotypes is evident

• Darwin’s finches demonstrate adaptation and speciation, not macroevolution. They are still finches.

Lenski’s E. Coli Experiment

• His study has been propagating E. coli bacteria since 1988 and is now surpassing 75,000 generations. It is still E. Coli that remains

Salmond G, Welch M. 2008. Antibiotic resistance: adaptive evolution. The Lancet 372:S97-S103

Zimmer C, Emlen D. 2013. Evolution: Making Sense of Life. Greenwood Village: Roberts and Company Publishers, Inc.

Lenski R. 2019. E. coli Long-term Experimental Evolution Project Site. Myxo.css.msu.edu. [accessed 2019 May 5]. http://myxo.css.msu.edu/index.html

WHAT IS THE DNA EVIDENCE FOR MACROEVOLUTION?

• 2018 study published in the journal Human Evolution analyzed the DNA mitochondria

barcoding of 100,000 species. The researchers concluded that the majority of animal life

originated at the same time.

• Also, their research found that species lacked mitochondrial DNA intermediates. These

findings are in opposition to the common evolutionary assumption of a single origin of life

and last universal common ancestor.

Stoeckle M, Thaler D. 2018. Why should mitochondria define species? Human Evolution 33. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/early/2018/03/07/276717

CONCLUSION• Darwin observed microevolution in action within species of plants and animals

and from this he inferred macroevolution. Today, microevolution is also observable and testable, and without controversy.

• Macroevolution is unscientific as demonstrated through: the science of software programming applied to DNA coding, the rarity of beneficial mutations, the problem of fixing beneficial mutations through natural selection in an evolutionary timeline, and common examples given for macroevolution that actually represents microevolution (logical fallacy of equivocation)

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