Analysis: Argumentative Discourse

Objectives

Distinguish arguments from non-arguments (reports, illustrations, unsupported assertions, conditional statements and explanations)

Recognise when an argument is made and identify premises and conclusions

Identify argumentative strategies used e.g. deductive or inductive

Construct arguments

Premises and Conclusion Premises: statements in an argument offered

as evidence or reasons why one should accept another statement.

The conclusion: Statement in an argument that the premises are intended to prove or support.

The conclusion: the statement that the premises support / prove.

An argument, is a group of statements, one or more of which (called the premises) are intended to prove or support another statement (called the conclusion).

Premise Indicator

Because As For the reason that For Given that Since Assuming that

Conclusion Indicator Therefore Thus Follows that It must be that So Entails that Consequently Hence

THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLES ILLUSTRATE THE USE OF PREMISE INDICATORS:

Judging from Adrianne’s comment, she is not going to give up so soon.

Since you are not attending the dinner, I will go with Michael instead.

EXAMPLES ILLUSTRATE THE USE OF CONCLUSION INDICATORS:

Wayne Gretzky is retired, that is why he is not playing anymore.

Frankie is having food poisoning, therefore he can’t come to work.

HOWEVER, MANY ARGUMENTS CONTAIN NO INDICATOR WORDS AT ALL. Example:

I can’t be completely responsible for my life. After all, there are many factors outside my control, people and forces that create obstacles and undermine my efforts. And we are subject to pressures and influences from within ourselves: feelings of greed, fear of death, altruistic impulses, sexual compulsions, need for social acceptance, and so on.

SO WHERE IS THE CONCLUSION?

ANSWER:

“I CAN’T BE COMPLETELY RESPONSIBLE FOR MY LIFE.”

TIPS ON FINDING THE CONCLUSION OF AN ARGUMENT: Find the main issue and ask yourself what position the writer or speaker

is taking on that issue.

Look at the beginning or end of the passage; the conclusion is often (but not always) found in one of those places.

Ask yourself, “What is the writer or speaker trying to prove?” That will be the conclusion.

Try putting the word therefore before one of the statements. If it fits, that statement is probably the conclusion.

Try the “because trick.” That is, try to find the most appropriate way to fill in the blanks in the following statement: The writer or speaker believes _____ (conclusion) because _____ (premise). The conclusion will naturally come before the word because.

SO WHAT IS NOT AN ARGUMENT? REPORTS

UNSUPPORTED ASSERTIONS

CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS

ILLUSTRATIONS

EXPLANATIONS

REPORT

Reports: statements made to convey information.

The purpose of a report is simply to convey information about a subject. “More people moved to the south this year.” “Oil prices dropped today, thus so did gas

prices.” Notice that, even though there is a conclusion

indicator, this is still a report. Example – The Malaysian Government has cancelled

its Jambatan Indah Project in Johor Bahru.

UNSUPPORTED ASSERTIONS

Unsupported assertions are statements about what a speaker or writer happens to believe. Such statements can be true or false, rational or irrational.

Example : I believe that it is not dying that people are afraid of. Something else, something unsettling and tragic than dying is frightening us.

Unsupported Assumptions

Unsupported Assumptions: when someone puts forth what they believe but does not intend for any of their statements to support another. People aren’t afraid of dying; they are afraid

of not living. People like this course because of the

professor. Notice the presence of a premise indicator, but

not a premise

CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS

A conditional statement is an if-then. Here are several examples:

a) If you fail, you won’t proceed to Year 2b) If it rains, the picnic will be cancelledc) You must speak Portuguese if you grew up

in Lisbond) If at first you don't succeed, don't try

skydiving

Most common forms: If A then B; B if A.

Conditional Statements

Antecedent: Usually, the part that directly follows “if.”

Consequent: Usually, the part that follows “then”

But conditionals don’t always have “if” or “then”

e.g., In the event of rain, the picnic will be cancelled.

ILLUSTRATIONS Illustrations are intended to provide examples

of a claim, rather than prove or support the claim.

Example: Many wildflowers are edible. For example, daisies and day lilies are delicious in salads.

Illustrations

Be careful. Some arguments can look like illustrations because they use “counter examples.” Many people think that all Star Trek

fans are zit faced nerds. But that is not true. For example, Christian Slater is a Star Trek fan and he is not a zit faced nerd.

EXPLANATIONS

An explanation tries to show why something is the case, not to prove that is the case.

Example: Princess Diana died because she was involved in a fatal car accident. Usually offers up a causal explanation for

something that is already accepted as true. Titanic sank because it struck an iceberg.

(explanation) Capital Punishment is wrong because it is

murder. (argument)

Arguments vs Explanation (how to tell the difference) The Common-Knowledge Test

If it points at something that is common knowledge, it is probably an explanation.

Most people don’t present arguments for things people already believe.

Example: “TV is very influential in society because most people watch it.”

The Past-Event Test If it points at a past event, it is probably an

explanation. Usually people don’t argue “X occurred.” Example: “The US entered WWII because of

Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor.”