Anaesthesia for thoracic surgery in children - particularities · 2019. 3. 1. · ANAESTHESIA FOR...
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ANAESTHESIA FOR THORACIC SURGERY IN CHILDREN
-PARTICULARITIES-
Cristian Tănase,“Grigore Alexandrescu” Clinical Emergency Hospital for Children, Bucharest
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NEONATAL SURGERY
Most common thoracic non-cardiac surgical conditions:
Oesophageal atresia, with or without tracheo-oesophageal fistula
Congenital diaphragmatic hernia
Anesthetic techniques must be tailored to child and surgery, but the key principles of management are similar
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Differencies in anatomy, physiology, pharmachology in neonates
Oxigen consumption is twice that of an adult 7 ml/kg/ hour
Hypoxia develops quickly
Diaphragmatic breathing is important. Abdominal distension may compromise
Thermolability – warming fluids and active warming strategies
Response to hypoxemia is temperature dependent
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Differencies in anatomy, physiology, pharmachology in neonates
Haemoglobin 20 g/dl but fetal Hb, poor tissue oxygen delivery.
Postoperative apnea, mostly in prems and anaemia
Vitamin K dependent clotting factors are low at birth. Vitamin K 1 mg IM
Adequate analgesia! nociceptive pathways develop and vulnerable long term consequences
Hypoglycemia
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Congenital heart disease
Echocardiography preoperatively
Prostacyclin infusion for patency of ductus arteriosus. Low pulmonary lung perfusion may need systemic to pulmonary artery shunt
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ANESTHESIA
Fasting 6 hours (formulas), 3-4 hours (breast- fed), 2 hours (clear fluids)
Tracheal intubation. Laringeal mask size 1 <
MAC higher
Myocardium sensitive to depression and vagotonic action of volatile agents – Atropine 0.02 mg/kg
Sevo for induction, Sevo, Iso or Desflurane for maintenance
Opioid- based techniques when postop ventilation
Venous capacitance is relatively low
Maintaining normothermia
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OESOPHAGEAL ATRESIA AND TRACHEO-OESOPHAGEAL FISTULA
Several variants
5 types classification; with or without fistula
Type C distal tracheao-oesophageal fistula
Polyhydramnios, malformations, anomalies
First feed – no passage of a nasogastric tube
Chest X ray - coiled tube
Aspiration
Chronic lung disease
continuous low level suction
gastrointestinal ventilation, distension, respiratory compromise
Gentle gas induction
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OESOPHAGEAL ATRESIA
No nitrous oxide
Gentle epigastric pressure by the assistant
Intubate deep and withdraw to block the fistula
Rigid bronchoscopy
If gastric distension – disconnect and decompress the stomach via the tracheal
tube. Urgent gastrostomy is not useful
Fogarty catheter to block the fistula
Right thoracotomy, right lung retracted, gentle hand ventilation
Unstable, desaturations, re-ventilation of the compressed lung
Ligation, anastomosis, labeled transanastomotic tube.
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OESOPHAGEAL ATRESIA
Oesosophagostomy
Gastrostomy
Extubate vs postop ventilation (curare)
Gastrooesophageal reflux
Tracheomalacia – aortopexy
Strictures. Dilations of oesophagus
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CONGENITAL DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIA
1 / 5000 live births
Left hand side
Antenatal diagnosis
Lung underdeveloped, abdominal viscera cranial migration, pushed mediastinum
Respiratory distress
HFOV or ECMO
Pulmonary hypertension
Nitric oxide
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CONGENITAL DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIA
Surgical closure – stable, conventional ventilation, off inotropic support
CHD 98% left posterolateral (Bochdalek), 2% retrosternal
Primary closure/ patch (anterior abdominal wall scaphoid)
Derotation and fixation of the abdominal content
Elective appendicectomy
Postoperatively - hypoxia ongoing – pulmonary hypertension, right to left shunting through ductus arteriosus
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CONGENITAL ABNORMALITIES OF THE LUNGCONGENITAL LOBAR EMPHYSEMA
Due to bronchial cartilaginous dysplasia
Valve effect, emphysematous accumulation of air, poor deflation of the lobe
Left upper lobe
Incidental X ray finding, to acute distress
Lobectomy
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CONGENITAL CYSTIC ABNORMALITIES OF THE LUNG
Cystic adenomatous malformation
Pulmonary sequestration
Bronchogenic cysts
Symptoms caused by mass effect or secondary infection
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Congenital cystic adenomatous malformation
Local arrest of maturation of fetal lung
Filled cysts non communicating
Resection to relieve compression / infection, malignant change
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Pulmonary sequestration
Separate bronchopulmonary mass or cyst disconnected from the bronchial tree
but separate blood supply from the aorta
From a supernumerary lung bud
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Bronchogenic cysts
Solitary, unilocular, mucus filled
May become infected
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ACQUIRED PATHOLOGYTHORACIC TUMOURS IN CHILDREN
Primary lung
Thoracic – neuroblastoma
Metastases
Anterior mediastinal mass
Hematological malignancy ex lymphoma, or primary malignancy
Compression, airway obstruction, venous return
Risc with relaxation and changing position
Rigid bronchoscope, or prone position.
Cardiopulmonary bypass
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PLEURAL COLLECTIONSEMPYEMA
Bacterial pneumonia – pneumococcal
Purulent pleural effusion
Broncho pleural fistula
Surgical decortication, on a small thoracotomy incision
Bacteriemia and haemodinamical compromise
Treat anaemia. Blood loss!
Stabilise. Possible postoperative ventilation
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LUNG ABCESSES
Primary infection
Foreign body
Lung resection
Bronchopleural fistula
Protective one lung ventilation
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BRONCHIECTASIS
Damaged and dilated bronchi
Cystic fibrosis
Associated with immune compromise
Surgical resection with single lung ventilation
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CHEST WALL DEFORMITY
Pectus escavatum. Pectus carinatum
Ravitch, Nuss procedure
Thoracoscopy with CO2
Pain; epidural
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ANAESTHESIA FOR THORACIC SURGERYSPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONS
Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction
Limites blood flow through unventilated or hypoxic areas of lung
Inhibitory effects of inhalational anaesthetic agents on HTP – debatable
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LATERAL DECUBITUS POSITION
Ventilation/perfusion mismatch may result in hypoxaemia
More marked in infants
FRC increases when moved from supine to lateral
Opening pleura, than retracting the lung decrease FRC with 50 %
FRC returns to baseline on completion of surgery
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LUNG RETRACTION
When single lung ventilation is not possible
Low compliance
Saturation 85 – 90 %
Avoid lung contusion and mediastinal compression – occlude venous return to the hearth.
Use PEEP during thoracotomy
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SINGLE LUNG VENTILATION
Single lumen tube
The mainstem bronchus of the nonoperative side is intubated with a tube 0.5 mm smaller than normal; usually the right main bronchus
For left, raise the right shoulder and turn the head towards the right
Fiber-optic bronchoscope passed through the tube, than advancing the tube over the bronchoscope
Movement tolerance in small children is 2-3 mm, ! upper lobe ventilated
The upper right bronchus can arise from the carina , or directly from the trachea
Auscultation, when moving the child.
Sealing the bronchus with an uncuffed tube
Cuff can occlude the upper lobe bronchus
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SINGLE LUNG VENTILATION
Baloon-tipped bronchial blockers
Baloon, central lumen which the lung deflates
End hole balloon wedge catheter
Fogarty embolectomy catheter
Wire guided endobronchial blockers WEB; 5 Fr, outher diameter 1.7 mm; passed through bronchoscopy
2.2 bronchoscope admit a 4.5 mm internal diameter tracheal tube. 9.7 kg child
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SINGLE LUNG VENTILATION
Univent tube
Conventional tracheal tube with a second lumen through which a bronchus blocker is advanced
3.5 mm internal, same as a 5 mm tracheal tube; children > 2 years.
Double lumen tubes
Two inequal length tubes moulded together. Left / right sided
Adolescence
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INDICATIONS FOR SLV IN CHILDREN
Strong indication
major gas trapping in one lung or pleural space
lobectomy to prevent airway soiling by blood or pus
minimally invasive thoracic surgery
Moderate indication
lobectomy or pneumectomy for cystic malformations and tumour
anterior spine surgery
oesophageal or aortic surgery
Contraindication SLV
unacceptable hypoxia after institution of SLV
safe isolation of the lung impossible
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BRONCHOSCOPY
Rigid and flexible
Prior to intubation
Lung isolation, variants, microbiological tests
Stridor, infections, trauma, tracheomalacia, stenosis, extrinsic compression …
Smallest flexible 2.8 mm; without succion 2.2 mm
Through laryngeal mask or transnasally
Rigid; can ventilate if attaching a open circuit to the side arm of a Storz bronchoscope
Inhalational agents, or I.V.
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VIDEO ASSISTED THORACOSCOPIC SURGERY
Minimally invasive surgery
Intrapeural insufflation of carbon dioxide; venous return !
Pleural drains Tube + one way valve + collecting chamber
Different suction sources for different tubes
Not clamped or occluded in IPPV – tension pneumothorax!
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PRINCIPLES OF ANAESTHESIA FOR THORACIC SURGERY
Topical local anaesthetic
Nitrous oxide - contraindicated
Vascular access
Bleeding, plasma losses
Peripheral and central venous access
CVP monitoring can be misleading in lateral decubitus
Invasive arterial pressure monitoring
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VENTILATION STRATEGIES
No spontaneous ventilation
Muscle relaxation and IPPV
Sever congenital lobar emphysema; spontaneous vent until the chest wall is opened, or slow respiratory rate without PEEP, SLV when possible
Tailoring the ventilation
Spirometry
Manual ventilation
Permissive hypercapnia
Compliance monitoring
End tidal capnography may underestimate PaCO2, in SLV
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POSTOPERATIVE MANAGEMENT AND ANALGESIA
Postop analgesia in neonates
IV nurse controlled morphine
Boluses 10 mcg/ with 20-30 min lockout, no background infusion.
Paracetamol
Prems 45 mg/kg/ day
32 weeks postmenstrual age to 3 months 60 mg/kg
Ibuprofen – not licenced below 3 months
Epidurals
Levobupivacaine plain 0.125 %, up to 0.3 ml/kg/h
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POSTOPERATIVE ANALGESIA IN CHILDREN
Intensive therapy
Pain management, physiotherapy, CPAP
Most intense pains
Combination of regional + systemic analgesia (opioid and non steroid).
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POSTOPERATIVE ANALGESIA IN CHILDREN
Regional anaesthesia
Intercostal nerve blocks
Subpleural space catheter, blocking also the paravertebral space
Epidural analgesia - catheter at the op level , or caudally inserted
Intrapleural instillation of LA; toxicity!
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POSTOPERATIVE ANALGESIA IN CHILDREN
Systemic analgesia
Opioid infusion, NCA or PCA boluses, 48 hours after thoracothomy, in addition to RA
Paracetamol
NSAID
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THANK YOU!