An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
Transcript of An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 1/36
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 2/36
2
testing of wind turbines that are not only more efficient but also much larger than
those currently in use. These large turbines will place significant demands on their
support structures. The combination of greater water depths, increased tower
heights, and larger rotor diameters will impose loads that greatly complicate the
process of designing support structures.
An offshore wind turbine (OWT) is formed by both mechanical and structural
elements. Therefore, it is not a common civil engineering structure; it behaves
differently according to the different circumstances related to the specific
functional activity (parked, operation, etc), and it is subject to highly variable loads
(wind, wave, sea currents loads, etc.). In the design process, different structural
schemes for the supporting structure can be adopted (Figure X), mainly depending
on the water depth, which determines the hydrodynamic loads acting on the
structure and drives the choice of the proper techniques for the installation and
maintenance of the support structure [2].
As mentioned above, there are a variety of loads would be applied on the
support structure of an OWT. The load-induced vibration would lead to the
resonance of an OWT, and impose even greater demands on the design of the
support structures. Accordingly, the support structure systems would need to be
made relatively stiff. However, a stiffer foundation will require more materials and
therefore will cost more than a flexible foundation. Figure X shows all common
type of the support structures systems.
Figure [7]: Types of foundation and support structures of wind turbine system
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 3/36
3
2. OWT System
I. Classification[Ref]
With advantages of the system approach applied to OWT design, the
whole structural system could be decomposed. Figure 1 shows the overview
of the system, and Figure 3 shows the system hierarchy.
Figure 1: Main parts of an offshore wind turbine for different support structures
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 4/36
4
Figure 3[2]: Offshore wind turbine structural system decomposition
Since the structural behavior of OWTs is influenced from nonlinearities,
uncertainties and interactions, they can be defined as complex structural
systems. This system approach includes a set of activities which lead and
control the overall design, implementation and integration of the complex set
of interacting components.
In order to govern the complexity introduced from nonlinearities,
uncertainties and interactions, structural system decomposition, represented
by the design activities related with the classification and the identification of
the structural system components, and by the hierarchies (and the
interactions) between these components.
The decomposition is carried out focusing the attention on different
levels of detail: starting from a macro-level vision and moving towards
micro-level details.
We can decompose the structure as follows [Ref]:
Macro-scopic: related to geometric dimensions comparable with the
whole construction or parts with a principal role in the structural behavior;
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 5/36
5
the parts so considered are called macro components which can be divided
into:
- The main structure, that has the objective to carry the main loads;
- the secondary structure, connected with the structural part directly
loaded by the energy production system;
- The auxiliary structure, related to specific operations that the turbine may
normally or exceptionally face during its design life: serviceability,
maintainability and emergency.
-
Focusing the attention on the main structure, it consists in all the elements
that from offshore wind turbine. In general, the following segments can be
identified:
A. Support structure (the main subject of this study);
B. Rotor-nacelle assembly (RNA).
Mesoscopic (meso-level), related to geometric dimensions still relevant
if compared to the whole construction but connected with specialized role in
the macro components; the parts so considered are called meso-components.
In particular the support structure can be decomposed in the following parts:
A. Foundation: the part which transfers the loads acting on the
structure into the seabed;B. Substructure: the part which extends upwards from the seabed and
connects the foundation to the tower;
C. Tower: the part which connects the substructure to the
rotor-nacelle assembly.
Microscopic (micro-level), related to smaller geometric dimensions and
specialized structural role: these are simply components or elements.
II. An Introduction to OWT Foundations
i. Gravity based foundation[Ref]
Gravity foundations are concrete structures that use their weight to
resist wind and wave loading. Gravity foundations require unique fabrication
facilities capable of accommodating their weight (either drydocks, reinforced
quays, or dedicated barges).
They are less expensive to build than monopiles, but the installation
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 6/36
6
costs are higher, largely due to the need for dredging and subsurface
preparation and the use of specialized heavy-lift vessels.
Also, they are most likely to be used where piles cannot be driven and the
region has dry-dock facilities for concrete construction.
Figure []: Gravity foundation
In Europe, gravity foundations will likely continue to fill an important
niche for shallow to moderate water depth regions where drivability is a
concern.
The structure requires a flat base and for most locations will require
some form for scour protection which is determined during detailed design
stage.
In general, gravity foundations are designed with the objective of
avoiding tensile loads (lifting) between the bottom of the support structure
and the seabed. This is achieved by providing sufficient dead loads such that
the structure maintains its stability in all environmental conditions solely by
means of its own gravity.
Gravity foundations are usually competitive when the environmental
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 7/36
7
loads are relatively modest and the “natural” dead load is significant or when
additional ballast can relatively easily be provided at a modest cost.
Some of the wind farms where this type of foundation has been installed
are Rødsand 2 (Denmark); Vindeby(Denmark-first offshore wind farm in the
world); Kårehamn (Sweden), currently completing construction;
Middelgrunden, Nysted, Thornton Bank, and Lillgrund.
ii. Monopile Foundation[Ref]
Figure []: Monopile foundation
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 8/36
8
Figure []: Monopile foundation
Monopiles are large diameter, thick walled, steel tubulars that are driven (hammered) or drilled (or both) into the seabed. Outer diameters usually
range from 4 to 6 m and typically 40–50% of the pile is inserted into the
seabed. The thickness and the depth the piling is driven depend on the design
load, soil conditions, water depth, environmental conditions, and design codes.
Pile driving is more efficient and less expensive than drilling.
The monopile support structure is a relatively simple design by which
the tower is supported by the monopile, either directly or through a transition
piece. The monopile continues down into the seabed. The structure is made of
a cylindrical steel tube.
The pile penetration depth is adjustable to suit the actual environmental
and seabed conditions. A limiting condition of this type of support structure is
the overall deflection (lateral movement along the monopile) and vibration,
and are subjected to large cyclic, lateral loads and bending moments (due to
the current and wave loads) in addition to axial loads (e.g. vertical loads due to
the transition piece).
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 9/36
9
Monopiles are currently the most commonly used foundation in the
offshore wind market due to their ease of installation in shallow to medium
water depths. This type of structure is well suited for sites with water depth
ranging from 0-30m, but because they are limited by depth and subsurface
conditions, they are likely to decline in popularity in deeper water.
However, in nascent markets such as the U.S., and for the near term
future, monopiles are expected to be heavily employed.
Monopile variations are drilled monopile and drilled concrete monopile.
Grouting issues.The examples of wind farm using monopile foundation and
support structure are Horns Rev , Robin Rigg, Rhyl Flats.
iii. Tripods Foundation [Ref]
The tripod structure is considered to be a relatively lightweight three-legged
steel jacket compared to a standard lattice structure. Under the steel central
column, which is below the turbine, there is a steel frame which transfers the forces
from the tower into the three steel piles. Piles are installed at each leg position to
anchor the tripod to the seabed. The three piles are driven 10-20m into the seabed.
The tripod can also be installed using suction buckets.
The tripod foundation has good stability and overall stiffness. However it's not
suitable at water depths less than 6-7m, as this causes problems to the vessels
approaching the foundation as sufficient draught is need to clear the steel frame.
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 10/36
10
Figure []: Tripods strucutre
The foundation is anchored into the seabed using a relatively small steel pile
(typically 0.9m diameter) on each corner.
Proponents state the advantages of the tripod are the suitability for greater water
depths, and a minimum of preparations required at the site before installation
(assuming absence of large boulders etc.). Erosion is not normally a problem associated
with this type of foundation. They go on to cite the foundations potential to save costs
compared to a more complex jacket design. The effect of scour can be less significant
when compared to the monopile support structure.
Others argue that tripods are not suited for locations with uneven sea beds with
large boulders, and that the complex main joint has a potentially greater risk of fatigue
from the large impact of wind and waves.
The tripod support structure is pre-assembled in an onshore construction yard.
The entire structure is placed on a suitable vessel such as a barge and transported to the
offshore location where it is slowly lowered onto the seabed ensuring that the structure
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 11/36
11
is entirely level. Mud mats may be used at the three corners of the tripod ensure that the
structure settles onto the seabed in a stable manner, while providing support until the
foundation piles are in place. The foundation pin piles are each driven through pile
sleeves at the three corners at the bottom of the structure using a submersible hammer.
When the piles are at the required depth, a connection between the top of the pile and
the pile sleeve is made by filling the annulus with grout or by means of a swaged
connection.
Scour protection can be reduced if the foundation piles of a tripod support
structure are loaded mainly in the axial direction. No separate transition piece is
required, as the requirements for pile driving do not apply to the tripod and the
appurtenances can be connected directly to the tripod support structure.
The tripod foundation draws on the experiences gained in the oil and gas industry
where light weight three-legged steel jackets have been used for marginal offshore fields
Until now, the tripod foundation has been only used at Alpha Ventus, Borkum
Phase 1 (under construction), Global Tech I (under construction) but will also be used
at MEG Offshore I and Borkum Phase 2 offshore wind farms.
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 12/36
12
Figure []: Tripods foundation construction
iv. Jacket(Braced-Frame) Foundation [Ref]
Jacket foundations are an open lattice steel truss template consisting of a
welded frame of tubular members extending from the mudline to above the
water surface Piling2 is driven through each leg of the jacket and into the
seabed or through skirt piles at the bottom of the foundation to secure the
structure against lateral forces. Jackets are robust and heavy structures and
require expensive equipment to transport and lift.
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 13/36
13
Figure []: Jacket foundation
To date, jacket foundations have not been used extensively due to the
preference for shallow, near-shore environments. At around 50 m, jacket
structures are required. Jackets have been used for two of the deepest
developments, Beatrice (45 m) and Alpha Ventus (30 m), supporting large 5
MW turbines. Jackets are also commonly used to support offshore substations
Jackets can be used in deep water (100s of meters), although economic
considerations are likely to limit their deployment to water under 100 m.
Examples using jacket foundations and support structures are South Korean
offshore wind farm Tamra with water depth 3.5m and Beatrice Demonstration
project with water depth 45m in UK.
There are many variants of the three or four-legged jacket/lattice structure
typically consisting of corner piles interconnected with bracings with diameters up to
2m. The soil piles are driven inside the pile sleeves to the required depth to gain
adequate stability for the structure. The tubular joints are welded.
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 14/36
14
These types of structures are considered well suited for sites with water depth ranging
from 20-50m according to the DNV. The minimum is 3.5m at the South Korean offshore
wind farm Tamraand the maximum depth for an operational project is 45m on
theBeatrice Demonstration project. Other projects in the plannng pipeline are
suggestion using jackets in water dephs up to 60-70m but these have yet to be
consented.
The transition piece forms the connection between the main jacket and the tower
of the wind turbine. Loads are transferred through the members mainly in axial
direction. The large base of the jacket structure offers large resistance to overturning.
The secondary steel includes the work platform, ladders and stairs, access systems,
J-tube, cables, and corrosion protection systems.
Proponents cite the advantages of the jacket structures as:
• Low wave loads in comparison to monopiles (the jacket structure is very stiff and
the area facing the wave movement is smaller than monopiles)
• Fabrication expertise is widely available, in part due to Offshore Oil and Gas
industry supply chain
Others cite disadvantages as:
• High initial construction costs and potentially higher maintenance costs
• Transportation is moderately difficult and expensive
v. Foundation Comparisons [Ref]
Comparisons Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
Gravity
Mono-pile
Tripod
Jacket
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 15/36
15
3. OWT Dynamics
I. Load Concept
i. Internal
Figure []: Rotor-Nacelle-Assembly (RNA)
The RNA system of an OWT plays an important role during operation.
Therefore, lots of literatures have investigated the control mechanisms when
generating electricity. However, from the view of structure mechanics, the
investigation of vibrations caused by rotor imbalances is essential and should
get the attention [11].
The growing size of new wind turbines leads to a more flexible structure
and therefore even bigger vibration amplitudes. Additionally, the operation of
large off-shore wind parks requires a careful remote monitoring of
imbalances. A well balanced rotor will prevent early fatigue and ensure a safe
and economic operation of the wind turbine. Imbalances affect the drive train
components as well as the structural health of the turbine [10]. Hence the
detection and elimination of imbalances are of vital importance.
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 16/36
16
ii. External
Figure []: Loads from the interactions between an OWT and the environment
This is the whole view of an OWT. From the figure, its components and
assembly could be observed, such as blades, rotor, tower, support structure and
foundation. The blue color indicates sea level, and brown color represents sea bed.
II. Loads
i. Harmonic loading
1. Gravity loads on blades
2. Mass imbalance rotor
3. Aerodynamics imbalance rotor
4. Small regular waves
ii. Non-harmonic periodic loading
1. Wind-shear
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 17/36
17
2. Yaw misalignment
3. Tower shadow
4. Rotational sampling of turbulence
iii. Non-periodic random loading
1. Seismic
2. Turbulence (small scale)
3. Random waves
III. Dynamics
i. Basic excitation behavior (The Concept of Resonance)
The importance of proper modeling of the structural dynamics can be
most illustrated by single degree of freedom mass-spring-damping system as
shown in Figure 7 [4].
Here is the equation of motion in 1DOF
mx(t) ̈ + cx(t) ̇ + kx(t) = F(t)
Figure []: Single degree of freedom mass-spring-damper system
After careful derivation of the motion equations, three steady state response
regions can be illustrated: (a) Quasic-static (b) Resonance (c) Inertia dominated
Figure []: a) Quasic-static b) Resonance c) Inertia dominated
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 18/36
18
The dynamic amplification factor (DAF) depicts the ratio between the dynamic
response magnitude and the static response magnitude due to the same magnitude
of loading.
Figure []: DAF and phase lag diagram
The important conclusion that can be drawn from this review is that the
response of a wind turbine system subjected to time-varying loads needs to be
carefully assessed. Resonance should be avoided.
i. RNA Mass Imbalance & Rotational Sampling
To translate the basic model to a wind turbine system, the excitation
frequencies are examined first. The most visible source of excitation in a wind
turbine system is the rotor.
While the excitation with the rotor frequency (1P) is mainly fed by mass
imbalance, the higher harmonics are generated by atmospheric turbulence
(so-called ”rotation sampling”) [Ref].
These two frequencies are plotted in a graph as shown in Figure 8. The
horizontal axis represents the frequency [Hz] and the vertical axis represents
an arbitrary response without values. Though higher order excitations do
occur, here only 1P and 3P are considered as these are the primary excitations.
To avoid resonance, the structure should be designed such that its first
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 19/36
19
natural frequency does not coincide with either 1P or 3P excitation. This
leaves three possible intervals.
A very stiff structure, with its first natural frequency above 3P is called a
stiff-stiff (structure-foundation combination [Ref]) structure; if the first
natural frequency falls between 1P and 3P, the structure is said to be soft-stiff
while a very soft structure with its first natural frequency below 1P is called a
soft-soft structure.
Figure []: Soft to stiff frequency intervals of a three bladed, constant rotational speed turbine
Similarly, the frequency plot for a variable turbine system shows that
interval for a soft-stiff design is correspondingly narrower.
Figure []: Frequency intervals for a variable speed turbine system
ii. Simple OWT model
Moreover, the support structure could be modeled as follows:
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 20/36
20
Figure []: Structural model of a flexible wind turbine system
The natural frequencies of the sample model with a uniform beam at a
fixed base and a top mass could be estimated: [6].
One can derive the frequency equation by assuming shape function:
∅(x) = 1 − cos π2, and using Lagrangian formulation to get the generalized
mass and generalized stiffness to the derive the following frequency equation:
m∗ = ∫ μ[∅(x)2]dx + mp∅(L)
k∗ = ∫ EI[∅′′(x)2]dx
m∗q(t) ̈ + k∗q(t) = 0
Where,q(t) is the top displacement.
Where [6],
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 21/36
21
Where,
The natural frequency of an OWT should be positioned on the frequency spectrum
to avoid resonance.
iii. Wave excitation and loads
For offshore wind turbine systems an additional source of excitation is
present in the waves. Wave frequencies are generally lower than the rotational
frequency of the rotor. Because waves come in various periods, they span a
wide range in the frequency band.
Figure 11: Occurrence of wave frequencies with plotted 1P and 3P frequencies.
Additionally, the wave loads on vertical towers are demonstrated. The
wave particle kinematics can now be used to calculate the loads on a structure
with the Morison Equation. The relative velocity of the structure can also be
incorporated but is ignored here as its magnitude is very small compared to
the water particle velocities. The Morison equation is an empirical formula to
calculate the hydrodynamic loads on slender members per unit length:
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 22/36
22
Where,
In most situations, the inertial term could dominate the wave loads [4].
iv. Seismic effects
Wind turbines are already playing a critical role in the infrastructure of
many countries and regions. By recognizing the fact that a wind farm is a
collection of large, expensive, unique and homogeneous structures importantto the infrastructure, it becomes imperative that the probability of total
shut-down should be at a minimum. In the extreme event of a larger
earthquake in a city the spread of different building will equally allocate the
damage throughout the city.
Usually, the seismic design is based on earthquake spectrum. For
example:
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 23/36
23
Figure []: Displacement response spectra of EI-Centro, 1940 earthquake ground motion
Figure []: Velocity response spectra of EI-Centro, 1940 earthquake ground motion
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 24/36
24
Figure []: Accleration response spectra of EI-Centro, 1940 earthquake ground motion
However, at a wind farm, an earthquake can cause a collapse of every
turbine within a defined area. Consequently, some guidelines recommend
designing the wind turbines (or at least some of its components) as high
safety class [DNV, 2013; Risø, 2002; EC8-1, 2004] [12].
From the researches [12, 13], several results could be
observed:
1. Experimental contributions:
A. For small utility scale turbines, a first mode response was
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 25/36
25
shown to provide a reasonable approximation. For larger
modern turbines, higher modes may play a prominent role in
the overall seismic response.
B. Experimental results on a 65-kW turbine show that
degradation of the connection between the tower and
foundation was identified as a possible and undesirable
damage mechanism.
C. Both first and second tower bending modes in the fore-aft and
side-to-side directions show little out of plane deformation,
supporting assumed independence between fore-aft and
side-to-side motions in multi-modal codes.
D. An increase in damping, likely due to aerodynamic interaction,
was identified while the 900-kW turbine was operating.
2. Numerical contributions:
A. The relatively stiff soil produced little SSI influence on the first
and second longitudinal modes. In contrast, when softer soils
were investigated, a more significant influence was apparent.
The second bending mode behavior was clearly impacted,
showing a reduction in frequency and increased foundation
rotation. B. For earthquake like motion, it was found that the soil stiffness
can influence the maximum moment and shear demand
distributions. Unlike the differences in natural frequencies, this
shift in demand parameter distribution may influence turbine
design. In particular, the increased demand at higher
elevations, near maximum displacement in the second mode,
may require special consideration of this portion of the tower
for large turbines installed in seismically active regions.
C. In contrast to the possibility of tower moment demand being
driven by seismic demand, results show that it is unlikely that
even strong shaking will result in design driving loads for the
turbine blades.
D. The dynamic wind-induced load mainly produced large
displacements – larger than most of the displacements from
earthquake. Also, the dynamic wind-induced load proved to
yield larger response than the statically applied wind. This
result shows the importance of either; 1) make sure to use
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 26/36
26
sufficient conservative static load, or 2) apply turbulent
wind-induce load.
v. Aerodynamics effects
The aerodynamic loading is caused by the flow past the structure, in
other words the blades and the tower. The wind field seen by the rotor varies
in space and time due to atmospheric turbulence as sketched in Figure .
As also seen in Figure 13.4, the wind field is characterized by shear; in
other words the mean wind speed increases with the height above the ground.
For neutral stability this shear may be estimated as:
V 10min(x ) is the time averaged value for a period of 10 minutes at a height
x above the ground.
V 10min(h ) is the time averaged value at a fixed height h and zo is the
so-called roughness length.
vi. Foundation Modeling (Soil-Structure Interaction)
A. Transfer of horizontal loads, vertical loads and moments[Ref]
In the design of offshore support structures, two main directions of
load transfer must be analyzed.
First, the foundation must be able to transfer all vertical loads, the
weight of the structure, to the soil. This is mainly done by friction: the
soil around the pile takes a small load per area of surface and as long as
the load-transfer-area is large enough, the foundation will suffice. Next to
the friction on the outside of the pile, the steel rim of the pile and the soil
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 27/36
27
plug inside the pile may also give vertical bearing capacity. For monopiles
of 4 m diameter and more, the extra pile plug resistance is usually not
taken into account due to the large diameter of the pile.
Second, for overturning moments, multi-legged structures mainly
rely on vertical capacity. Due to the fixation in the frame, the piles of a
multi-legged structure deform in an S-shape, deforming at the same time ,
subjected to horizontal soil resistance. The overturning moment is then
transferred as axial loads to opposing foundation piles as shown in
Figure 2.61.
For monopiles, all horizontal loads and moments must be
transferred directly to horizontal soil reactions, as shown in the
right-hand side of Figure 2.61. As the pile is not fixed at the top, it is free
to rotate and translate. For offshore wind turbines on monopiles, this
horizontal load transfer usually dictates the pile length: the pile must be
long enough to mobilize enough soil over its length to transfer all loads
and prevent "toe kick": displacement of the tip of the pile.
B. Soil Springs
To model the soil reaction loads a set of soil springs is used. Figure
2.62 shows the springs for the horizontal and vertical direction as well as
for the pile plug [57].
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 28/36
28
All springs in Figure 2.62 are non-linear.
The properties can be derived from site measurements through
calculation methods prescribed in the standards [52], [77]. The typical shape
of these curves is shown in Figure 2.63. For the first part, left-hand side, the
soil reacts linearly and elastically; when the load is released, the soil will
return to its original state. Beyond a break point in the curve, deformations
will become permanent and the soil starts to lose resistance.
For extreme load cases and foundation design, the full non-linear model
must be used. For load calculations of the offshore wind turbine and its
support structure, a reduced model can also be used as described next.
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 29/36
29
C. Stiffness Matrix model for foundation representation
The non-linear spring model can be created in a straightforward way in
a finite element program. For fatigue load simulations of the offshore wind
turbine however, the full complexity of the non-linear systems is usually not
required: most soil reactions remain within the linear elastic range. To reduce
calculation time, a stiffness matrix model can be used, which has shown
excellent agreement with full non-linear models [57]. The foundation
properties are represented by two coupled springs for lateral and rotational
reactions as shown in Figure 2.64.
The spring properties are derived by applying two load sets that aretypical for operational conditions of the offshore wind turbine to the
non-linear model and using the outcome to derive the spring constants in:
Although other models exist, the non-linear p-y model for foundation
detailing and the coupled spring model for offshore wind turbine load cases
were proven to be the most suitable for offshore wind turbine design. For
more details on these and other models and comparison with measurements
on offshore wind turbines, the reader is referred to [57] [58].
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 30/36
30
vii. Suitable Stiffness of An OWT System
Due to the rotation of the rotor, the dynamic loads on the wind turbine
are lumped close to discrete frequencies i.e. the rotor frequency and the lower
blade multiples. In case of the soft-soft or soft-stiff design, the strong blade
excitation (3P) is beyond the first eigen-value of the support structure and has
therefore in general a lower dynamic amplification factor (DAF) than a
stiff-stiff design. [5]
Figure[]: Dynamic amplification factor of the tower top loads for three OWT designs.(2% structural damping, 3% aerodynamic damping)
Stiffness has been identified as one major aspect in the design of OWT support
structures which has a strong influence on technical and economic performance.
Structural dynamics should be considered, at least in a qualitative manner, at an
early design stage. Optimum OWT design should be based on an integrated design
approach and be related directly to the particular site conditions and the chosen
concepts for wind turbines and support structures.
As far as structural dynamics are concerned, structures with an overall stiff
behavior e.g. stiff-stiff characteristics are problematic due to the increase of wind
induced fatigue. So, at least in the upper part flexibility should be introduced.
In contrast, soft-stiff support structures should be possible for most sites but
not for all generic concepts. Problems may occur if the design range for the
fundamental eigen-frequency is not large enough.
Soft-soft designs are economically interesting but inherently prone to wave
fatigue thus very careful design is required. [5]
A stiff-soft system is not recommended for the capacity of a soft foundation
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 31/36
31
would compromise the whole structure stability when the support structure is
stiff.
4. Design Tools for OWT Modeling
I. FAST( with BModes)
i. Fatigue, Aerodynamics, Structures, and Turbulence
1. Sample input
A. Geometry
i. Tower: Onshore / 20 nodes / 87.6m
ii. Blade length: 63 m
iii. Rotating frequency: 12.1 rpmB. Loads
i. Aero dynamics / Gravity / Seismic
ii. Simulation of seismic loads using the FAST
iii. Movable platform – A force and moment applied to
the tower base platform, without rocking and SSI
effects.
2.
Sample outputA. Tons of parameters, primarily including displacements,
velocities, accelerations corresponding to time steps.
Figure []: Modes of operation
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 32/36
32
Figure []: Input and output files
ii. BModes
1. Pre-processor for FAST
A. B(eam)Modes for blade or tower modal analysis.
B. FAST uses uncoupled modes for fore and lateral motion of
the tower and ignores the torsion DOF.
C. The BModes-computed scheme of coupled-modes
overcomes this problem.
Figure []: BModes element model
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 33/36
33
II. SAP2000
i. SAP2000 is common used in civil engineering industry. However, it is
not an aerodynamic software. The wind (when of interests) is applied as
an equivalent an equivalent thrust-force working on the rotor with a load
value depending on the wind speed.
Figure []: Wind turbine model in SAP2000
III. Bladed [Ref]
i. Bladed is the industry standard integrated software package for the
design and certification of onshore and offshore turbines. It provides
users with a design tool that has been extensively validated against
measured data from a wide range of turbines and enables them to
conduct the full range of performance and loading calculations.
ii. It offers
1. Multibody structural dynamics
2. Rotor
3. Drive train
4. Generator and electrical
5. Control
6. Tower and nacelle
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 34/36
34
7. Wind field model
8. Waves and currents
9. Response Calculations
10. Post-processing facility
11. Graphics
12. Project management
13. Seismic design
14. Offshore support structure design
Figure []: Bladed snapshot
Figure []:Bladed snapshot
5. Present Wind Turbine Health Monitoring Techniques
6. References
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 35/36
35
1. References
1. http://www.smh.com.au/business/carbon-economy/asia-to-lead-quadrupli
ng-of-wind-energy-by-2030-siemens-20130827-2smsb.html
2. http://web3.moeaboe.gov.tw/ECW_WEBPAGE/webpage/book_en1/page1.
htm
3. Supporting the winds of change
4. Structural Design and Analysis of Offshore Wind Turbines from a
System Point of View
3. Design of Offshore Wind Farms. LIC Engineering.
4. Design pf Support Structures for Offshore Wind Turbines. Proefschrift
5. Soft to stiff: A fundamental question for designers of offshore wind energy
converters.
6. Wind turbine structural dynamics - A Review of the principles for Modern
Power Generation, Onshore and Offshore.
7. Malhotra, S. Design & Construction Consideration for Offshore Wind Turbine
Foundations in North America.
8.
http://sbwi.dhigroup.com/end_user_workshop/02_Design%20of%20Offshore%
20Wind%20Farms.pdf
9. Bontempi, F., Basis of Design and expected Performances for the Messina Strait
Bridge, Proceedings of the International Conference on Bridge Engineering –
Challenges in the 21st Century, Hong Kong, 1-3 November, 2006.
10. Ciang, C.C.; Lee, J.; Bang, H. Structural health monitoring for a wind turbine
system: A review of damage detection methods. Meas. Sci. Technol. 2008, 19,
122001.
11. Mass and Aerodynamic Imbalance Estimates ofWind Turbines - Jenny
Niebsch 1,?, Ronny Ramlau 2 and Thien T. Nguyen 3
12. Seismic Response of Wind Turbines
8/12/2019 An Overview of Support Structure and Foundation System of Wind Turbines 20131120
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-overview-of-support-structure-and-foundation-system-of-wind-turbines-20131120 36/36
13. An experimental and numerical study of wind turbine seismic behavior