AN OVERVIEW OF ON DEMAND WIRELESS ADHOC NETWORKS PROTOCOLS

AN OVERVIEW OF ON DEMAND WIRELESS ADHOC NETWORKS PROTOCOLS: DSR AND TORA

RAHUL MALHOTRA AND GURPREET SINGH

Bhai Maha Singh College of Engineering, Sri Muktsar Sahib

Abstract: Wireless network are becoming popular now a days due their features like easy setup without the need of cabling. Wireless ad-hoc networks are a collection of mobile/semi-mobile nodes with no pre-established infrastructure, forming a temporary network. Each node in the network has a wireless Interface and communicates with each other over either radio frequency or infrared, that is, point to point communication. An ad-hoc network is a local area network (LAN) that is built spontaneously as the devices connect. Dynamic Source Routing protocol is a self-organizing and self-configuring routing protocol which allows the easy access to the network without the need for any existing network infrastructure or administration and uses Route Discovery and Route Maintenance techniques for routing packets from source to random destinations. Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) is a distributed routing algorithm based on the concept of link reversal. TORA is implemented where nodes are continuously moving from one place to another. This paper is aimed to study the on-demand routing protocols DSR and TORA for wireless adhoc networks. Further, the implementation of a network using network simulator OPNET will be done to analyze the performance of these two network protocols for traffic sent and received, end to end delay during data communication and download and upload response time. Keywords: Adhoc networks, DSR, TORA, wireless networks, routing I. INTRODUCTION The computing sector has emerged as a lifeline of today’s generation. In the computing industry Wireless network has become very popular. Wireless network are used to make capable portability. Mobile networks are divided into two types, first is A network with wired and fixed entrance or we can say portal. It is also called infrastructure network. Every network should only have Root Bridge that is called base station. A mobile unit within the network connects to and communicates with the nearest base station. The application of this network is Wireless local area network (WLAN). Other is without wired and fixed entrance and known as AD HOC network. Ad hoc network has no fixed routers. All nodes or a point of intersection are used as router in ad hoc network because these nodes are proficient(able) to moving and be connected in an unreasonable mode. These nodes are used to find and sustain the routes to other nodes. Where there is costly infrastructure or slightly communication infrastructure or in

comfortable to use, there the Ad-hoc networks can be used. Some applications of ad-hoc network are students using laptop to participate in a communicating lecture, in business to sharing information during a meeting, soldiers relaying information about condition awareness in a battlefield, and starting to appear relief after an earthquake or strong tropical storm. Ad hoc networks are created, for example, when a group of people come together and use wireless communication for some computer based joint activities; this is also called to as natural or instinctive networking. II. WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY Now in these days, wireless technologies are used by millions of mobile professionals in world, many big companies to solve business problems and create merits over their contestants. HP solutions are giving legal power to mobile or remote workers to access data, knowledge, business intelligence and many other applications from various places. Mobile professionals use this new advantage

Rahul Malhotra et al, Int. J. Comp. Tech. Appl., Vol 2 (5), 1641-1651

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to work more productively, better satisfy customers, and generate more sales. Users are finding that wireless LANs provide more flexibility to configure an office and can improve both the productivity and the collaboration of office workers. These solutions help HP customers create value for their customers and an advantage over their competitors. All of this can be accomplished in a relatively cost-effective, more secure manner. New standards based technologies offer improved methods to authenticate and better secure devices, helping ensure that only authorized user’s access networks. HP understands wireless technology and knows how to design hardware, software applications, and consulting and network management service solutions to meet business needs. The time for wireless technology has come. In telecommunications, wireless communication may be used to transfer information over short distances (a few meters as in television remote control) or long distances (thousands or millions of kilometers for radio communications). Wireless does not mean sparks, noise, or a lot of switches. Wireless means communication without the use of wires other than the antenna, the ether, and ground taking the place of wires. Radio means exactly the same thing: it is the same process. Communications by wireless waves may consist of an SOS or other messages from a ship at sea or the communication may be simply the reception of today’s top 10 music artists, or connecting to the Internet to check your email. It does not become something different in either spelling or meaning. The term is often shortened to "wireless". It encompasses various types of fixed, mobile, and portable two-way radios, cellular telephones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and wireless networking. Other examples of wireless technology include GPS units, garage door openers and or garage doors, wireless computer mice, keyboards and headsets, satellite television and cordless telephones.

III. A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

P. Kuosmanen [1] elaborated in “classification of ad hoc routing protocols” ad hoc networks have quite a many constrains because of uncertainty of radio interface and its limitations e.g. in available bandwidth. Also some terminals have limitations concerning battery energy in use. This deals with a classification of ad hoc routing protocols and also presents some specified protocols according to that classification. F. Bai et al.[2] discussed The IMPORTANT framework for analyzing the Impact of Mobility on Performance Of Routing protocols for Ad hoc Networks, there framework aims to evaluate the impact of different mobility models on the performance of MANET routing protocols. They proposed various protocol independent metrics to capture interesting mobility characteristics, including spatial and temporal dependence and geographic restrictions. They showed that the protocol performance may vary drastically across mobility models and performance rankings of protocols may vary with the mobility models used. Z. Xu and A. s. Wu [3] discussed routing protocols in Ad hoc wired networks with the help of genetic algorithms. The proposed method uses Cognitive Packet Network protocol to select and discover the paths based on Quality of Service technique and implements the store and forward method of network communication. The proposed approach shows the better selection of fitness functions and the simulation results show the improvement in quality of service in the selected network. M. Tarique et al. [4] described Survey for mobile ad hoc routing protocols of multipath routing protocols. This survey found multipath routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). To provide reliable communication and to ensure load balancing as well as to improve quality of service of MANETs is the main objective of multipath



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routing protocols..The surveyed protocols showed that multipath routing can improve network performance in terms of delay. T. R. Andel and A. Yasinsac [5] explained in Adaptive Threat Modeling for Secure Ad Hoc Routing Protocols Secure routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks provide the required functionality for proper network operation. If the attacker strength is too weak, we miss vital security flaws. If the attacker strength is too strong, we cannot identify the minimum required attacker capabilities needed to break the routing protocol. They provide an adaptive threat model for MANET security evaluations. To avoid the energy holes and equalizing sensor energy K. Matrouk et al. [6] told a efficient routing protocols for wireless networks. They told that energy efficiency is a key design issue that needs to be enhanced in order to improve the life span of the all network. They proposed routing based on energy–temperature transformation and gave a scalable energy-efficient clustering and routing protocol designed for wireless sensor networks that is RETT-gen. the advantage of RETT-gen is that it is equally divide energy load among all the sensor nodes in the network. RETT-gen is completely distributed, requiring no control information from the base station, and the nodes do not require knowledge of the global network in order for RETT-gen to operate. P. Ning , K. Sun [7] presented a systematic analysis of insider attacks against mobile ad-hoc routing protocols, using the Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) protocol as an example. It identifies a number of attack goals, and then studies how to achieve these goals through misuses of the routing messages. To facilitate the analysis, it classifies insider attacks into two categories: atomic misuses and compound misuses. Atomic misuses are performed by manipulating a single routing message, which cannot be further divided; compound misuses are composed of combinations of atomic misuses and possibly normal uses of the routing protocol.

The comparison of different routing protocols to support the critical infrastructure requirements in military and healthcare is done on the basis of security requirements of the applications. The focus of the study was to provide a secure, resilient and reliable environment for wireless sensor networks. The new threat model for wireless sensor networks has been proposed and implemented by E. Stavrou et.al [8] to secure the most critical and sensitive networks. S. Lee and C. Kim [9] proposed in new wireless ad hoc multicast routing protocol neighbor supporting multicast protocol (NSMP) to decrease the mobility, reduce the overhead maintenance, reduce data transmission and improve route efficiency. J. Ben- othman et al. [10] elaborated in Energy efficient an Quality of service based routing protocol for wireless sensor networks that Satisfying Quality of Service requirements (e.g. bandwidth and delay constraints) for the different Quality of Service based applications of WSNs raises significant challenges. They proposed Energy Efficient and QoS aware multipath routing protocol (EQSR) that maximizes the network lifetime through balancing energy consumption across multiple nodes, this protocol uses the multi-path paradigm together with a Forward Error Correction (FEC) technique to recover from node failures without invoking network-wide flooding for path-discovery. This feature is very important in sensor networks since flooding consumes energy and consequently reduces the network lifetime. S. Rajagopalan et al. [11] discussed in ANSI (Ad hoc Networking with Swarm Intelligence): A swarm intelligence-based unicast routing protocol for hybrid ad hoc networks. They presented Ad hoc Networking with Swarm Intelligence (ANSI), is a congestion-aware routing protocol, which, owing to the self-organizing mechanisms of swarm intelligence, is able to collect more information about the local network and make



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more effective routing decisions than traditional MANET protocols. They showed that ANSI’s performance is aided by both its superior handling of routing information and also its congestion awareness properties. They told that ANSI affects the upper layer protocols such as TCP and Super Application favorably. O. Souihli et al. [12] described in Load-balancing in MANET shortest-path routing protocols that load-balancing mechanisms that push the traffic further from the center of the network. Basically, they provide novel routing metrics that take into account nodes degree of centrality, for both proactive and reactive routing protocols. They proposed load-balancing schemes that push the traffic further from the center of the network. To define central node, we used two characterizations, depending on whether the routing protocol is proactive or reactive. For nodes using reactive approaches, we characterized their centrality by the size of their routing tables. As for proactive approaches; a node’s centrality was defined by size of its MPR Selector List. Subsequently, routing metrics minimizing the average route centrality were accordingly proposed and implemented on two representatives of reactive and proactive approaches, respectively AODV and OLSR. K. Akkaya et al. [13] simulated survey on routing protocols for wireless sensor networks they explored three categories data-centric, hierarchical and location-based. The performance of these protocols is promising in terms of energy efficiency Energy-aware Quality of service routing in sensor networks will ensure guaranteed bandwidth (or delay) through the duration of connection as well as providing the use of most energy efficient path. Luo Junhai et al. [14] presented in paper, “Research on multicast routing protocols for mobile ad-hoc networks” the taxonomy of the multicast routing protocols, their properties and design features. This paper aims to aid

those MANETs researchers and application developers in selecting appropriate multicast routing protocols for their work. K. Liu et al. [15] elaborated in location verification algorithm to address the attacks falsifying the location information and also approaches. For trust-based multi-path routing, aiming to defeat attacks on geographic routing. They showed via simulation, how trust-based route selection is able to circumvent attackers and route around them. They studied two areas of vulnerabilities in GR. First, GR trusts nodes to supply their location information and uses it in determining forwarding decisions. There is no protection against misbehaving nodes falsifying this information. They presented an approach for secure and validated localization. N. N. Qadri, A. Liotta [61] simulated in paper.”Analysis of Pervasive Mobile Ad Hoc Routing Protocols,” a detailed analysis of different MANET routing protocols. They presented a taxonomy that extends existing ones, identifying also key parameters, metrics and mechanisms for the classification and evaluation of routing in MANETs. After that, we use this classification to capture the state-of-the-art in the performance evaluation of the most significant routing approaches. This review leads to the identification of promising research issues beyond the study of new protocols. IV. WIRELESS NETWORKS

Wireless network is a network set up by using radio signal frequency to communicate among computers and other network devices. Sometimes it’s also referred to as Wi Fi network or WLAN. This network is getting popular now days due to easy to setup feature and no cabling involved. We can connect computers anywhere in our home without the need for wires. Wireless networking is used to meet many needs. Perhaps the most common use is to connect laptop users who travel from location to location. Another common use is for mobile



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networks that connect via satellite. A wireless transmission method is a logical choice to network a LAN segment that must frequently change locations. wireless technology is used to span a distance beyond the capabilities of typical cabling, To provide a backup communications link in case of normal network failure, to link portable or temporary workstations, to overcome situations where normal cabling is difficult or financially impractical, or to remotely connect mobile users or networks. 4.1 Wireless ad-hoc networks A wireless ad-hoc networks a collection of mobile/semi-mobile nodes with no pre established infrastructure, forming a temporary network. Each of the nodes has a wireless Interface and communicates with each other over either radio or infrared. Laptop computers and personal digital assistants that communicate directly with each other are some examples of nodes in an ad-hoc network. Nodes in the ad-hoc network are often mobile, but can also consist of stationary nodes, such as access points to the Internet. Semi mobile nodes can be used to deploy relay points in areas where relay points might be needed temporarily. Wireless networking is an emerging technology that allows users to access information and services electronically, regardless of their geographic position.

Figure 1: wireless ad hoc network

4.2 Wireless Operating Mode The IEEE 802.11 standards specify two operating modes: infrastructure mode and ad

hoc mode. Infrastructure mode is used to connect computers with wireless network adapters, also known as wireless clients, to an existing wired network with the help from wireless router or access point. Or we can say, Infrastructured network consists of a network with fixed and wired gateways. A mobile host communicates with a bridge in the network (called base station) within its communication radius. The mobile unit can move geographically while it is communicating. When it goes out of range of one base station, it connects with new base station and starts communicating through it. This is called handoff. In this approach the base stations are fixed. Ad hoc (Infrastructure less) mode is used to connect wireless clients directly together, without the need for a wireless router or access point. Ad hoc network is consists of up to a wireless clients, which send their data directly to each other. In ad hoc networks all nodes are mobile and can be connected dynamically in an arbitrary manner. All nodes of these networks behave as routers and take part in discovery and maintenance of routes to other nodes in the network. Ad hoc networks are very useful in emergency search-and-rescue operations, meetings or conventions in which persons wish to quickly share information, and data acquisition operations in inhospitable terrain.

Figure 2: ad-hoc network with three nodes

Figure shows a simple ad-hoc network with three nodes. The outermost nodes are not within transmitter range of each other. However the middle node can be used to forward packets between the outermost nodes.



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The middle node is acting as a router and the three nodes have formed an ad-hoc network. 4.3 Usage of wireless networks There is no clear picture of what these kinds of networks will be used for. The suggestions vary from document sharing at conferences to infrastructure enhancements and military applications. In areas where no infrastructure such as the Internet is available an ad-hoc network could be used by a group of wireless mobile hosts. This can be the case in areas where a network infrastructure may be undesirable due to reasons such as cost or convenience. Examples of such situations include disaster recovery personnel or military troops incases where the normal infrastructure is either unavailable or destroyed. Other examples include business associates wishing to share files in an airport terminal, or a class of students needing to interact during a lecture. If each mobile host wishing to communicate is equipped with a wireless local area network interface, the group of mobile hosts may form an ad-hoc network. Access to the Internet and access to resources in networks such as printers are features that probably also will be supported. 4.4 Characteristics of wireless network Ad-hoc networks are often characterized by a dynamic topology due to the fact that nodes change their physical location by moving around. This favors routing protocols that dynamically discover routes over conventional routing algorithms like distant vector and link state. Another characteristic is that a host/node has very limited CPU capacity, storage capacity, battery power and bandwidth, also referred to as a “thin client”. This means that the power usage must be limited thus leading to a limited transmitter range. The access media, the radio environment, also has special characteristics that must be considered when designing protocols for ad-hoc networks. One example of this may be unidirectional links. These links arise when for example two nodes have different strength on their transmitters,

allowing only one of the host to hear the other, but can also arise from disturbances from the surroundings. Multihop in a radio environment may result in an overall transmit capacity gain and power gain, due to the squared relation between coverage and required output power. By using multihop, nodes can transmit the packets with a much lower output power. V. Ad Hoc Network

From the beginning of wireless technology there have been two types of wireless networks: the infrastructure network, involving some local area networks (LANs), and the ad hoc network. Ad hoc is Latin meaning "for this purpose." Ad hoc networks therefore refer to networks created for a particular purpose. They are often created in the air and not for permanently use. a group of workstations are included in ad hoc network. There are no access points to passing information between participants in An ad hoc network. Infrastructure networks pass information through a central information hub which can be a hardware device or software on a computer. Office networks, for example, generally use a server to which company workstations connect to receive their information. On the other hand, Ad hoc networks are not go through a central information hub. 5.1 Advantages of Ad-Hoc Networks Ad hoc networks function independently of any wireless basis like access nodes. Ad hoc network is more to transmit of wireless signals from node to node energetically rather than systematic fashion. This means that ad hoc network protocols act according to network situations. The protocols detect inclosing wireless devices in a pre-defined range. Ad hoc networking is not bound to computers; it is also used on palmtops, and mobile phones. An ad hoc network is a computer-to-computer Internet connection but it is not permanently. It is often used to share files between two



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computers wirelessly. Remember, that you must have a wireless network to connect to another computer through an ad hoc network. These networks are not configuring in highly concentrated manner. They are easy to spread out and run. It is for this matter that they are suitable for so many applications and appliances. A wireless network where the network-controls have moved from a central point to the points of network itself is called an ad hoc network. Ad hoc networks function independently of any wireless infrastructure like wireless routers, or access nodes. Ad hoc network is more to do with transmission of wireless signals from node to node dynamically rather than systematically. This means that ad hoc network protocols act according to network situations. The protocols detect surrounding wireless devices in a pre-defined range. Ad hoc networking is not confined to computers; it is also used on palmtops, and mobile phones. Ad hoc networks are widely used in disaster management situations, where wired or wireless network infrastructure has been damaged. Since ad hoc networks employ a protocol that is adapted to interact with different access points and to a directed location, they don’t need any extra deployment. Connecting to files on other computers and/or the Internet without the need for a wireless router is the main advantage of using an ad hoc network. Because of this, running an ad hoc network can be more affordable than a traditional network---you don't have the added cost of a router. However, if you only have one computer an ad hoc network won't be possible. Ad hoc networks can be created on the fly in nearly any situation where there are multiple wireless devices. For example: emergency situations in remote locations make a traditional network nearly impossible, but "The medical team can utilize 802.11 radio NICs in their laptops and PDAs and enable broadband wireless data communications as soon as they arrive on the

scene." Creating an ad hoc network from scratch requires a few settings changes and no additional hardware or software. If you need to connect multiple computers quickly and easily, then an ad hoc network is an ideal solution. 5.2 Applications of Ad hoc networks The field of wireless networking emerges from the integration of personal computing, cellular technology, and the Internet. This is due to the increasing interactions between communication and computing, which is changing information access from "anytime anywhere" into "all the time, everywhere." At present, a large variety of networks exists, ranging from the well-known infrastructure of cellular networks to non-infrastructure wireless ad-hoc networks. Unlike a fixed wireless network, wireless ad-hoc or on-the-fly networks are characterized by the lack of infrastructure. Nodes in a mobile ad-hoc network are free to move and organize themselves in an arbitrary fashion. Each user is free to roam about while communicating with others. The path between each pair of the users may have multiple links, and the radio between them can be heterogeneous. This allows an association of various links to be a part of the same network. Mobile ad-hoc networks can operate in a stand-alone fashion or could possibly be connected to a larger network such as the Internet. Ad-hoc networks are suited for use in situations where an infrastructure is unavailable or to deploy one is not cost effective. One of many possible uses of mobile ad-hoc networks is in some business environments, where the need for collaborative computing might be more important outside the office environment than inside, such as in a business meeting outside the office to brief clients on a given assignment. Work has been going on to introduce the fundamental concepts of game theory and its applications in telecommunications. Game theory originates from economics and has been applied in various fields. Game theory deals with multi-person decision making, in which each



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decision maker tries to maximize his utility. The cooperation of the users is necessary to the operation of ad-hoc networks; therefore, game theory provides a good basis to analyze the networks. A mobile ad-hoc network can also be used to provide crisis management services applications, such as in disaster recovery, where the entire communication infrastructure is destroyed and resorting communication quickly is crucial. By using a mobile ad-hoc network, an infrastructure could be set up in hours instead of weeks, as is required in the case of wired line communication. Another application example of a mobile ad-hoc network is Bluetooth, which is designed to support a personal area network by eliminating the need of wires between various devices, such as printers and personal digital assistants. The famous IEEE 802.11 or Wi-Fi protocol also supports an ad-hoc network system in the absence of a wireless access point. In nutshell, mobile ad-hoc networks allow the construction of flexible and adaptive networks with no fixed infrastructure. These networks are expected to play an important role in the future wireless generation. Future wireless technology will require highly-adaptive mobile networking technology to effectively manage multi-hop ad-hoc network clusters, which will not only operate autonomously but also will be able to attach at some point to the fixed networks. 5.3 Ad hoc routing protocols An ad hoc routing protocol is a convention, or standard, that controls how nodes decide which way to route packets between computing devices in a mobile ad hoc networks .In ad hoc networks, nodes do not start out familiar with the topology of their networks; instead, they have to find it. The basic idea is that a new node may announce its presence and should listen for announcements broadcast by its neighbors. Each node learns about nodes nearby and how to reach them, and may announce that it, too, can reach them.

The two on-demand routing protocols have been taken up for the present study. 5.3.1 Dynamic Source Routing Protocol DSR is one of the most well known routing algorithms for ad hoc wireless networks. It was originally developed by Johnson, Maltz, and Broch. DSR uses source routing, which allows packet routing to be loop free. It increases its efficiency by allowing nodes that are either forwarding route discovery requests or overhearing packets through promiscuous listening mode to cache the routing information for future use. DSR is also on demand, which reduces the bandwidth use especially in situations where the mobility is low. It is a simple and efficient routing protocol for use in ad hoc networks. It has two important phases, route discovery and route maintenance. The main algorithm works in the following manner. A node that desires communication with another node first searches its route cache to see if it already has a route to the destination. If it does not, it then initiates a route discovery mechanism. This is done by sending a Route Request message. When the node gets this route request message, it searches its own cache to see if it has a route to the destination. If it does not, it then appends its id to the packet and forwards the packet to the next node; this continues until either a node with a route to the destination is encountered (i.e. has a route in its own cache) or the destination receives the packet. In that case, the node sends a route reply packet which has a list of all of the nodes that forwarded the packet to reach the destination. This constitutes the routing information needed by the source, which can then send its data packets to the destination using this newly discovered route. Although DSR can support relatively rapid rates of mobility, it is assumed that the mobility is not so high as to make flooding the only possible way to exchange packets between nodes.



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5.3.2 Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm TORA is the most well known LRR (Link Reversal Routing) algorithm which provides a very adaptive type of routing. It is intended to be used in networks with rapidly changing topologies. It uses a strategy of de-coupling of far-reaching control message propagation from the dynamics of the network’s topology. It is efficient to use TORA in networks where the rate of topology changes is not so fast as to make flooding the only form of transmitting messages and not so slow as to make the use of algorithms supporting shortest path calculations applicable. Therefore, the algorithm’s applicability is a function of the network’s size, rate of topological changes, and available bandwidth. TORA minimizes the network messages in reaction to changes in topology, which are caused by link activation and failure. The algorithm localizes the reaction to these topological changes. TORA does not maintain information sufficient to support shortest path calculation, and maintains only state information sufficient to form a DAG (directed acyclic graph) routed at the destination. The destination is therefore the only node with no outgoing links (a sink). The maintenance of the DAG provides loop free communication to the destination. It also allows the existence of multiple paths to the destination. This provides good reliability, which is desirable in ad hoc networks, and possible QoS extension support, by selecting paths with particular characteristics and that can support pre-specified QoS constraints TORA is source initiated and demand driven. Therefore, due to its nature, it forgoes optimal routing. It does not make sure to select the shortest possible path, even though it can be shown that due to the nature of RPY message propagation, shorter paths are more likely to form. However, it provides routing which is very adaptive and scalable with relatively small overhead bandwidth usage for control messages. In addition, lower delivery latency

can be achieved. In contrast with other earlier LLR (Link Reversal Routing) algorithms, TORA’s key feature is its reaction to link failures. This reaction is structured as a temporally ordered sequence of diffusing computations with each computation consisting of a sequence of directed link reversals. Each link reversal sequence effectively conducts a search for alternative routes to the destination. The search mechanism in TORA often involves only a single pass of the distributed algorithm because it simultaneously modifies the routing tables during the outward phase of the search procedure itself. This is not the case in other approaches such as DSR and AODV which take three pass procedures (i.e. route-error/route-request/route-reply) to discover new routes when a node loses its last route. The algorithm uses a ”physical or logical clock” to provide a temporal order of topological change events, which is used to structure the protocol’s reaction to changes. 6. CONCLUSION This review paper gives an overview of the various features of wireless networks, adhoc wireless networks and the routing protocols for wireless adhoc networks. The two on-demand routing protocols have been taken up for the further study. The routing protocols can be compared for their data throughput, media access delay, upload response time, download response time, traffic sent and traffic received. REFERENCES [1] P.Kuosmanen,(1997), “Classification of Ad Hoc

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AN OVERVIEW OF ON DEMAND WIRELESS ADHOC NETWORKS PROTOCOLS

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