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An Overview of Microbial Life
Chapter 2
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3 Domains: Archae, Eubacteria, Eukaryota Two structural types of cells are recognized:
the prokaryote and the eukaryote. Prokaryotic cells have a simpler internal
structure than eukaryotic cells, lacking membrane-enclosed organelles.
Viruses:– Viruses are not cells but depend on cells for their
replication.
Elements of Cell and Viral Structures:
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Cells from each domain
BacteriaArchae
Eukarya
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The basic components.. All microbial cells share
certain basic structures in common, such as cytoplasm, a cytoplasmic membrane, ribosomes, and (usually) a cell wall. – Note: Animal cells typically
do not have a cell wall The major components
dissolved in the cytoplasm include– Macromolecules– Inorganic ions
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Eukaryotic Cells
Larger and structurally more complex
Euk. microorganisms include algae, fungi and protozoa
Membrane enclosed organelles– Nucleus– Mitochondria– Chloroplasts
(photosynthetic cells only)
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Prokaryotic Cells
Lack membrane enclosed organelles Include Bacteria and Archae Smaller than eukaryotic cells (Typically ~1-5
um long and ~1um in width) However, can vary greatly in size
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Viruses
Not cells Static structures which
rely on cells for replication and biosynthetic machinery
Many cause disease and can have profound effects on the cells they infect– Cancer, HIV
However, can alter genetic material and improve the cell
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Arrangement of DNA in Microbial Cells Genes govern the properties of cells, and a
cell's complement of genes is called its genome.
DNA is arranged in cells to form chromosomes.
In prokaryotes, there is usually a single circular chromosome; whereas in eukaryotes, several linear chromosomes exist.
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Nucleus vs. Nucleoid
Nucleus: a membrane-enclosed structure that contains the chromosomes in eukaryotic cells.
Nucleoid: aggregated mass of DNA that constitutes the chromosome of cells of Bacteria and Archaea
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Prokaryotic DNA
Most DNA is circular Most have only a single chromosome Single copy of genes
– Haploid Many also contain plasmids
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Plasmids
Plasmids are circular extrachromosomal genetic elements (DNA), nonessential for growth, found in prokaryotes.
Typically contain genes that confer special properties (ie unique metabolic properties)
Useful in biotechnology
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Eukaryotic DNA
Organized into linear molecules Packaged into chromosomes
– Number varies Typically contain two copies of each
gene– Diploid
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Genes, genomes, and proteins
E.coli genome= a single circular chromosome of 4.68 million base pairs
# of genes: 4,300 A single cell contains:
– 1,900 different proteins– 2.4 million protein molecules– Abundance of proteins varies
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Genome size, complexity, and the C-value paradox
Genome size does not necessarily correlate with organismal complexity
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In actuality….
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Evolution: change in allelic frequencies over generations
The evolutionary relationships between life forms are the subject of the science of phylogeny.
Phylogenetic relationships are deduced by comparing ribosomal sequences
The Tree of Life
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The three domains of life
Comparative ribosomal RNA sequencing has defined the three domains of life: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
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What has this sequencing revealed?? Molecular sequencing has shown that the
major organelles of Eukarya have evolutionary roots in the Bacteria
Mitochondria and chloroplasts were once free-living cells that established stable residency in cells of Eukarya eons ago. – The process by which this stable arrangement
developed is known as endosymbiosis.
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What has this sequencing revealed?? Cont. Although species of Bacteria and
Archaea share a prokaryotic cell structure, they differ dramatically in their evolutionary history.
Archae are more closely related to eukaryotes than are species of bacteria
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Molecular sequencing and microbiology Overall rRNA sequencing technology has
helped reveal the overall evolutionary connections between all cells– In particular prokaryotes
Impacted subdispiciplines– Microbial classification and ecology– Clinical diagnostics
Can identify organisms without having to culture them
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Microbial Diversity
Cell size and morphology Metabolic strategies (physiology) Motility Mechanisms of cell division Pathogenesis Developmental biology Adaptation to environmental extremes And many more
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Physiological Diversity of Microorganisms
All cells need carbon and energy sources
Energy can be obtained in 3 ways:– Organic chemicals– Inorganic chemicals– Light
Types of physiological diversity:– Chemoorganotrophs– Chemolithotrophs– Phototrophs– Heterotrophs and Autotrophs– Habitats and Extreme environments
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Chemoorganotrophs
Chemoorganotrophs obtain their energy from the oxidation of organic compounds. – Energy conserved as ATP
All natural and even synthetic organic compounds can be used as an energy source
Aerobes Anaerobes Most microorganisms that have been cultured
are chemoorganotrophs
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Chemolithotrophs
Chemolithotrophs obtain their energy from the oxidation of inorganic compounds.
Found only in prokaryotes Can use a broad spectrum of inorganic
compounds Advantageous because can utilize
waste products of chemoorganotrophs
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Phototrophs
Phototrophs contain pigments that allow them to use light as an energy source. – ATP generated from light energy– Cells are colored
Oxygenic photosynthesis: – O2 involved– Cyanobacteria and relatives
Anoxygenic photosynthesis:– No O2
– Purple and green bacteria
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Autotrophs and Heterotrophs
All cells require carbon as a major nutrient Microbial cells are either:
– Autotrophs use carbon dioxide as their carbon source, whereas heterotrophs use organic carbon from one or more organic compounds.
– Autotrophs considered primary producers• Synthesize organic matter from CO2 for themselves and
that of chemoorganotrophs• All organic matter on earth has been synthesized from
primary producers
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Habitats and Extreme Environments Microorganisms are everywhere on Earth
that can support life Extremophiles: organisms inhabiting
extreme environments – Boiling hot springs,– Within ice, extreme pH, salinity, pressure
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Examples of Extremophiles:
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Prokaryotic Diversity
Several lineages are present in the domains Bacteria and Archaea
An enormous diversity of cell morphologies and physiologies are represented
rRNA analysis has shown dramatic differences in phenotypic characteristics within a given phylogenetic group
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Bacteria
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Proteobacteria The Proteobacteria is the largest division (called a
phylum) of Bacteria A major lineage of bacteria that contains a large
number of gram(-) rods and cocci Represent majority of known gram(-) medical,
industrial, and agricultural bacteria of significance Extreme metabolic diversity:
– Chemorganotrophs: E.coli– Photoautotrophs: Purple sulfur bacterium– Chemolithotrophs: Pseudomonas, Aztobacter– Pathogens: Salmonella, Rickettsia, Neisseria
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Proteobacteria examples
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Chemolithotrophic sulfur-oxidizing bacteria Achromatium
Neisseria gonorrhoeae
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Gram-positive bacteria
United by a common cell wall structure Examples: Spore forming:
– Clostridium, Bacillus Antibiotic producing:
– Streptomyces Lactic acid bacteria:
– Streptococcus– Lactobacillus
Mycoplasmas:– Lack cell wall– Small genomes – Often pathogenic
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Cyanobacteria
The Cyanobacteria are phylogenetic relatives of gram-positive bacteria and are oxygenic phototrophs.
First oxygenic phototrophs to have evolved on Earth
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Planctomyces
Characterized by distinct cells with stalks that allow for attachment to solid surfaces
Aquatic
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Spirochetes
Helical shaped Morphologically and
phylogenetically distinct
Widespread in nature and some cause disease– Most notable sp
cause Syphilis and Lyme Disease
Spirochaeta zuelzerae
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Green sulfur and non-sulfur bacteria Contain similar
photosynthetic pigments
Can grow as autotrophs Chloroflexus
– Inhabits hot springs and shallow marine bays
– Dominant organism in stratified microbial mats
– Important link in the evolution of photosynthesis
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Chlamydia
Most species are pathogens
Obligate intracellular parasites
How would this affect an immune response?
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Deinococcus
Contain sp with unusual cell walls and high level of resistance to radiation
Cells usually exist in pairs or tetrads
Can reassemble its chromosome after high radiation
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Aquifex, Thermotoga, Env-OP2
Sp that branch early on the tree
Unified in that they grow at very high temps: hyperthermophily
Inhabitats of hot springs
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Archaea
There are two lineages of Archaea: the Euryarchaeota and the Crenarchaeota
Many are extremophiles All are chemotrophic
– Many using organic carbon
– While others are chemolithotrophs
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Euryarchaeota & Crenarchaeota
Physiologically diverse groups
Many inhabit extreme environments– From extreme pH,
temperature, salinity
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Limitations of Phylogenetic analyses Not all Archaea are extremophiles Difficult to culture Based on molecular microbial ecology,
the extent of diversity is much greater than once thought
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Eukaryotic Microorganisms
Collectively, microbial eukaryotes are known as the Protista.
Microbial eukaryotes are a diverse group that includes algae, protozoa, fungi, and slime molds
Cells of algae and fungi have cell walls, whereas the protozoa do not.
The “early-branching” Eukarya are structurally simple eukaryotes lacking mitochondria and other organelles– Ex Giardia
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Eukaryotic microbial diversity
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Eukaryotic microbial diversity Diplomonads: flagellates, many are parasitic
– Ex: Giardia lamblia (synonymous with Lamblia intestinalis and Giardia duodenalis) is a flagellated protozoan parasite flagellated protozoan parasite
Trichomonads: anaerobic protist, many are pathogenic– Ex. Trichomonas vaginalis
Flagellates: all protozoa in this group utilize flagella for motility, free-living, and pathogenic– Ex. Trypanosomes
Slime molds: resemble fungi and protozoa– Ex. Dictyostelium discoideum
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Algae
Fungi
Protozoa
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Lichens
Some algae and fungi have developed mutualistic associations called lichens.
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