An Overview of An Overview of Metacognition by Human Metacognition by Human

SystemsSystems

Jim Van OverscheldeJim Van OverscheldeUniversity of MarylandUniversity of Maryland

at College Parkat College Park

OutlineOutline

What is metacognition?What is metacognition?

Cognitive developments supporting Cognitive developments supporting metacognitionmetacognition

Study of metacognitionsStudy of metacognitions

Accuracy of metacognitionsAccuracy of metacognitions

What is Metacognition?What is Metacognition?

Cognitions about cognitionsCognitions about cognitions

Two main research areas:Two main research areas:Online processesOnline processes– MonitoringMonitoring– ControlControl

Knowledge of prior metacognitionsKnowledge of prior metacognitions

Object-level

Meta-level

Flow of Information

Adapted from Nelson, 1996

Hierarchical Structure

Control Monitoring

Meta-LevelMeta-LevelModels the object level(s)Models the object level(s)– Attended information (monitoring)Attended information (monitoring)– Interpretation of attended information – self relevanceInterpretation of attended information – self relevance– Goals or desiresGoals or desires– Prior experience and knowledge Prior experience and knowledge – Expectations or assumptionsExpectations or assumptions– Model of future needsModel of future needs

Decisions for what and how to control object Decisions for what and how to control object level is based on the modellevel is based on the model– Inventory of learning and/or behavioral strategies Inventory of learning and/or behavioral strategies – Expectations/knowledge about how strategies will Expectations/knowledge about how strategies will

affect object levelaffect object level

Control-LevelControl-Level

Cognitive strategiesCognitive strategies– Learning (encoding, retrieval, maintenance)Learning (encoding, retrieval, maintenance)– Search (memory, environment)Search (memory, environment)– Termination of searchTermination of search– Algorithms & heuristics Algorithms & heuristics

Problem solvingProblem solvingDecision makingDecision makingJudgments (prediction, postdiction)Judgments (prediction, postdiction)

Behavioral strategiesBehavioral strategies

Cognitive Developments Cognitive Developments Supporting MetacognitionSupporting Metacognition

Attentional control Attentional control – LimitedLimited– SelectiveSelective– Leads to processing of selected informationLeads to processing of selected informationMemory (LTM and WM)Memory (LTM and WM)– Affected by cues and recency, is imperfect Affected by cues and recency, is imperfect – Organizational & distinctive processingOrganizational & distinctive processingGoal drivenGoal drivenDevelop and use strategiesDevelop and use strategiesConceptual selfConceptual self

Birth to 12 moBirth to 12 moNeonatesNeonates– Selectively attend to eyes and facesSelectively attend to eyes and faces– Basic, but functional memory systemBasic, but functional memory system

5 to 8 wks5 to 8 wks– Imitate some adult facial and head movements (basic control) Imitate some adult facial and head movements (basic control)

and retained for 24 hrsand retained for 24 hrs

1 to 6 mo1 to 6 mo– Memory for complex associations retained for 3-6 moMemory for complex associations retained for 3-6 mo– Perceive humans as different than “objects”Perceive humans as different than “objects”

Expect certain behaviors from eachExpect certain behaviors from each– Will follow adult gaze within field of vision (joint attention)Will follow adult gaze within field of vision (joint attention)

6 to 12 mo6 to 12 mo– Can follow adult gaze – accurately triangulateCan follow adult gaze – accurately triangulate– Realize people relate to objects psychologicallyRealize people relate to objects psychologically– Can do 24-hr deferred imitationCan do 24-hr deferred imitation

12 to 18 mo12 to 18 mo

Expect people to reach for objects to Expect people to reach for objects to which they show positive regardwhich they show positive regardSigns of rudimentary conceptual self (self Signs of rudimentary conceptual self (self as different)as different)– ““dog” to “Me see dog”dog” to “Me see dog”Will give a food to experimenter who Will give a food to experimenter who shows positive response, even when child shows positive response, even when child doesn’t like the food doesn’t like the food – At 14 mo, don’t show thisAt 14 mo, don’t show this

18 to 24 mo18 to 24 mo

Intact conceptual self, mirror self recognition, Intact conceptual self, mirror self recognition, beginning of autobiographical memoriesbeginning of autobiographical memories– Facilitates organizational and distinctive processing of Facilitates organizational and distinctive processing of

experiencesexperiences

Can take Can take non-non-egocentric visual perspectiveegocentric visual perspectiveCan pretend (e.g., banana as a phone)Can pretend (e.g., banana as a phone)– Greater conceptual understanding of objectsGreater conceptual understanding of objectsWill attempt to manipulate other’s emotions Will attempt to manipulate other’s emotions – Understand people have emotional statesUnderstand people have emotional states– Comfort and teaseComfort and tease

2 to 4 Years2 to 4 Years

2 to 3 yrs2 to 3 yrs– Understand that attention is selective, limited, varies Understand that attention is selective, limited, varies

in intensity, and must attend to process informationin intensity, and must attend to process information

3 to 4 yrs3 to 4 yrs– Can describe internal emotional statesCan describe internal emotional states

Use emotional language appropriately Use emotional language appropriately

– Understand behavior is often goal driven Understand behavior is often goal driven – Understand intention-mistake and plan-outcome Understand intention-mistake and plan-outcome

distinctionsdistinctions– Understand mental processes not directly related to Understand mental processes not directly related to

physical processesphysical processes

4 to 6 Years4 to 6 Years

Understand behavior is guided by desires Understand behavior is guided by desires and beliefsand beliefs– These can be different from their ownThese can be different from their own

Understand that others’ preexisting biases Understand that others’ preexisting biases and expectations influence interpretationsand expectations influence interpretationsAppearance vs. realityAppearance vs. reality– e.g., Sponge in shape of rocke.g., Sponge in shape of rock

6 to Adulthood6 to Adulthood

Learn many new strategies Learn many new strategies Predictive accuracy increasesPredictive accuracy increases– Learn which strategies to use in Learn which strategies to use in

particular situationsparticular situationsMetacognitive knowledge increasesMetacognitive knowledge increasesProcesses become more automaticProcesses become more automatic– Less amenable to controlLess amenable to control– Frees resources for monitoring other Frees resources for monitoring other

processesprocessesAuto-processes are monitored less often/wellAuto-processes are monitored less often/well

Studies of MetacognitionStudies of Metacognition

Meta-levelMeta-level– Information monitoredInformation monitored– Model createdModel created– Judgments Judgments

Control-levelControl-level– StrategiesStrategies

Acquisition Retention Retrieval

MONITORING

CONTROL

Ease-of-learning

Judgment-of-learning

Feeling-of-Knowing Confidence

Selection of Strategy

Allocation of time

Termination of study

Selection of Search strategy

Termination of search

In advance of learning

On-going learning

Maintenance of

Knowledge

Self-directedSearch

Output of Response

From Metcalfe & Shimamura, 1994

PredictionsPredictions

MonitoringMonitoringJudgment of learning (JOL)Judgment of learning (JOL)Feeling of knowing (FOK)Feeling of knowing (FOK)

ControlControlSelection of strategySelection of strategyAllocation of study timeAllocation of study timeTermination of memory searchTermination of memory search

JOLsJOLs

Prediction about future test performancePrediction about future test performance– Compare objective performance with subject estimateCompare objective performance with subject estimate

Based on current state of “mind”Based on current state of “mind”– Assumptions about forgettingAssumptions about forgetting– Many other possible cuesMany other possible cues

Study JOL Test

t0 t2t1

Common FindingsCommon Findings

Relative accuracyRelative accuracyif tif t11 – t – t00 < 30 s < 30 s– JOL accuracy low, but above chanceJOL accuracy low, but above chance

If tIf t11 – t – t00 > 30 s > 30 s– JOL accuracy high and almost perfectJOL accuracy high and almost perfect

Value of tValue of t22 – t – t11

Explaining the DifferencesExplaining the Differences

Immediate JOLsImmediate JOLs– All items are recallableAll items are recallable– People are not good at predicting which items will fall People are not good at predicting which items will fall

below a recall “threshold”below a recall “threshold”

Delayed JOLsDelayed JOLs– Some items recallable, some notSome items recallable, some not– Non-recalled items won’t spontaneously recoverNon-recalled items won’t spontaneously recover– Recalled items are unlikely to be forgotten if tRecalled items are unlikely to be forgotten if t22 – t – t11 is is

short (< 10 min)short (< 10 min)

Feeling of KnowingFeeling of Knowing

FOKFOK– Performed on non-recalled itemsPerformed on non-recalled items– Correlates with recognition performanceCorrelates with recognition performance

FOKs generated rapidly FOKs generated rapidly – Exist prior to answer being recalledExist prior to answer being recalled

Tip-of-the-tongueTip-of-the-tongue– First letter, number of syllablesFirst letter, number of syllables

Termination of SearchTermination of Search

FOK correlates with memory search timeFOK correlates with memory search time– Stronger FOKs -> longer searchStronger FOKs -> longer search

Rapid termination if “unknown” answerRapid termination if “unknown” answer

If tired or unmotivated, will terminate If tired or unmotivated, will terminate search soonersearch sooner

Study StrategyStudy Strategy

Rote rehearsal vs. elaborative encodingRote rehearsal vs. elaborative encoding– Children don’t differentiate unless testedChildren don’t differentiate unless tested– Adults differentiate even without testingAdults differentiate even without testingAdults have more strategiesAdults have more strategies– Self-referentialSelf-referential– OrganizationOrganization– DistinctiveDistinctiveExperts have specialized strategiesExperts have specialized strategies– Recoding, knowledge structuresRecoding, knowledge structures

Allocation of Study TimeAllocation of Study Time

Younger children will terminate study before all Younger children will terminate study before all items learneditems learned– Depending on material, adults do tooDepending on material, adults do too

Adults given control over study timesAdults given control over study times– Will study harder items (low JOL) moreWill study harder items (low JOL) more

11 yr olds given control11 yr olds given control– Lowest readers - will study easier and harder stories Lowest readers - will study easier and harder stories

equallyequally– Highest readers – study harder stories moreHighest readers – study harder stories more

Making JudgmentsMaking Judgments

Cue based (Cue based (e.g., Koriat, 1997e.g., Koriat, 1997) ) – IntrinsicIntrinsic

Inherent to the item (knowledge about item)Inherent to the item (knowledge about item)– Frequency of experienceFrequency of experience– ImageabilityImageability

– ExtrinsicExtrinsicCondition of learning (# of presentations)Condition of learning (# of presentations)Encoding strategy usedEncoding strategy used

– MnemonicMnemonicInternal state informationInternal state information

– Perceptual and retrieval fluencyPerceptual and retrieval fluency

Knowledge of similar prior situationsKnowledge of similar prior situations

Metacognitive AccuracyMetacognitive Accuracy

Depends on:Depends on:Current stateCurrent state– Attended information affects model of object-Attended information affects model of object-

levellevel

Future state Future state – Model future needsModel future needs– State change between tState change between t22 and t and t11

Selection of strategySelection of strategy

Sources of InaccuracySources of Inaccuracy

Prior experience or lack there ofPrior experience or lack there ofAutomaticityAutomaticityInterpretationsInterpretationsDesire to protect cognitive self Desire to protect cognitive self GoalsGoalsExpectationsExpectationsRepresentativeness/stereotypicalRepresentativeness/stereotypicalRecencyRecencyAnchoringAnchoring

ExpertsExperts

Accurate at modeling current stateAccurate at modeling current state– Attending to appropriate informationAttending to appropriate information– Adding information from prior knowledgeAdding information from prior knowledge– Selection and use of strategiesSelection and use of strategies

Accurate predictions in well-defined Accurate predictions in well-defined domainsdomainsNot overly accurate at predicting future Not overly accurate at predicting future performance in ill-defined domainsperformance in ill-defined domains

SummarySummary

Accurate metacognitive performance Accurate metacognitive performance Monitoring and model current stateMonitoring and model current state– Attend to correct information given goalsAttend to correct information given goals– Minimize distortions from interpretationMinimize distortions from interpretation– Using existing knowledge to augment model when Using existing knowledge to augment model when

lacking needed informationlacking needed information– Prediction of future needsPrediction of future needsControlControl– Select and use strategies appropriatelySelect and use strategies appropriatelyKeep the monitoring-control cycle goingKeep the monitoring-control cycle going

General ReferencesGeneral ReferencesHowe, M. L. (2003). Memories from the cradle. Howe, M. L. (2003). Memories from the cradle. Current Directions in Current Directions in

Psychological Science, 12Psychological Science, 12, 62-65., 62-65.Kuhn, D. (2000). Metacognitive development. Kuhn, D. (2000). Metacognitive development. Current Directions in Current Directions in

Psychological Science, 9Psychological Science, 9, 178-181., 178-181.Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new

area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, American Psychologist, 3434, 906-911., 906-911.

Flavell, J. H. (1999). Cognitive development: Children’s knowledge Flavell, J. H. (1999). Cognitive development: Children’s knowledge about the mind. about the mind. Annual Review of Psychology, 50Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 21-45., 21-45.

Nelson, T. O. (1994). Metacognition. Nelson, T. O. (1994). Metacognition. Encyclopedia of Human Encyclopedia of Human BehaviorBehavior, vol. 3., 187-190., vol. 3., 187-190.

Nelson, T. O. (1996). Consciousness and Metacognition. Nelson, T. O. (1996). Consciousness and Metacognition. American American Psychologist, 51Psychologist, 51, 102-116., 102-116.

Nelson, T. O. & Narens, L. (1994). Why investigate metacognition? In Nelson, T. O. & Narens, L. (1994). Why investigate metacognition? In Metacognition: Knowing about KnowingMetacognition: Knowing about Knowing (J. Metcalfe & A. P. (J. Metcalfe & A. P. Shimamura, Eds.). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.Shimamura, Eds.). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.