An Introduction to Masters Postgraduate Research

History and Politics

Faculty of Arts and Humanities

University of Stirling

A collection of essays demonstrating the research interests of some of

Stirling’s history postgraduates 2018/2019.

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Contents

Notes on Contributors………………………………………………………………….3

Continental Influences on the Scottish Clergy and Soldiers between The Scottish

Reformation and the Thirty Years’ War……………………………………………….4

Speaking in Tongues; the Languages of British Witchcraft…………………………………10

Crime and Punishment in Eighteenth-Century Ayrshire…………………………………….11

The depiction of ‘the Other’ `Newspaper Cartoons at the turn of the Twentieth

Century…………………………………………………………………………......…15

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Notes on Contributors

Chris Richardson has been working as a historical tour guide in Nuremberg and Munich,

Germany, for the past 8 years. His interest is in the Early Modern period and in particular the

religious and political changes that were happening in Europe during this timeframe. After being

accepting into the MRes Historical Research for 2018/19, his research explores these changes in

regards to Scotland, whilst at the same time evaluating how the continental influences on the Scots

were related.

During her undergraduate studies, Sheree Crawford focussed on medieval Scottish monarchs

and church history, but an interest in folklore and the history of witchcraft have informed her choice

to pursue an MREs in Historical Research. Now carrying out research into the development of

demonological ideas an language in Scottish and English witchcraft in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth

centuries and hopes to take her studies to doctoral level, where she aims to focus on the use of ideas

found in European demonological texts during the Salem witch trials.

Flora Walker is a current student at the University of Stirling, working towards a Masters of

Research in Historical research. After studying the church courts of Stirling for her undergraduate

degree at the university from which she graduated in 2018, she realised that she had an interest for

the historical courts of Scotland and decided upon her chosen area, Ayrshire, due to her personal

connections to the Burgh.

Rachael McArthur is studying for her MRes in Historical Research, having graduated with a

Bachelor of Arts with Honours in History in 2018. Despite having a keen interest in both gender

history and a history of western fashion design since the eighteenth century, to “widen her historical

vision”, Rachael decided to focus on cartoons in newspapers at the turn of the twentieth century for

her research project.

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Continental Influences on the Scottish Clergy and Soldiers between The Scottish

Reformation and the Thirty Years’ War.

By Chris Richardson

The continental influences on the Scottish clergy and soldiers from the Scottish Reformation

to the Thirty Years’ War can not be understated. The religious, social and political developments that

were taking place in Scotland during this period can also be categorised on the same page. There

were intrinsic links between these aforementioned topics. Furthermore, these links were ingrained

within the formation, and subsequent early years, of the Scottish Kirk and the educational reform

within Scotland from 1560 onwards. Therefore, the aim of this research project is to explore the

connections between all of the aforementioned subject areas.

After first becoming aware of the Scots being in Germany in the sixteenth and

seventeenth centuries, the original aim of the research was to explore purely the German influences

on the Scottish clergy and soldiers. Additionally, my interest was piqued with regard to how this was

connected to with the religious changes that were happening in Scotland at the same time. For

example, Scottish reformers such as Patrick Hamilton and John Knox both spent time in Germany in

the sixteenth century and their experiences whilst there influenced their religious development and

subsequent actions upon their return to Scotland.1 Furthermore, it appears that the clergy as a

collective evolved in parallel with the Reformation in Scotland by developing from Erasmian

humanism to Lutheran in the early sixteenth century, to the Calvinist doctrine which the Scottish

Kirk adopted in 1560.2 Moreover, during the Thirty Years’ War a major contingent of the Gustavus

Adolphus, King of Sweden’s army were mercenaries from Scotland. They played a vital role in

Adolphus’ campaigns within the Germanic regions not only as trusted commanders on the battlefield

but also in the political realm. For example, one of his most valued commanders was a Scot named

Sir John Hepburn, who was elected governor of Munich for a short while after the Swedes (and

1 Jane E. A. Dawson. "Knox, John (c. 1514–1572), religious reformer." Oxford Dictionary of National

Biography. 2008. https://www-oxforddnb-

com.ezproxy.stir.ac.uk/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-15781, 1-

28: Iain Torrance. "Hamilton, Patrick (1504?–1528), theologian and protestant martyr." Oxford Dictionary of

National Biography. 2004.

http://www.oxforddnb.com.ezproxy.stir.ac.uk/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-

9780198614128-e-12116, 1-5. 2 Ibid, 1-5: Knox, “ODNB”, 1-28.

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Scots) occupied the city in 1632.3 However, as the research has progressed critical attention has been

drawn to the fact that there were several other places on the European continent that also played an

integral part in regards to the influences on the clergy and soldiers and their individual experiences.

Moreover, the religious reform in Scotland was also connected to the educational reform that was

running parallel. For example, the two major figures within the Scottish Reformation, Andrew

Melville and John Knox, both spent time in Geneva and this city played a prominent role in the

academic and religious development for these men.4 The Scots also fought in the early years of the

Thirty Years’ War during the Danish stage.5 All of this leaves important questions such as why were

the mercenaries fighting in the first place? Was it for religion or money? or both? What did the

actions of the clergy and soldiers on the continent have to do with the formative years of the Scottish

Kirk and educational reform within the same timeframe? Therefore, the research has opened up to

what it is now, the continental influences on the Scottish clergy and soldiers and it will explore all of

these questions.

There are many sources, both primary and secondary, and several different methods

that have been utilised when conducting the research. The first approach concerns the secondary

sources, and that is having an awareness and understanding of the main subjects and themes.

Therefore, the secondary sources consist of material dealing with the Reformation in Scotland and on

mainland Europe, the Thirty Years’ War and more specifically Scotland’s involvement, the

formative years of the Scottish Kirk and the correlating educational reform. Furthermore, most of

these texts have been analysed in the initial literature review but since then the list of secondary

sources has also grown. For example, in regards to the Scottish Reformation Scotland Re-formed

1488-1587 by Jane E. A. Dawson and The Origins of the Scottish Reformation by Alec Ryrie have

been analysed, and for the Thirty Years’ War Geoffrey Parker and Ronald R. Asch both have

detailed works concerning this topic. Furthermore, more specifically for Scotland’s involvement in

the war both Steve Murdoch and Alexia Grosjean have produced and edited extensive material

dealing with the subject. This includes Scotland and the Thirty Years’ War, edited by Murdoch with

contributions from many notable historians including Grosjean and their substantial online database

created for the Institute of Scottish Historical Research: The Scotland, Scandinavia and Northern

3 Steve Murdoch, “Introduction.” In Scotland and the Thirty Years’ War 1618-1648, Edited by Steve

Murdoch, (Leiden: Brill, 2001), 1-26: James Grant, The Memoirs of Sir John Hepburn, (Edinburgh: William

Blackwood and Sons, 1851), 179, 190-192. 4 Knox, “ODNB”, 1-28: Steven J. Reid, Humanism and Calvinism: Andrew Melville and the Universities of

Scotland 1560-1625, (New York: Routledge, 2016), 65-74. 5 Steve Murdoch, “Introduction” in Scotland and the Thirty Years’ War, 1618-1648, 1-26.

6

European Biographical Database (SSNE).6 This database is one of the most thorough and significant

works relating to the importance of the Scottish connections to the continent in the early model

period. Moreover, Diarmaid MacCulloch and Mark Greengrass have published works related to the

Reformation in Europe in the sixteenth century. Meanwhile for material concerning the Scottish Kirk

and educational reform, Jenny Wormald and Alan R. MacDonald have produced valuable secondary

material, with all of the above examples just to name a few. Additionally, the research contains many

case studies of individual Scots whether they be clergy or soldiers including Robert Douglas,

chaplain for Adolphus and Alexander Leslie, Earl of Leven. Therefore, the Oxford Dictionary of

National Biography is a valued asset because the Dictionary contains biographies on all of these

individual case studies, and in addition several of the aforementioned historians have contributed to

the online publication too. Moreover, there are several historical journals and reviews that have also

been analysed for the secondary source material related to the clergy, soldiers and other important

themes such the theology and reform.

When approaching the primary sources for the research the main considerations were the

same as the secondary; theme and subject, and also how each will be used. These were broken down

in detail previously in the sources and methods essay. There are several first hand accounts from the

historical figures within the research. For example, Works by John Knox by John Knox and edited by

David Laing is crucial when dealing with the events leading up to the Scottish Reformation crisis in

1560. Additionally, His Expeditions by Colonel Robert Monro is one of the most in-depth regimental

histories from the Thirty Years’ War. It provides regimental statistics, information regarding all of

the battles that his regiment were involved in, his own personal experience and that of those around

him, general day to day logistics of his regiment such as rations, and it also details the political

upheaval surrounding the war. When exploring the individual case studies Rev. Robert Wodrow

published several volumes of the Analecta dealing the clergy and reformers for the Ballantyne Club

in the nineteenth century. Therefore, these works make up the base upon which parts of the research

has been built.

There are several methods attached to the primary sources that have been undertaken

throughput the research. The first concerns both the primary and secondary sources and that is cross-

referencing information. For example, when approaching the Scottish Reformation, the work of John

6 SSNE: Scotland, Scandinavia and Northern Europe Biological Database, Accessed May 10, 2019.

https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/ssne/index.php.

7

Knox as a primary source has been cross-referenced with the secondary source by Alec Ryrie.

Therefore, this allows for a detailed understanding, and complete picture, of the events that occurred

whilst coming from a first hand source. Additionally, it also allows for a review to help compare and

contrast how other established historians have analysed this primary source material. The same can

be said for material dealing with the Thirty Years’ War and the other themes and subjects within the

research. Palaeography has been important to the process and several potential primary sources have

been analysed throughout the research because they were written in the sixteenth and seventeenth

centuries. Therefore, an understanding of the writing from this period, whether it be typed to hand-

written, was necessary. The same can be said for having the skills of translation because the several

possible sources that have been explored are written in German. One of the other main methods that

has been utilised for this research project is the creation of a database. The information contained

within this database shows each of the case studies that will be analysed in the dissertation, whether

it be clergy or soldiers. For example, Hamilton, Knox, Melville, Alexander Alesius, Alexander

Leslie, Robert Monro etc. Additionally, the information provided is when they were on the continent,

who they were connected with whether it be fellow reformers or soldiers, how these connections

were made whether it be through studying at the same academic institutions or working alongside

one another, in the case of the soldiers when they were promoted and to which rank and also, which

battles they were involved in. This database can be used to review the finer points of the research in

a clear and concise manner because it summarises the main points of the research such as personal,

religious and academic connections. A sample page has been provided below (appendix A).

Overall, this is an interesting topic worthy of further exploration because the development of

the clergy and soldiers was completely interlinked and running parallel with the religious and

educational evolution happening in Scotland in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Moreover,

according to the SSNE database ‘previous studies have often failed to place the Scottish connection

with the Scandinavian and Northern European countries into a satisfactory context. They have not

allowed for an accurate estimation of the importance of the Scottish presence since we have

previously not known whether it formed a small or a large percentage of those arriving from the

British Isles.’7 If this is the case for Scotland and northern Europe the same can be said for the Scots

in the Germanic regions and on the Western European Continent as well. Therefore, the importance

of this research is evident considering it will expand on the work already produced by Grosjean and

Murdoch concerning the seventeenth century by exploring the same Scottish importance in regards

7 SSNE, “Scotland Scandinavia”.

8

to the continental nations, whilst at the same time expanding on the work that deals with the

importance of the Scots on the continent in the sixteenth century, and subsequently grouping all of

this into the same context. Furthermore, considering that the Scottish Kirk since its formation has

been a vital part of Scottish day-today life this research will also relate what the findings have to do

with these formative years and the Scotland’s educational reform that was running parallel in the

same period

Appendix A. Example page from the database for the research.

9

Bibliography

Dawson, Jane E. A. "Knox, John (c. 1514–1572), religious reformer." Oxford Dictionary of National

Biography. 2008. https://www-oxforddnb-

com.ezproxy.stir.ac.uk/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-

15781.

Grant, James, The Memoirs of Sir John Hepburn, Edinburgh: William Blackwood and Sons, 1851.

Murdoch, Steve, “Introduction.” In Scotland and the Thirty Years’ War 1618-1648, Edited by Steve

Murdoch, Leiden: Brill, 2001.

Reid, Steven J., Humanism and Calvinism: Andrew Melville and the Universities of Scotland 1560-

1625, New York: Routledge, 2016.

SSNE: Scotland, Scandinavia and Northern Europe Biological Database, Accessed May 10, 2019.

https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/ssne/index.php.

Torrance, Iain. "Hamilton, Patrick (1504?–1528), theologian and protestant martyr." Oxford

Dictionary of National Biography. 2004.

http://www.oxforddnb.com.ezproxy.stir.ac.uk/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odn

b-9780198614128-e-12116.

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Speaking in Tongues; the Languages of British Witchcraft

By Sheree Crawford

The subject of witchcraft has never suffered from the paucity of academic interest that, for

example, the reigns of some early Scottish kings have; the complex and dramatic nature of the subject

has made it fertile ground for scholastic debate and speculation. Nonetheless, it cannot be denied that

the majority of current historical works of the topic focus on gender, first and foremost, and on religion

as a secondary factor. This is why, when I first approached the application process for the University

of Stirling’s MREs programme, I had I mind a much more traditional and straightforward socio-

political study of 16th and 17th century witchcraft. Knowing this was well-trodden ground I sought to

make the most of the secondary and contemporary materials available to find a niche that had yet to

be fully explored. In the work of Alaric Hall and Diane Purkiss, however, I found an area of witchcraft

studies that has largely been neglected by recent historians.8

8 A, Hall,. “Getting Shot of Elves: Healing, Witchcraft and Fairies in the Scottish Witchcraft Trials.”.

Folklore, 116: 1. (2005). 19 – 36.; D, Purkiss,. “Sounds of Silence: Fairies and Incest in Scottish Witchcraft

Stories” in S, Clark, (ed). Languages of Witchcraft: Narrative, Ideology, and Meaning in Early Modern

Culture. (Basingstoke: MacMillan, 2001). 90 -91.

11

The study of language, though this is a broad area, has been somewhat excluded from what Carr calls

the “unending dialogue” of history in most areas of study.9 However, in the case of witchcraft beliefs

and trials I have come to believe that it is most important that we rectify this blind spot because of the

indelible links between concepts surrounding witchcraft and language in the early modern period.

Early modern people believed that language and speech had power, but furthermore connected

women's speech with their sexual purity. With that in mind, it makes sense that early modern people,

with their deep religious beliefs, would think that witches could do harm through speech, incantation

and otherwise benign actions. The concept of Maleficum is a perfect example of this belief; maleficum

is a broad term for harm caused through ill-will on the witches’ part, with no small help from the devil

of course. This idea that a witch could cause harm through maliciousness and spite is seen in popular

fiction and media representations but was very real for the people of Britain in the 16th and 17th

centuries. In many cases, those brought to trial for witchcraft had been accused of verbally cursing, or

even trying to heal, their victims with recited incantations, but they also were more likely to have a

history of being convicted ‘scolds’. 10 Having been convicted for scolding, essentially being

cantankerous and prone to starting arguments, it seems that women were more likely to be accused of

witchcraft, but of course, there are exceptions.

As these patterns became clearer, I began to move towards the study that is now well underway.

The final push, so to speak, came from considering older demonological texts such as Kramer and

Sprengers' Malleus Maleficarum (1495) and Matthew Hopkins The Discovery of Witches (1647) which

are good examples of many of the witchcraft beliefs which were held, and questioned, in the 16th and

17th centuries.11 The ways in which different scholars engaged with the concepts of the Witches Sabbat

and Demonic Pact, for example and the language they use to discuss these ideas allows us to track the

rise, evolution, and fall of these beliefs. But, most interestingly, the engagement with these concepts

in trial records highlights the vast differences between the elite and popular views of the day. It became

clear, as a result, that in order to answer the questions I had, I would need to focus on the meeting

9 E, H, Carr,. What Is History? (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1961). 24. 10 S, Dye. “To Converse With The Devil? Speech, Sexuality, And Witchcraft in Early Modern Scotland.” In

International Review Of Scottish Studies, 37, 2012. Pp 14 -18. 11 H, Kramer, & J, Sprenger. Malleus Maleficarum. Summers, M, (ed),. (London: Hogarth Press, 1928 [1486]).;

Hopkins, M. The Discovery of Witches. (Brighton: Puckrel Publishing, 2007 [1647]).

12

point between history and linguistics. In this area, I have been lucky to benefit from a small, but

exceedingly high-quality, selection of studies.

Language, Gender, and Witchcraft in Early Modern England and Scotland

In order to successfully undertake this study of language, speech, and sexuality in early modern

British witchcraft, it has been a necessity to go back to basics, so to speak, and pursue an understanding

of the basics of linguistics. More specifically the focus has been on sociolinguistics, which Jennifer

Coates defines as the “study of language in its social context”; taking this path, rather than focussing

on structural linguistics, was a way of keeping the study in touch with what is an essentially social

phenomenon.12 Nonetheless, an understanding of the basics of structural linguistics, which is based

upon principles laid down by students of Ferdinand de Saussure in 1916, after his death. In this

endeavour, Peter Matthews’ Linguistics: A Very Short Introduction, Roy Harris’ edited collection

Saussure and His Interpreters, and of course the book credited to Saussure himself A Course in

General Linguistics, have been invaluable.13

Though the study is ongoing and so no definitive outline of findings, or arguments, can be

given at this stage two main point points of sociolinguistic interest have become clear. Firstly, it is not

possible to simply track set words and phrases while looking at such a complex and diachronic study.

Meaning must take precedence, especially when comparing Scottish and English sources because

Scottish sources very often use words and phrases for which there is no direct equivalent in English

sources. Secondly, it is necessary not just to take a sociolinguistic view, but to maintain a sense of

historical context. Early Modern scholars maintained a differing view of language, in line with the

biblical assertion that each thing was given a name by Adam, and while they may rarely reference this

it will have affected their view of the world. In fact, it may well have had as big an impact upon their

view of the world and society as the commonly held beliefs surrounding sexuality and gender in the

early modern period. On this topic there is no paucity of secondary material, and every possible view

point has been argued at one point or another by historians. Most notably Julian Goodare, Stuart Clark,

Christina Larner, and Sierra Dye wrestle with the thorny issues surrounding gender, speech, law,

12 J, Coates,. Women, Men And Language. (Essex: Longman Group, 1993). 4. 13 J, Coates,. 1993.; R, Harris,. Saussure and His Interpreters. (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press,

2001).; P, Matthews,. Linguistics: A Very Short Introduction. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).; F,

Saussure,. General Course in Linguistics. W, Baskin, (trans), C, Bally, & A, Sechehaye, (eds). (New York:

Philosophical Library, 1959).

13

morality, and religion. This laundry list of factors perfectly sums up the complexity that any study of

witchcraft must contend with, so the that both Clark and Dye also incorporate language into their

studies makes their work of particular interest in this case. So far, all of the research undertaken in the

pursuit of this study has supported Stuart Clarks assertions that demonology has a place in modern

witchcraft studies, that it is necessary that we throw away our preconceived beliefs about how language

relates to factual statements, and that we should discard all ideas of explaining the phenomenon.14

Yet this work cannot be, and has not been, undertaken in a vacuum. Early modern Britain inherited its

views on gender, religion, morality, and indeed witchcraft from the European continent in the medieval

period, and these views clashed and blended with the folk beliefs already present. As society changed

through the processes of Reformation, Renaissance, and Enlightenment so too did the commonly held

beliefs about the world and witchcraft. It’s no surprise that as Scotland and England neared the end of

the 17th century witchcraft trial and beliefs diminished; scepticism from legal, scientific, and

philosophical sectors was on the rise and the world was changing.

The Torture of Christine Böffgen at Rheinbach, 1631. Hermann Löher.15

As a result of these changes the scene shown above, never as common in Scotland as in

Germany and even less common in England, became almost unheard of by the end of the 17th century.

This was a direct result of arguments being made against torture, against ‘witch finders’, and against

14 S, Clark,. Thinking with Demons; The Idea of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe. (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1997). 15 Image presented and cited in: A, Lewellyn-Barstow,. Witchcraze: A New History of the European Witch

Hunts. (London: HarperCollins, 1995). 128.

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the methods most commonly used to extract confessions. The disgrace of Matthew Hopkins in Chief

amongst these sceptics were men like Thomas Hobbes and Sir George MacKenzie of Rosehaugh, but

the list does, of course, go on. Balancing consideration of such men with the evidence of trial records

is the meat, so to speak, of this thesis.

In considering the primary and contemporary materials, I have been studying those trials which

include mentions of witches sabbaths, demonic pacts, and accusations that a witch has been marked

by the devil. These cases are not so widespread in England and Scotland as they were on the European

continent, but nonetheless examples can be found in North Berwick, Essex, Aberdeenshire, and

Lancashire. In studying the case of Elizabeth Clarke (1645), for example, the language found in trial

records to discuss the sexual deviance of which she and her supposed co-conspirators were accused is

compared with the language used in scholarly sources of the day. Using a comparative method of

linguistic analysis has allowed me to begin uncovering the divide between the views of the educated

elite and general populous. By also undertaking a diachronic view, however, it has been possible to

create a timeline of sorts for the growth and evolution of commonly held views and ideas about

witchcraft. It is my hope that the final thesis will be able to align this structural timeline, as well as a

database of witches who were tried and released, such as Aleson Coline (1629/30), or executed, like

Elizabeth Clarke (1645), with the popularity and spread of demonologies and sceptical scholarly texts,

for example Thomas Hobbes Leviathan.16 At present the database in question is under construction

with the majority of entries listed on paper; once complete, however, it will be attached to the thesis

in the appendices. Furthermore, I hope to make it available online so that it may benefit other students

seeking to pursue studies in witchcraft thereby making the information more readily accessible.

16 Trial of Aleson Coline (1629-30). Survey of Scottish Witchcraft. “Survey of Scottish Witchcraft Database”.

Accessed May 8th, 2019 http://witches.shca.ed.ac.uk/index.cfm?fuseaction=home.main.; F, Timbers.

“Witches’ Sect or Prayer Meeting?: Matthew Hopkins Revisited.” Women’s History Review, (17:1, 2008). Pp

21 – 37.; T, Hobbes,. Leviathan. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996 [1651]).

15

Bibliography

Contemporary Sources

Hopkins, M. The Discovery of Witches. (Brighton: Puckrel Publishing, 2007 [1647]).

Kramer, H, & Sprenger, J. Malleus Maleficarum. Summers, M, (ed),. (London: Hogarth Press, 1928

[1486]).

Trial of Aleson Coline (1629-30). Survey of Scottish Witchcraft. “Survey of Scottish Witchcraft

Database”. Accessed May 8th, 2019 http://witches.shca.ed.ac.uk/index.cfm?fuseaction=home.main.;

Secondary Sources

Carr, E, H. What Is History? (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1961).

Clark, S. Thinking with Demons; The Idea of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe. (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1997).

Coates, J. Women, Men And Language. (Essex: Longman Group, 1993).

Dye, S. “To Converse With The Devil? Speech, Sexuality, And Witchcraft in Early Modern Scotland.”

In International Review Of Scottish Studies, 37, 2012.

Hall, A. “Getting Shot of Elves: Healing, Witchcraft and Fairies in the Scottish Witchcraft Trials.”.

Folklore, 116: 1. (2005). 19 – 36.

Harris, R. Saussure and His Interpreters. (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2001)

Lewellyn-Barstow, A. Witchcraze: A New History of the European Witch Hunts. (London:

HarperCollins, 1995). 128.

Matthews, P. Linguistics: A Very Short Introduction. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003)

16

Saussure, F. General Course in Linguistics. W, Baskin, (trans), C, Bally, & A, Sechehaye, (eds). (New

York: Philosophical Library, 1959).

Timbers, F. “Witches’ Sect or Prayer Meeting?: Matthew Hopkins Revisited.” Women’s History

Review, (17:1, 2008). Pp 21 – 37

Purkiss, D. “Sounds of Silence: Fairies and Incest in Scottish Witchcraft Stories” in S, Clark, (ed).

Languages of Witchcraft: Narrative, Ideology, and Meaning in Early Modern Culture. (Basingstoke:

MacMillan, 2001). 90 -91.

17

Crime and Punishment in Eighteenth-Century Ayrshire.

By Flora Walker

Though crime and punishment in eighteenth-century Ayrshire may seem like a niche topic, is

one worth researching. Firstly, the eighteenth century had a vast amount of political and economic

turmoil, from the demise of the Stewart dynasty and its continuing support, the parliamentary union

with England to changing philosophical ideas and attitudes. Jacobites were determined to see the

restoration of the Stewarts to the throne, the economy was struggling to bounce back after the union,

the Church was clinging to their power over the community while scientific and logical thinkers

were rising to prominence at the beginnings of the industrial revolution. There is no doubt that this

time period is rich with events that may have shaped the attitudes and behaviour of the population of

Scotland. As to the choice of Ayrshire, specifically Kilmarnock, Irvine, and the Burgh of Ayr itself,

there is an abundance of material that has survived detailing the cases of law and disorder in both

ecclesiastical and secular courts. By using models given in the works of Michael F. Graham and

Stephen T. Davies, this research will shed light on the attitudes and behaviour of the people of

Ayrshire, as well as the institutions of authority that governed the population at that time.

The first thing to consider is the existing literature relating to this topic and any similar fields

of study. When it comes to the motives behind crimes, misbehaviours, or any kind of social

deviance, one must consider the wider context. W. Hamish Fraser suggests that one reason for public

disorder is economic change and, in regard to our particular time period, the economic change in the

countryside and Lowlands. New commercial pressures, and such activities as the capitalisation of

sheep farming, lead to violence and theft.17 Urban and Lowland unrest was also caused by a factor

relating to the economy. Due to the tensions of the terms of the Treaty of Union and endeavours such

as the unsuccessful Darien Scheme, which Scotland was still recovering from, wages began to rise

and fall.18 Urban towns and cities were growing in population, putting more strain on the towns and

parishes to support the poor, as well as on tradesmen and merchants to supply and feed the growing

population. This will be tested for in eighteenth-century Ayrshire, as it was a sailing port, with the

textiles industry being a large pull for workers.

17 W. Hamish Fraser, ‘Patterns of Protest,’ in People and Society in Scotland, Vol I, 1760 – 1830 ed. TM

Devine and Rosalind Mitchison (eds.), (Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers, 1988), 268 18 Fraser, ‘Patterns of Protest,’ 272

18

The literature also supports a feeling of apathy towards institutions of authority. There would

be rioting and large groups protesting and striking, and perhaps on a more subtle note, the population

would also be disobedient to the laws of the Scottish church, which still had jurisdiction over its

people even after the union of 1707. The Church of Scotland continually attempted to police the

behaviour of the congregations of the parishes across Scotland, but the population continued to

commit sins and moral misdemeanours. As Michael F. Graham and other Scholars have found, there

was no shortage of both men and women committing such moral sins as fornication and adultery,19

behaviours which continued to be seen as punishable by the church from the Reformation,20 until the

church courts no longer enjoyed their legal powers. Here, Graham finds that there is little to no

discrepancy in the way in which men and women were disciplined by the church. Neither gender was

treated more favourably than the other, and both were held to account for their sins. This discipline

mostly consisted of monetary fines and appearing in front of the congregation in order to repent and

remove any scandal from an individual.

What is not widely explored here is the nature of class, age, or economic situation, which is

something that will be tested for when looking into the kirk session and presbytery records of

Ayrshire, as well as the records of the secular courts. The economic factors relating to crime and

punishment have, however, been explored in relation to popular protest and rioting, and in some

cases, people resorted to smuggling. TM Devine places an emphasis on the importance of illegal

activities such as smuggling, especially that of tobacco, while Christopher Whatley even suggests

that smuggling was condoned by local communities.21 This can shed at least a little light onto the

attitudes of the population on criminal activity, which will be explored when researching the crime

and punishment of Ayrshire during this time period. Along with studies from historians such as

Michael F Graham and Stephen T Davies, the aim is to create a localised study in order to add to the

literature on this topic, and perhaps create more building blocks to build a narrative of law and order

in Scotland during the 1700s

For this particular project, once one has considered the secondary literature, one must then

also consider the methods to use when approaching the research. The first thing to seek out is the

19 Michael F. Graham, The Uses of Reform: ‘Godly Discipline’ and Popular Behaviour in Scotland and

Beyond, 1560 – 1610. (Leiden: EJ Brill, 1996). 20 James Kirk, ed., Stirling Presbytery Records 1581 – 1587. (Edinburgh: Clark Constable Ltd, 1981.) 21 Christopher Whatley, ‘How Tame were the Scottish Lowlanders During the Eighteenth Century?’ in

Conflict and Stability in Scottish Society 1700 – 1850, ed. TM Devine, (Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers,

1990), 7

19

primary documentation itself. In this regard, it has been found that the Ayrshire Archives hold an

abundance of material relating to the courts of Ayrshire in the eighteenth century, including kirk

session and presbytery minute books, records of ‘Arrestments, Incarcerations, Liberations and

Loosings Thereof’,22 bundles of proceedings and processes relating to the burgh courts, and burgh

court books of cautions. It will also be useful to research the records of the High Court of Justiciary

which oversaw more serious crimes that would be referred to them, as well as the South Circuit

Court, which is a branch of the High Court of Justiciary that toured the country, the South Circuit

covering Ayrshire as well as other southern areas. The kirk session and presbytery records, most of

which are held and the Burns Monument Centre in Kilmarnock, and some of which are at the

National Records in Edinburgh, will contain information about the moral sins committed by the local

congregations of Ayr, Irvine, and Kilmarnock while the secular court records, held across several

repositories in Ayr, Irvine and Edinburgh will detail cases relating to the secular and civil cases of

the area such as assault, petty theft, and non-payment of money.

All of these records, of which an abundance exists for the chosen time period, will give

ample information for a study of this sort. The methods that will be used for this project once the

information has been collected will vary, making it an interdisciplinary study in order to give a more

comprehensive and perhaps objective outcome. Both qualitative and quantitative methods will be

used here, the former being used for case studies to give a more descriptive analysis of the primary

documentation to see if attitudes towards crime, punishment, society and authority can be sought that

way, and qualitative analysis will be used to determine if there were any trends in the way in which

people were punished depending on their crime, their gender, their occupation, or any other factor.

This will also allow a line of enquiry as to whether or not each court or legal institution saw only a

particular type of case, if there was any discrimination between the different courts, or if indeed there

were any similarities, differences or overlap in the jurisdictions of these institutions. Other tools will

need to be called upon during this research project, such as palaeography. This will be instrumental

in dealing with the primary sources, as they comprise of hand-written documents from the 1700s

when the was no standardised spelling or indeed the process of writing. Therefore, the study of

ancient handwriting and writing processes will be invaluable. As well as methodology that will be

used to tackle the ancient, modern technology will be used in this study. In order to speed the process

22 Ayr Burgh Register of Incarcerations, Liberations, Arrestments and Loosings Thereof, 1721 – 1804,

B6/15/5-11

20

of analysis, the information from the primary documents will be put into a database to ensure

accuracy, efficiency and speed when tackling this project, and example of which can bee seen below.

In conclusion, it is believed that while the study of crime and punishment in eighteenth-

century Ayrshire may only be a specific, localised study, it is valuable when it comes to the history

of Scotland. A study of this nature would be helpful in the background of the social history of the

area, and maybe the social and authoritative attitudes towards a changing national climate. Not only

is this particular time period rich in turmoil that came from different aspects of society, both

authoritative and plebeian, by using localised information the research and literature on this topic and

in this field of study will be added to, giving a more comprehensive narrative of the criminal, moral,

social and perhaps even political and economic history of Scotland. The study may even come to

comply with, or challenge existing theories of Scottish society or models of law and order that exist

for other areas. Though the amount of information available may need to be limited due to its sheer

volume, the fact that there is ample primary documentation means that this project will produce a

comprehensive study with little need for guessing or assumption. This will then mean that the

methods, both qualitative and quantitative, will be easily used in relation to the information gathered

from these documents, which should make the project effective and efficient. This will then mean

that any conclusions drawn from the research will be reliable, and perhaps useful to any future

studies conducted in this particular field of research.

Date Location First Name Surname Gender Occupation Crime Sentence Date of Sentence

04/03/1700 Ayr Jonat Cook F Servant Fornication - with child Public repentance 23/11/1702

04/03/1701 Ayr John Cannon M Servant Fornication - denies, then confessed Rebuked / public repentance 24/09/1705

04/03/1702 Ayr Patrick Black M Sabbath breach Rebuked 22/04/1700

04/03/1703 Ayr John Scott M Sabbath breach Rebuked 22/04/1700

04/03/1704 Ayr Jean Donald F Servant Fornication - with child Public repentance 29/04/1700

04/03/1705 Ayr Robert McCaan M Servant Fornication Public repentance 17/06/1700

04/03/1706 Ayr Margaret McDowal F Fornication - relapse NO SHOW

04/03/1707 Ayr James Simpson M Soldier Fornication NO SHOW

04/03/1708 Ayr Helen Lawson F Fornication - gave birth Public repentance 27/05/1700

04/03/1709 Ayr Agnes McAllen F Fornication - with child Public repentance 06/05/1700

04/03/1710 Ayr John Fergusson M Soldier Fornication NO SHOW

04/03/1711 Ayr John Gottray M Sabbath breach Rebuked 06/05/1700

21

Bibliography

Primary Sources

Ayr Burgh Register of Incarcerations, Liberations, Arrestments and Loosings Thereof

B6/15/5 – 1721 – 1730

B6/15/6 – 1730 – 1742

B6/15/7 – 1742 – 1767

B6/15/8 – 1767 – 1781

B6/15/9 – 1781 – 1789

B6/15/10 – 1789 – 1794

B6/15/11 – 1794 – 1804

Ayr Kirk Session Minutes

CH2/751/9 – 1698 – 1709

CH2/751/10 – 1711 – 1718

CH2/751/11 – 1727 – 1735

CH2/751/12 – 1735 – 1752

CH2/751/13 – 1753 – 1780

CH2/751/14 – 1781 – 1793

CH2/751/15 – 1793 – 1801

Ayr Presbytery Minutes

CH2/532/2 – 1687 – 1705

CH2/532/3 – 1705 – 1719

CH2/532/4 – 1719 – 1732

CH2/532/5 – 1732 – 1746

CH2/532/6 – 1746 – 1756

CH2/532/7 – 1757 – 1768

CH2/532/8 – 1768 – 1796

CH2/532/9 – 1797 – 1811

Secondary Sources

Devine, T.M and Rosalind Mitchison, eds. People and Society in Scotland, Vol 1. C. 1760 – 1830.

Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers, 1994.

Devine, T.M. The Scottish Nation 1700 – 2007. London: Penguin Books, 2006.

Donaldson, L. Crime and Punishment of Women in Early Eighteenth-Century Perth. Stirling:

University of Stirling, 2008.

Whyte, Ian and Whyte, Kathleen, The Changing Scottish Landscape, 1500 – 1800. London:

Routledge, 1991.

22

Davies, S.J. ‘The Courts and the Scottish Legal System 1600 – 1747: The Case of Stirlingshire’ in

V.A.C. Gatrell, B. Lenman & G. Parker, eds. Crime and the Law: The Social History of Crime

in Western Europe since 1500. London, 1980. London: Europa, 1980. Pg. 120 – 154.

Fraser, WH., ‘Patterns of Protest,’ in TM. Devine and Rosalind Mitchison, (eds.), People and Society

in Scotland Vol. 1, 1760 – 1830. Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers, 1988. Pg. 289 – 291.

Whatley, Christopher, ‘How Tame were the Scottish Lowlanders During the Eighteenth Century?’ in

TM Devine, Conflict and Stability in Scottish Society 1700 – 1850. Edinburgh: John Donald

Publishers, 1990. Pg. 1 – 30.

Graham, Michael F., The Uses of Reform, ‘Godly Discipline’ and Popular Behaviour in Scotland

and Beyod, 1560 – 1610, Leiden: EJ Brill, 1996.

Kirk, James, ed., Stirling Presbytery Records 1581 – 1587. Edinburgh: Clark Constable Ltd, 1981.

23

The depiction of ‘the Other’ in Newspaper Cartoons at the turn of the

Twentieth Century.

By Rachael McArthur

Figure 1: A Daily Mail cartoon from 1925. Artist Poy implies that Germany has not been honest

about their economic situation regarding war reparations.

Emerging, as it did, in the eighteenth century, cartoons have remained an integral part of

British humour and satire. An intriguing historical source, both informative and influential in nature,

cartoons provide insight into how the public perceived and characterised prominent individuals and

notable events; the infamous account of George III bribing artist George Cruickshank “not to

caricature His Majesty in any immoral situation” stands as but one example of cartoons prickling the

24

tempers of the elite.23 The research is an examination of how the ‘other’ were portrayed in British

newspaper cartoons and editorials at the turn of the twentieth century. At the turn of the twentieth

century, Britain was faced with new enemies and threats, resulting in the ‘othering’ of groups such as

Germans, Bolsheviks, Irish Nationals and Suffragettes – often falling victim to popular cartoonists in

the national newspapers. Groups that were considered a threat to the status quo were the subject of

cartoons and propaganda in an attempt to assuage the populace and downplay the threat these groups

posed. This research will demonstrate how the newspaper cartoons portrayed the minority groups

and to what extent this attitude aligned with the editorial of the paper. The purpose of the research is

to demonstrate the ways in which newspapers used cartoons to foster an ideological relationship with

their consumers. An examination of the editorial in tandem with the cartoon, will demonstrate which

papers actively sought to use cartoons for political purposes and which used them to drive up sales,

a result of competition with rival newspapers. Interestingly, cartoons throughout history have been

acknowledged as being a tool for conveying gross and insulting depictions, often negative in

nature.24 What this research will demonstrate, however, is that the nature of the cartoon was not

always negative.

The cartoon history of the twentieth century has been somewhat overlooked by historians in

favour of the vibrant and colourful caricatures of the Georgian period; there exists, an endless

catalogue of literature on the cartoons of Gilray and Hogarth as well as an in depth analysis into the

influence of such cartoons on the higher epilogues of society, in particular the reactions of George III

and IV.25 Recent historians, such as, Benson and Scully have sampled cartoons at the turn of the

twentieth century and acknowledged the relationships between cartoons and newspapers; Benson

uses examples from cartoons featured in papers, Daily Graphic and News of the World, whilst Scully

argues that during WW1 cartoons were becoming an integral part of the newspaper structure, hiring

artists to produce weekly drawings.26 There is a tendency by historians, when discussing cartoons, to

rely almost solely on periodicals and journals, in particular Punch and Fun leaving cartoons from

23 Tamara L, Hunt, Defining John Bull: Political Caricature and National Identity in Late Georgian

England, (London: Routledge, 2017),323. 24 Lewis Perry Curtis, Apes and Angels: The Irishman in Victorian Caricature, (London: Smithsonian

Institution Press, 1971), 41, 127. 25 Kate Heard, High Spirits: The Comic Art of Thomas Rowlandson (London: Royal Collection Trust, 2013),

50,70. 26 Richard Scully, “The ‘Kaiser Cartoon’, 1914-1918: a transnational comic art genre,” in The Great War and

the British Empire: Culture and Society, e.d by Walsh, Michael J. K. and Andrekos Varnava, (London:

Routledge, 2016), 36. Timothy S Benson, The Cartoon Century: Modern Britain through the Eyes of its

Cartoonists. (London: Random House, 2007), 9.

25

newspaper unexplored and overlooked.27 Newspapers, in contrast had a higher readership than

periodicals and journals and were published more frequently, while also being clearer in opinion

using their editorial to project attitudes and political allegiance.28

Newspapers were the main media outlet at the turn of the twentieth century and are important

in understanding how the general public perceived the main events in Britain and internationally, as

much as they are a reflection of public opinion.29 The end of the nineteenth century saw a shift in

journalism; factual and academic articles were now replaced with entertaining and comedic ‘New

Journalism’.30 Often associated with W.T Stead, ‘New Journalism’ known today as ‘tabloid

journalism’, produced stories and articles of a scandalous nature. Not only did the style and structure

of the ‘British paper’ revolutionise, emerging papers like the Daily Mail sold

for one halfpenny, meaning papers were now reaching a wider social demographic.31 Newspapers

were not only hiring cartoonists but becoming an increasingly popular and influential asset to

society, with Morgan and Pederson arguing that they were, at this time, heavily influential, whilst

Koss stresses the importance of the intrinsic links between the press and senior members of

parliament.32

For this study, it was vital that more than one newspaper was used for research and that

collectively they varied in political affiliation and social standing. There is a historiographical

tendency to use one example of a cartoon, often grotesque and highly exaggerated, to support an

argument and as ‘proof’ of public opinion.33 By using a selection of newspapers I will obtain a

general understanding of how the public perceived the ‘other’, opposed to one view. The newspapers

that are the primary focus of study, Daily Herald, News of the World, Daily Mirror and Daily

Mail, are diverse in their political allegiance and are national newspapers, opposed to regional ones

and all hired professional cartoonists at the turn of the twentieth century.

27 Martin Walker, Daily Sketches: A Cartoon History of Twentieth Century Britain, (London: London Muller,

1978), 42, 66. 28 Timothy S. Benson, The Cartoon Century: Modern Britain through the Eyes of its Cartoonists (London:

Random House, 2007), 9. 29 Benson, The Cartoon Century, 7. 30 Mark Hampton, “Rethinking the ‘New Journalism,’ 1850s–1930s.” Journal of British Studies, 43, no. 2

(2004): 284. 31 Kenneth Morgan "The Boar War and the Media”, Twentieth Century British History 13, no. 1 (2002): 3. 32 Stephen E. Koss, The Rise and Fall of the Political Press in Britain (London: Hamilton, 1984), 198. Sarah

Pedersen. "Suffragettes and the Scottish Press during the First World War." Women's History Review 27, no. 4

(2018): 535. Morgon, “The Boer War and Media”, 3. 33 Matthew Engel, Tickle the Public: One Hundred Years of the Popular Press (London: Gollancz, 1996), 16.

26

The Daily Mirror hired artist W.K Haselden in 1904, the changing social expectations and

attitudes of the upper classes were his area of interest, however, he also created a mini-series during

the war titled “Big and Little Willie” mocking Kaiser Wilhelm, whilst also depicting the suffragettes

in an unfeminine manner.34 By WW1, the Daily Mail had employed Percy – Poy – Fearon to produce

weekly cartoons for the paper. In the years following the war, Poy was unsympathetic to the

economic situation of the Germans, and hostile to the Bolsheviks and their supporters in

Britain.35 (Figure 1) Hired by the News of the World in 1893, Joseph Staniforth’s cartoons were

an important and integral part of the paper. The focus of Staniforth’s cartoons were often

international and political in nature; he labelled Kaiser Wilhelm an instigator for war as early as

1907 as well as making light of the Home Rule debates and those associated with them.36 Hired by

the Daily Herald since its establishment in 1912, William Dyson produced cartoons that were direct

in their message and progressive in attitude. Dyson employed cartoons to defend the suffragettes,

choosing to attack the government for their treatment of women, particularly the use of forcible

feeding in prison.37 (Figure 2) Both the Daily Herald and News of the World deliberately placed the

cartoon on the front page, demonstrating the importance of the cartoon in communicating to the

readers their political message.38 Interestingly at the end of the war, the cartoons by Dyson move

further towards the centre of the paper as the message of the cartoons assume a

more radical position. Dyson would later leave the paper citing a lack of creative ability.

34 Daily Mirror, December 12, 1914. Daily Mirror, February 22 1913. 35 Daily Mail, January 20, 1925. Daily Mail, February 24, 1921. 36 News of the World, January 23, 1921. News of the World, April 23, 1922. 37 Daily Herald, May 24, 1913. 38 Daily Herald, November 14, 1913. News of the World, November 2, 1912.

27

Figure 2: Dyson attacks the use of force feeding inflicted on the suffragettes by the government. Mocking government reports that the

fed the bottom reads: “For what you are about to receive”.

Obtaining the material for the newspapers turned out to be much more challenging that I

had first imagined. Although past editions of the Daily Herald and the Daily Mirror have been

digitised and can be accessed via the British Newspaper Archive, I had to travel down to

London to obtain access to the Daily Mail and News of the World, (which are only available via

microfilm). I found, however, that using microfilm proved much more beneficial in

understanding the attitude of the paper; when applying key word searches on the digital archives the

results are limited and it’s easy to lose track of the bigger picture. A research strategy had to be

created to ensure that I was using my time wisely; I decided narrow down my search to key events,

for example the Curragh Mutiny 1914 and Treaty of Versailles 1919. I also had to familiarise myself

with the old terminology and lexicology, that is dated and redundant in today’s vocabulary; when

28

searching for cartoons and editorials on Germans, for example, I used phrases such as “Hun”, “Fritz”

and “Jerry”.39

In summary, my project looks to contribute to the limited historiography on both cartoons

and newspapers. With the emergence of ‘New Journalism’ at the beginning of the twentieth century

and the increase in cartoons in the popular papers, it appears that this is an area that should be

examined to gain an understanding into the British depiction of the ‘other’.

39 Daily Mirror, July 4, 1918.

29

Bibliography

Primary Material

Daily Herald

Daily Mail

Daily Mirror

News of the World

Secondary Material

Benson, Timothy S. The Cartoon Century: Modern Britain through the Eyes of its

Cartoonists. London: Random House, 2007. 

Curtis, Lewis Perry. Apes and Angels: The Irishman in Victorian Caricature. London:

Smithsonian Institution Press, 1971.

Engel, Matthew. Tickle the Public: One Hundred Years of the Popular Press. London:

Gollancz, 1996.  

Hampton, Mark. “Rethinking the ‘New Journalism,’ 1850s–1930s.” Journal of British

Studies, 43, no. 2, (2004): 278–290.  

Heard, Kate.  High Spirits: The Comic Art of Thomas Rowlandson. London: Royal

Collection Trust, 2013. 

Hunt, Tamara L. Defining John Bull: Political Caricature and National Identity in Late

Georgian England. London: Routledge, 2017. 

Koss, Stephen E. The Rise and Fall of the Political Press in Britain. London: Hamilton,

1984. 

Morgan Kenneth. O. "The Boer War and the Media (1899-1902)." Twentieth Century British

History 13, no. 1 (2002): 1-16. 

30

Pedersen, Sarah. "Suffragettes and the Scottish Press during the First World War." Women's

History Review 27, no. 4 (2018): 534-550. 

Scully, Richard. “The ‘Kaiser Cartoon’, 1914-1918: a transnational comic art genre,” in The

Great War and the British Empire: Culture and Society, edited by Walsh, Michael J. K.

and Andrekos Varnava. 41-62. London: Routledge, 2016. 

Walker, Martin. Daily Sketches a Cartoon History of Twentieth Century Britain. London:

London Muller, 1978.