AN INTRODUCTION

TO CHINESE

CULTURE

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AN INTRODUCTION TO CHINESE CULTURE

Contents

Foreword

Part 1: The Origins of Chinese Civilization1. Early Civilization2. Jade Culture3. Bronze Culture

Part 2: Writing and Language1. Chinese Characters2. Chinese Dialects

Part 3: Chinese Philosophy1. Confucianism2. Daoism 3. Chinese Buddhism4. Historical Scholarship

Part 4. Literature1. Poetry2. Essay Writing 3. The Novel

Part 5. Art1. Calligraphy2. Painting3. Sculpture4. Architecture5. Music6. Dance7. Drama8. Crafts

Ceramics Silk Textiles Lacquerware

9. Folk Art Acrobatics

Miscellaneous Arts and Crafts

Part 6. Cultural Exchange1. Cultural Exchange in Ancient China

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2. Cultural Exchange in Modern China

Afterword

Foreword

In eastern Asia lies a vast land, 9.6 million square kilometers in area, that stretches from the heights of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau in the west, to the boundless Pacific Ocean in the east. This is China, the cradle of Chinese civilization and home to fifty-six different ethnic groups.

Chinese culture embodies the philosophy of holism. Ancient Chinese philosophers believed that all things are interrelated, and that Heaven, Earth, and Humanity form a unified whole. This holistic philosophy influences every aspect of Chinese language, literature, and art, as well as the daily lives and habits of the Chinese people. Chinese culture upholds the central position of human beings within the unity of Heaven and Earth. It emphasizes personal ethics and self-cultivation, and the pursuit of moral perfection. Advocating moderation, it seeks balance and harmony in all things.

Two-part jade bi disk with carved chihu (dragon-tiger),Warring States Period (475-221 BC)

(The chihu is a type of dragon with the head of a tiger. Chi (the dragon) represents yin, or

Earth, and hu (the tiger) represents yang, or Heaven. The chihu, or dragon-tiger,

therefore represents the union of Heaven and Earth and the balance between yin and

yang.)

Part 1: The Origins of Chinese Civilization

According to Chinese legend, a giant named Pangu used a great axe to split Primordial Chaos and create Heaven and Earth. A goddess named Nüwa then created animals and human beings over the course of six days. Nüwa became responsible for human procreation, and her elder

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brother, Fuxi, became responsible for agriculture, hunting, and shelter.

Legend has it that four to five thousand years ago, a tribal leader known as the Yellow Emperor battled for many years to defeat many other tribes. In the end, he assimilated the tribe of Yan Di and established the Huaxia, or Han Chinese people. For this reason, Han Chinese people all over the world refer to themselves as the "descendents of Yan Di and the Yellow Emperor."

Nüwa and Fuxi, Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD)

1. Early Civilization

When humanity's ancestors started to fashion tools out of stone, the curtain slowly rose on human civilization.

China's Stone Age lasted for at least one million years. The Chinese ancestors started to make pottery during the late Neolithic Period, around 5000 BC. This period is represented by Yangshao Culture, on the middle reaches of the Yellow River, and Hemudu Culture, on the lower reaches of the Changjiang River.

Yangshao Culture flourished from approximately 5000 to 3000 BC. Its exquisite painted pottery represents the height of early Chinese ceramic art. A variety of beautifully painted vessels have been excavated, typically decorated with figures of fish. Various explanations have been given as to the meaning of these unique decorations. Some scholars believe that they represented totemic deities, others think they were prayers for abundant harvest, while still others say that they were good luck charms to invoke fruitful procreation.

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Painted pottery vessel with human faces and fish,Yangshao Culture (c. 5000-3000 BC)

Carbonized traces of large amounts of rice have been excavated from the ruins of a 7000 year-old Hemudu Culture site. This is a sign of the abundant harvests and affluence enjoyed by these early Chinese ancestors. The Hemudu people also invented mortise and tenon joinery, which they used to construct China's earliest wooden post and beam buildings. These characteristic interlocking joints are used to connect two pieces of lumber. They consist of a protrusion (the tenon) on one piece, which fits into a corresponding slot (the mortise) on another. This technique is still used in China today to construct wooden buildings and furniture.

2. Jade Culture

The late Neolithic Age saw the advent of China's unique "jade culture."

The Chinese people have always considered jade to be foremost among the infinite treasures that Nature has bestowed upon humanity. During the Neolithic Age, stone working gradually gave rise to the production of jade articles. Jade was first used to make ornaments, and later for ritual objects used in sacrificial ceremonies.

Jade cong with carved animal face, Liangzhu Culture (c. 3300-2200 BC)

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The dragon is the totem of the Chinese ancestors. The early Chinese people had no rational explanations for many natural phenomena. As a result, they imagined that there must be some supernatural animal that controlled all other animals, as well as celestial phenomena, in the same way that there must be a leader for every clan. They combined characteristics of various animals to create the dragon: the head of a camel, body of a snake, horns of a stag, eyes of a tortoise, scales of a fish, paws of a tiger, claws of an eagle, and ears of a cow. This combination of features indicated the dragon's status an omnipotent deity and chief of all the animals. Many exquisitely carved jade dragons have been excavated from Neolithic sites. Among them is a jade dragon discovered in 1971. It is 26 cm tall, and carved out of a single piece of dark green jade. The head, carved in bas-relief, resembles the head of a pig, while the body is curved into the shape of a "C." The entire piece is highly polished to a smooth and lustrous finish. Because it is the earliest example of a Chinese jade dragon found to date, it is referred to as "China's first jade dragon."

Jade dragon, Hongshan Culture (c. 3500 BC)

During the 6th century BC, the Confucian school of philosophy held that ritual jade objects were symbolic of human nature. Their soft luster represented serenity, while their flawless clarity represented refinement of character. As Confucianism developed, ritual jade objects were appropriated by the nobility as emblems of rank and status. Even more importantly, they came to be seen as symbols of evolved character and moral perfection.

3. Bronze Culture

China's Bronze Culture reached its peak in the 16th century BC and flourished for 1000 years. Bronze was used primarily to craft ritual objects and musical instruments, rather than the agricultural tools and weapons characteristic of other Bronze Age cultures. Many cast bronze objects bearing accounts of sacrificial rites and historical incidents were

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made during this time, providing important records of the period.

Bronze Simuwu ding (cooking vessel), Shang Dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BC)

Bronze rhinoceros zun (wine vessel) with inlaid gold and silver cloud design,

Western Han (202 BC-9 AD)

Legend has it that the Ancient Kingdom of Shu existed in the Sichuan Basin during the Shang-Zhou period. Although historical records provide no definite dates for this ancient kingdom, its existence was confirmed by the discovery of the Sanxingdui archeological site in Guanghan, Sichuan. The Sanxingdui site is located in Guanghan, Sichuan Province, in Nanxing Township. The surrounding terrain consists of three loess promontories rising out of the Chengdu plain. The name Sanxingdui literally means "three promontories." Most of the artifacts unearthed at Sanxingdui are bronze objects that are approximately 5000 years old. They include a 262 centimeters tall standing human figure, a bronze mask that is 65 centimeters tall, and bronze human figures. Interestingly, these figures have characteristically Western features, with high noses and large eyes, quite unlike the features that were common in Central China at the time. A sacred bronze tree with nine mythical birds and one dragon perched in its branches stands 395 centimeters tall. It is the tallest single ancient bronze artifact in existence.

These human and animal figures are quite atypical of Central China's Bronze Culture. No written records could be found on these bronze objects, so the origins of Sanxingdui culture remains a mystery. The disappearance of the

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Ancient Kingdom of Shu also remains unexplained. The excavation of numerous ritual objects, as well as golden staffs inscribed with indecipherable symbols, only adds to the riddle of Sanxingdui civilization.

Bronze standing figure from Sanxingdui, Ancient Kingdom of Shu, Xia-Shang-Zhou period (c. 2070-256 BC)

Part 2: Writing and Language

Chinese characters are China's principal form of writing. The history of Chinese characters spans over 3000 years, making them one of the world's oldest forms of written communication. Qin Shihuang, China's first emperor, standardized Chinese characters in 221 BC. China's ethnic minorities also have a number of unique writing systems. Spoken Chinese has many different dialects and pronunciations. In 1955, the Chinese government established Mandarin Chinese as the standard pronunciation.

1. Chinese Characters

Chinese characters are written within a square framework, so they are sometimes referred to in Chinese as "square writing." The earliest form of the Chinese character for “sun” was a circle with a black dot in the middle, representing the sun in the sky. The modern character for “net” still resembles interwoven strands of rope. The characters for “fish” and “horse” started out as pictographic representations, and gradually evolved into today's simplified characters. This type of pictographic writing, which uses symbols to directly represent objects, was the basis for Chinese characters.

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Evolution of the character "日" (ri, sun)

Evolution of the characters “鱼” (yu, fish) and“马” (ma, horse)

The evolution of Chinese characters and calligraphy provides insight into the development of human society. The earliest form of Chinese characters was oracle bone script, which was carved into tortoise shells and animal bones. This was followed by metal script, which was cast or engraved on bronze vessels. Next came seal script and official script, which were written on bamboo slips, wood, and silk. Later developments included regular script, semi-cursive, and cursive script, which were written on paper. Most recently, new computer coding systems for Chinese characters have ushered Chinese writing into the Information Age.

Fragments of oracle bone script, Shang Dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BC)

Bronze tallies of Lord Qi of E, Warring States Period (475-221 BC)(The bronze tallies of Lord Qi date from the State of Chu, during China's Warring States

Period. They are made of bronze and shaped like sections of bamboo. The tallies were

given to Lord Qi, ruler of the city of E in today's Hubei Province, by King Huai of Chu

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(reigned 328-299 BC). They gave the holder permission to travel by land and water

routes. The inscriptions on the tallies are China's oldest existing written records

concerning safety regulations for water transportation.)

2. Chinese Dialects

China is a vast land with a huge population. Different regions have their own dialects and pronunciations. There are seven main dialects in China, each of which provides the foundation for its local culture. The northern dialect, characterized by Beijing Mandarin Chinese, has the largest range of any of China's language groups. It accounts for three-quarters of the country's spoken Chinese, and is used by over 70% of Han Chinese people. In 1955, the Chinese government officially established Mandarin Chinese as "the modern common language of the Han Chinese people, utilizing Beijing pronunciation as its standard, based on the northern Chinese dialect, and employing the grammar of modern vernacular written Chinese." Standard Mandarin Chinese has become the fundamental means of communication among the Chinese people.

Part 3: Chinese Philosophy

Great differences exist between traditional Chinese and Western thought. Traditional Chinese philosophy puts great importance on personal ethics and morality, holding that only a person of superior character can achieve domestic harmony and national progress.

The 6th through 3rd centuries BC saw the flourishing of traditional Chinese philosophy. Numerous schools of thought advanced their ideas during this time. Among them, Confucianism and Daoism had the greatest influence on the development of Chinese culture.

1. Confucianism

Confucianism emerged between the 6th through 5th century BC. Its founder, Confucius, expanded upon ancient Chinese concepts of humanism. He emphasized the value of the individual, the cultivation of personal ethics, and the importance of moral character. The concepts of benevolence ( ren ) and propriety ( li ) were the central tenants of Confuciansim, and became the foundation of mainstream Chinese culture.

Confucius believed that benevolence (ren) may be expressed in four ways. First, it is embodied in human beings, not in supernatural deities. Second, it should mediate and harmonize personal and social relationships. Third, it

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should be the highest moral standard of the individual. Fourth, people who possess benevolence feel love for all of humanity. This spirit of benevolent humanism had a profound influence on the development of Chinese culture. It is the foundation that underlies the qualities of moderation, courtesy, and respect for others that so deeply characterize the Chinese people.

If the concept of benevolence (ren) manifests in the individual, then propriety (li) is a function of society. The Confucian concept of propriety holds that when the populace conforms to social order and morality, then personal, social, and political relationships will approach ideal harmony.

Portrait of Confucius (551-479 BC)

2. Daoism

Daoism emerged between the 6th and 3rd centuries BC. The Daoist philosophers Laozi and Zhuangzi taught that by withdrawing from the world, people could avoid the chaos of society and achieve inner peace. Daoism holds that it is possible to apply reason to transcend emotion and achieve spiritual freedom. This viewpoint was later echoed by the Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza.

Daoist philosophy teaches that although all things exist in a state of transformation, they also possess an underlying order. This constantly changing, self-balancing order is known as the Dao, or the Way. Understanding the Dao enables one to live with grace, regardless of the vicissitudes of Nature or society, because change is to be expected.

The Daoist concept of constant transformation deeply informed the political life of ancient China. The proponents of Daoism believed that although a country's rulers may wield ultimate political power, they cannot improve the people's lives or control the fate of the nation. Laozi therefore advocated a

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laissez-faire approach to government that did not interfere with personal freedom, and allowed the populace to develop naturally. Laozi's policies were implemented in the 2nd century BC during the Han Dynasty, resulting in peace and prosperity for the Chinese people and the nation.

Stone carving of Laozi, Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 BC)

3. Chinese Buddhism

Buddhism was brought to China from India during the last years of the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-9 AD). As it was gradually assimilated by Chinese culture, a new form of uniquely Chinese Buddhism arose. The difference between Chinese and Indian Buddhism is as great as that between Catholicism and Protestantism.

Indian Buddhism advocates strict asceticism. Practitioners often retreat to caves to undertake prolonged solitary mediation on the Buddhist scriptures. Even though this form of arduous self-cultivation gained quite a few adherents in China, it was so removed from daily life that not many people really understood its doctrines.

During the 7th century AD, a Chinese Buddhist monk named Hui Neng transformed this situation. Hui Neng originated the school of Buddhism known in China as Chan, and in the West as Zen Buddhism. Zen is the most representative school of Chinese Buddhism. The term chan is a homonym of the Sanskrit word dhyana, which means deep contemplation. This new form of Buddhism cast off the restrictions of doctrine, encouraging free thinking and debate by its adherents. It held that anyone, whether emperor or farmer, could achieve enlightenment through labor and daily life. The Zen process of self-cultivation has been described as "searching for the camel upon which one is riding." That is, one must first transcend the material plane in order to discover its true nature. Although Chinese Buddhism continued to emphasize the importance of the Buddhist scriptures, it gradually combined with native Chinese Confucian and Daoist thought, and eventually became completely integrated with Chinese culture.

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Baima Temple, Luoyang, Henan Province (construction started 1st century AD)

4. Historical Scholarship

History provides the coordinates of culture. Only by understanding China's tradition of historical scholarship can the larger picture of Chinese culture be brought into focus.

As early as the 10th century BC, the Western Zhou Dynasty instituted the position of official historian. Great importance was placed on the keeping of historical records. Most early Chinese histories were chronological collections of political and historical essays or records of major historical events. The Spring and Autumn Annals, compiled by Confucius, was China's first such chronological history. During the 2nd century BC, the Western Han Dynasty historian Sima Qian compiled The Historical Records. This work established biographies as the standard form for recording history. Biographic histories focused on dynastic personages, rather than events, and took a comprehensive view of history. A total of twenty-five biographic histories were produced, known collectively as The Twenty-five Histories.

During the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127 AD), historian Sima Guang and his assistants labored for nineteen years to compile a comprehensive history of China. This record, The Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government, was written in the chronological style and spanned 1362 years. The Comprehensive Mirror both compiled and analyzed copious historical material. It provided government officials with an overview of Chinese history, as well as an opportunity to learn from the lessons of the past. This work embodies the importance of historical scholarship to Chinese culture.

Part 4. Literature

The classical literature of the West is often colored by religious concerns. Classical Chinese literature, on the other hand, is deeply

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concerned with human relationships, the affairs of society, and everyday life.

1. Poetry

In order to understand Western literature, it is necessary to read its ancient epics and dramatic works. To understand Chinese literature, one must turn to its poetry. Poetry is the most representative genre of classical Chinese literature. It exemplifies the lyricism of the Chinese literary tradition. China's earliest collections of poetry were The Book of Songs (Shi Jing) , and Poetry of the South (Chu Ci) . The Book of Songs was compiled between the 8th and 5th centuries BC. One section describes the work, life, and loves of the common people. Another section records the rites and ceremonies of the nobility. During the Warring States Period, the poet Qu Yuan (340-278 BC) created a new form of deeply personal verse called "poetry of the south." The Lament (Li Sao), Qu Yuan's most famous work, established the lyric school of Chinese poetry. Later ages saw the emergence of the romantic and realist schools of Chinese poetry. This development reached its peak during the 8th century Tang Dynasty, exemplified by the poets Li Bai and Du Fu. The poetry of this period was highly structured.

After the 10th century AD, a new poetic genre emerged. Consisting of both long and short lines, it was freer than previous forms. Story-song (shuochang) was a popular form of folk entertainment. After the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368 AD), it gave rise to a new form of poetry known as qu, verse that was sung. Today's free verse is written in the vernacular. It has no set format and encompasses numerous styles, while still preserving the lyricism of classical Chinese poetry.

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Portrait of Li Bai (701-762 AD)

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2. Essay Writing

Confucius (551 － 479 BC) held that essay writing was the ideal way to disseminate ethics and ideology.

The language of China's pre-Qin Dynasty classical essays may be somewhat difficult for modern readers to decipher. But the ideas they express are quite profound. Understanding this style of writing is as important to Chinese essayists as Latin is to modern Western philosophers. By the time of the Southern Dynasty in the 5th to 6th century AD, essay writing had become increasingly removed from real life. It adhered to a rigid format fraught with literary embellishments, extensive quotations, and vague generalities. Around the middle of the Tang Dynasty in the 8th century, a movement arose to reform essay writing. Writers rejected the restrictions of the traditional form while retaining the best aspects of classical essay writing, creating a style suitable for reflecting real life. Han Yu (768-824 AD) of the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD) and Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072 AD) of the Song Dynasty (960-1276AD) were the most prominent essayists of the time.

Detail of Nymph of the Luo River (Luoshen Futu), by Gu Kaizhi (348-409 AD)

Nymph of the Luo River (Luoshen Futu), by Eastern Jin Dynasty (317-420 AD) artist Gu

Kaizhi (345-406 AD), was inspired by the essay of the same name by the poet Cao Zhi

(192-232 AD). In his essay, Cao Zhi describes a dream in which he meets and falls in

love with the nymph of the Luo River, but loses her in the end.

Although contemporary Chinese essayists no longer use classical literary forms and language, much of the vocabulary and technique of classical essay writing has been retained. The elegance of this form can still be enjoyed in the work of modern writers.

3. The Novel

The Chinese novel draws its material from the lives of the people. It was from the people that the Chinese novel emerged, to eventually become one of China's most important literary forms.

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From the 14th century to the early 20th century, Yuan-Ming-Qing period saw the flourishing of the Chinese novel. Representative works of the period include Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi), Outlaws of the Marsh (Shuihu Zhuan), Journey to the West (Xiyou Ji), and Dream of the Red Chamber (Honglou Meng). These novels are collectively known as the Four Masterpieces of classical Chinese literature.

Romance of the Three Kingdoms describes the political upheaval and military struggles of the Three Kingdoms period. Outlaws of the Marsh tells the story of a 12th century peasant uprising. Journey to the West recounts the legendary journey of the eminent Tang Dynasty monk Xuan Zang (c.600-664 AD) to India to bring the Buddhist scriptures back to China.

Dream of the Red Chamber, by Cao Xueqin (1715-1763 AD), is primarily a love story about its protagonists, Jia Baoyu and Lin Daiyu. Written against the backdrop of the rise and fall of four families, it offers a vivid description of society and daily life during this period. Today, numerous scholars and groups are devoted to studying the politics, literature, religion, economics, and cultural mores depicted in this novel.

Block print from Honglou Meng (Dream of the Red Chamber), Qing Dynasty (1636-1911 AD)

After 1919, Chinese authors started to use modern, rather than classical, language in their writing. This marked the start of a dialogue between the modern Chinese novel and world literature, and gave rise to a number of new genres. These new styles initiated the integration of the traditional Chinese novel and world literary trends.

Part 5. Art

The art of ancient Egypt, India, and Babylon has receded into the mists of the

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past. That of China, on the other hand, has developed without interruption for thousands of years. Chinese art is richly diverse and highly comprehensive, encompassing many forms and styles. Chinese art includes calligraphy, painting, sculpture, architecture, music, dance, drama, film, crafts and folk art.

1. Calligraphy

In China, a person who can produce beautiful calligraphy is considered to be highly cultured.

Traditional Chinese calligraphy uses brushes made from animal hair to apply ink to paper, producing uniquely graceful brushstrokes.

The earliest Chinese calligraphy was extremely controlled and formal, much like the strict rites and ceremonies that defined the society of the time. Seal script (zhuanshu), came into use during the Qin Dynasty (221-207 BC). It used heavy, intricate brush strokes, while also prizing a balanced and harmonious structure. Official script (lishu), introduced during the Qin-Han period (221 BC-220 AD), had a more relaxed style and used variable brush strokes. This development offered calligraphers more creative latitude, and diverse new styles of calligraphy started to appear.

Wang Xizhi (303-361 AD), known as the Sage of Calligraphy, was a master calligrapher of the Eastern Jin Dynasty. His calligraphy, with its concise structure and refined brushwork, was famous for its elegance and scholarly quality. It is said that Wang Xizhi once wrote a passage on a wooden board for an engraver to carve. The ink permeated the wood to a depth of one centimeter. As a result, the phrase "one centimeter into the wood" came to describe elegant calligraphy, and later became a metaphor for profound ideas or penetrating views.

Wang Xizhi's work Preface to the Orchid Pavilion (Lanting Xu), written in expressive cursive script (xingshu), is considered to be the epitome of classical Chinese calligraphy. In 353 AD, on the third day of the third lunar month, Wang Xizhi and some friends visited the Lanting Orchid Pavilion in Shaoxing. The friends drank wine and wrote improvised poems, which they compiled into a book. Wang Xizhi's famous Preface to the Orchid Pavilion, which he wrote on the spot, became known as the "greatest cursive calligraphy under Heaven." Many romantic stories have been passed down about this work, further embellishing its reputation. It is said that the original calligraphy was buried in the tomb of Emperor Tang Taizong (reigned 626-649 AD). Today, all that remains of Wang Xizhi's masterpiece are reproductions of the original created by calligraphers through the ages. The most famous, by

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Tang Dynasty calligrapher Feng Chengsu, is in the collection of the Palace Museum in Beijing.

Copy of Preface to the Orchid Pavilion (Lanting Xu), by Feng Chengsu,c. Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD)

Original by Wang Xizhi (303-361 AD)

Modern writing implements have gradually supplanted the brush, and simplified Chinese characters have joined traditional complex forms. But Chinese people still practice calligraphy and seal cutting as a means of self-cultivation and self-expression. Traditional calligraphic techniques have been applied to writing with fountain pens and ballpoint pens, preserving the form and beauty of brush writing in a new style known as "hard calligraphy."

2. Painting

Traditional Chinese painting uses brushes to apply ink and pigment to thin silk or paper, which is then mounted on scrolls. Great importance is placed on fluidity and expressiveness of line. Chinese painting holds that revealing essence is more important than representing form.

Early Chinese painting was primarily religiously oriented. After the 7th century AD, Chinese painting was influenced by the holistic concept of seeking harmony between Humanity and Nature. A new school of painting arose that advocated breaking the bonds of concrete imagery and using symbolism to represent the interior world. As a result, subject matter gradually changed from religious figures to natural scenery, including landscape and "bird and flower" painting.

Unlike Western painting, traditional Chinese painting does not employ a single focal point. Rather, most Chinese landscapes utilize a panoramic perspective to portray a sweep of connected views, such as mountains and rivers or a long city street. These paintings, mounted on long scrolls, allow the viewer to appreciate vistas that cannot be seen from a single perspective.

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Winter Forest in Snow (Xuejing Hanlin Tu) by Fan Kuan, c. Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127 AD)

A new school of contemporary Chinese ink painting, influenced by the ideas and techniques of Western art, is represented by the works of the late 19th century artist Xu Beihong. Chinese artists have also created new styles of oil painting that integrate the spirit of Western art while also preserving the unique features of traditional Chinese art. The waterscapes of contemporary painter Wu Guanzhong (b. 1919) are a case in point. These pieces bring classical beauty to the eyes of the modern viewer.

Galloping Horse (Ben Ma Tu) by Xu Beihong

Southern Waterside Village (Jiangnan Shuixiang) by Wu Guanzhong

3. Sculpture

"Sculpture is the forerunner of all art." This saying truly describes the Chinese sculptural arts. Jade carvings of people, pottery figurines of

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young women, and sculptures and carvings of animals appeared in China as early as the Neolithic Age (c. 12,000-2000 BC). As Chinese civilization flourished, so did Chinese sculpture.

The great underground terracotta army of Emperor Qin Shihuang was first unearthed in 1974. The army includes a wide variety of soldiers, no two alike, all with highly realistic carved faces and unique expressions. These figures must have been created by a large number of artisans in order to display such diverse technique.

Terracotta warriors of Qin Shihuang, Pit 2, Xi'an, Shaanxi Province, Qin Dynasty (221-207 BC)

Terracotta warrior, Xi'an, Shaanxi Province, Qin Dynasty (221-207 BC)

The Buddhist statues found in China's grottoes and temples represent the epitome of traditional Chinese sculpture. The massive and majestic Buddhas of the Yungang and Longmen Grottoes have brought China's extraordinary sculptural tradition to the eyes of the world. These sculptures often feature beautifully carved clothing. They skillfully portray the form and dynamism of their subjects.

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Buddhist Statue, Longmen Grottoes (post-5th century AD)

4. Architecture

Traditional Chinese architecture emphasizes harmony between structure and surroundings. Whether palace, temple, garden, or residence, traditional Chinese buildings blend with the surrounding landscape into an integrated whole. Even inside a building, human beings and nature are not separate, but rather form a unified whole.

Chinese architecture is consistent with social status and class. It is said that the Lord of Heaven, the ruler of the spiritual realm, lives in a palace of 10,000 rooms. Therefore, the residence the Emperor of China, who is merely the ruler of the temporal realm, may have no more than 9,999 ½ rooms. The Forbidden City, the imperial residence of the emperors of China, is laid out in a symmetrical pattern along a central axis. The southern section, or Outer Court, is where the emperor exercised his supreme political power and carried out government activities. The northern section, or Inner Court, is where the emperor and members of the imperial family lived. At the center of the Forbidden City is a huge square. In the center of the square stands the enormous Hall of Supreme Harmony, the seat and symbol of imperial power. The Forbidden City is an awesome expression of imperial grandeur and might.

Many modern Chinese cities still follow traditional architectural models. They are often laid out along a central axis and emphasize unity and balance. Modern Chinese architects and city planners strive for a unified design concept that incorporates both traditional and modern concepts.

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Forbidden City, Beijing

The residences of court officials and nobles in southern China were small but exquisite. They included buildings, hills, ponds, and plantings that offered a realistic reproduction of Nature in miniature. Upon entering the gates, the visitor's line of sight is interrupted by artfully placed rises, so the entire estate is not visible in one glance. Only as one strolls along are vistas of distant mountains and intimate water gradually revealed, like a long scroll painting of a panoramic landscape.

Jichang Garden, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province

5. Music

Music has existed in different forms throughout Chinese history. The earliest Chinese music was primarily instrumental accompaniment to dance. After the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD), a new form of vocal music and dance became popular. After the 12th century AD, regional opera became China's most representative form of music.

The history of music and the development of musical instruments are inseparable. As early as the Neolithic Age, the Chinese ancestors invented the bone flute and the xun, a pottery wind instrument. A set of bells dating from the Warring States Period (475-221 BC) was unearthed in 1978. It consists of 64 bells, and weighs more than 2,500 kilograms. The bells cover a wide register and have a beautiful tone. They can be used to perform Chinese

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and foreign compositions in both seven-tone and five-tone scales. Traditional Chinese instruments, like those of the West, encompass many types. They include bowed string instruments, such as the erhu and banhu; plucked string instruments, such as the pipa and zheng; wind instruments, such as the flute and suona; and percussion instruments, such as the drum and gong.

Bronze bells of Marquis Yi of Zeng, Warring States Period (475-221 BC)

Traditional Chinese music ensemble

Contemporary Chinese musicians have preserved and adapted a large body of traditional Chinese music. They have also drawn from Western harmonic theory to create many new works, bringing Chinese music into the mainstream of the international music world.

6. Dance

Prehistoric Chinese dance had its origins in labor. It was often used to recreate the motions of hunting and planting.

Around the 21st century BC, dance started to appear as a formal component of religious rituals, palace ceremonies, and banquets. Over the following centuries it gradually evolved from popular entertainment into performing art. The Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD) saw the rapid development of dance as an art form and a major increase in the number of professional performers. During this time, an official Conservatory of Music was established. This government bureau not only collected and arranged popular music and dance, but also selected outstanding artists from among the populace to

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perform at court. Some palace troupes had over one thousand members. Further developments in palace dance occurred during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD).

Extensive material has been collected concerning ancient Chinese dance. There have even been modern revivals of some of these ancient dance forms. Flying Apsaras (Feitian), a duet for two women by dancer and choreographer Dai Ailian (1916 -2006 ), was adapted from ancient murals of dancers at the Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang. This piece integrates elements of "ribbon dancing" from the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD), using long silk streamers to express the dancers' bold and unconstrained spirit.

Flying Apsaras (Feitian), mural from Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang,c. post-4th century AD

7. Drama

The Chinese dramatic tradition includes both traditional opera and modern theater.

Traditional Chinese opera first appeared during the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD). By the time of the Yuan Dynasty in the 13th century AD, there were regional opera troupes established throughout China. Unlike Western theater, which relies primarily on a single form of expression, traditional Chinese opera combines dance, vocal and instrumental music, dialogue, acrobatics, and martial arts, to create a uniquely diverse dramatic form.

During the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368 AD), theater flourished as never before, ushering in the golden age of classical Chinese drama. This period produced numerous outstanding dramatists. Among them, the great playwright Guan Hanqing (c. 1225-1300 AD) produced works on a par with those of William Shakespeare. His representative work, Dou E Wronged (Dou E Yuan), is still performed today. Playwright Wang Shifu was a contemporary

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of Guan Hanqing. His work Romance of the Western Chamber (Xixiang Ji) is a complex and moving love story that is known throughout China.

Differences in location and dialect gave rise to many regional forms of traditional Chinese opera. Kunqu opera originated in the Changjiang River delta region. With its beautiful arias, elegant lyrics, and subtle acting, Kunqu opera has great historical, cultural, and artistic value. In 2001, Kunqu opera was first designated by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.

Beijing opera emerged during the 18th to 19th century. With the widest geographical range and largest audience of any form of traditional Chinese opera, Beijing opera is said to embody the essence of Chinese culture. Mei Lanfang is the most famous star of Beijing opera. He was the first Chinese artist to perform traditional Chinese opera abroad and to introduce it to an international audience. Traditional Chinese opera, represented by the art of Mei Lanfang, is known as one of the world's three great theatrical traditions, along with the method acting of Russia's Konstantin Stanislavsky and the epic theater of Germany's Bertolt Brecht.

Photograph from Beijing opera Legend of White Snake (Bai She Zhuan), with Mei Lanfang as White Snake

During the 20th century, Chinese playwrights started to draw from the literary techniques and theories of the West to create a new form of modern Chinese theater. The Thunderstorm (Leiyu) by Cao Yu, Teahouse (Chaguan) by Lao She, and Qu Yuan by Guo Moruo may all be included on the list of modern Chinese dramatic masterpieces.

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Photograph from Teahouse (Chaguan) by Lao She (1899-1966)

8. Crafts

Crafts integrate art and life, aesthetics and practicality. Ceramics, silk textiles, and lacquerware represent the epitome of Chinese crafts. These and other Chinese crafts spread throughout Asia, Africa, and Europe early in human history.

• Ceramics

The Chinese ancestors first started to make fired earthenware pottery during the Neolithic Age. Chinese pottery production reached its peak during Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD) with the invention of tri-color pottery. Tang tri-color pottery used yellow, green, and white glazes to create beautiful and vibrant works of art. Representative pieces include lifelike figures of camels, horses, and people that were used as funerary objects. Many of these human figures had central Asian features and clothing, reflecting the extensive cultural exchange that took place during this period.

Tang tri-color figurine of musicians on camelback,Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD)

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By the time of the Song Dynasty in the 10th century AD, ceramics production was flourishing as never before. Jingdezhen in Jiangxi Province became an important center of porcelain stoneware production during this time. It became known as the "porcelain capital" of China, and was famous for its blue and white glazed pieces.

Double-handled flask with blue and white cloud-dragon design,Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368 AD)

• Silk Textiles

China has the world's oldest tradition of sericulture and silk production. As a result, China was known throughout the ancient world as the "Land of Silk." One of the oldest existing pieces of Chinese silk was found in the Mawangdui tombs at Changsha, Hunan Province. Dating from the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-9 AD), this painted silk funeral banner is 160 cm long and weighs only 49 grams. Ancient Chinese artisans also combined standard and jacquard weaving techniques to produce silk brocade. These textiles used gold, silver, and colored silk thread to create beautiful raised patterns.

Fragment of Chu brocade, Warring States Period (475-221 BC)

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• Lacquerware

Lacquerware was another important Chinese invention. Lacquerware is made by applying different colors of lacquer to wooden vessels. Ancient lacquerware vessels were often engraved with various designs, embossed with gold leaf, or inlaid with precious stones. Lacquerware entered its golden age during the Han Dynasty, from the 2nd century BC through the 2nd century AD. Pieces became increasingly intricate, with more colorful and lustrous finishes and more refined designs. A number of advanced production techniques were introduced to Japan during this period.

Lacquerware ding (food container) with cloud pattern,Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-9 AD)

9. Folk Art

Chinese folk art encompasses a wide range of performing and vocal arts, visual arts, dance, music, and literature.

• Acrobatics

Acrobatics is a unique type of performing art characterized by extraordinary physical skills. Acrobatics was first used as a form of cultural exchange in 108 AD, when Han Dynasty Emperor Wudi assembled a group of outstanding Chinese acrobats to entertain visiting dignitaries from Anxi (present-day Iran). The great performance was attended by the emperor, his ministers, and foreign guests, as well as members of the populace from hundreds of kilometers around. Today, acrobatics has developed into an integrated performing art. Chinese acrobatic troupes have won numerous awards at major international competitions. By introducing this distinctive aspect of Chinese culture to audiences around the world, they have made a great contribution to international cultural exchange.

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Distinctively Chinese "hanging ribbon" acrobatics

• Miscellaneous Arts and Crafts

Shadow puppetry uses two dimensional cutout figures, made from leather or heavy paper, to present a play. A spotlight is shone onto the cutouts, projecting their silhouettes onto a white screen. As the puppeteer manipulates the figures, the audience watches the moving images from the other side of the screen. With a history reaching back over 1,000 years, shadow puppetry is the world's most ancient form of moving pictures. French film historian Georges Sadoul states in his General History of the Cinema (Histoire générale du cinéma) that China's shadow puppetry is the "forerunner of film."

Shadow puppetry

There are many other Chinese folk arts. Paper cutting uses scissors and paper to create beautiful, intricate patterns. Doll making uses clay and paint to make realistic human figurines. Embroidery uses needles and colored thread to create various designs on silk or cotton textiles. Kites are made by weaving thin bamboo strips into various forms, pasting silk or paper on the framework, and then painting the kite with various designs. Sent aloft on the wind, the kite soars through the sky, controlled by a long string. Each of these traditional folk arts has many devoted followers.

Part 6. Cultural Exchange

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The river of Chinese culture has flowed without a break for thousands of years. Extensive exchange with the outside world enabled ancient China to draw from the cultures of Central Asia, Persia, India, the Arab world, Europe, and Africa. At the same time, these foreign cultures were nourished and stimulated by their contact with China. Sino-foreign cultural exchange continues to be mutually beneficial and illuminating, and has no end in sight.

1. Cultural Exchange in Ancient China

China's first large-scale diplomatic missions to other countries occurred during the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD). In 138 BC, Zhang Qian undertook a diplomatic mission to the Western Regions, raising the curtain on Sino-foreign cultural exchange. Numerous envoys and merchants from the Western Regions later made the trek to China to pay their respects. They returned to their homes loaded with Chinese trade goods, primarily silk. As a result, the critical overland route between China and the West came to be known as the Silk Road. The opening of the Silk Road provided the bridge necessary for cultural exchange between East and West.

Mogao Grottoes at Dunhuang, c. post-fourth century AD

During the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), the eminent monk Xuan Zang (600-664 AD) undertook the arduous journey to distant India. His goal was to clarify inaccurately translated portions of the Buddhist scriptures. Xuan Zang studied at India's most renowned center of Buddhist learning, Nalanda Monastery. He translated seventy-five Buddhist sutras and systematically introduced Buddhism to China. The story of Xuan Zang's journey to retrieve the Buddhist scriptures is known throughout China. During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD) it became the basis for the famous novel Journey to the West (Xiyou Ji).

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Portrait of Xuan Zang (600-664 AD)

Another noteworthy figure in the history of Sino-foreign cultural exchange was Marco Polo (c. 1254-1324 AD). Marco Polo was a Venetian explorer who served at the court of the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368 AD). His book, The Travels of Marco Polo, provided European readers with an introduction to China, and stimulated Western interest in Chinese culture.

Portrait of Marco Polo (c. 1254-1324 AD)

Development of a maritime Silk Route started during the Han Dynasty. By the time of the Song-Yuan period (960-1368 AD), maritime expeditions launched from the port of Quanzhou, on China's southeast coast, had reached south to Thailand, the Philippines, and the Malay Peninsula in southeast Asia, and west to the shores of the Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, and the Red Sea region. Chinese voyagers eventually reached Egypt and even Europe. Early in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD), the great navigator and explorer Zheng He commanded an enormous fleet that completed seven major maritime expeditions. The scale of these voyages was unprecedented in the history of the world.

During the later Ming Dynasty, a number of Catholic missionaries arrived in

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China via maritime and overland routes. They brought with them the scientific achievements of the European Renaissance. Among them were Matteo Ricci (1552-1610 AD) and Adam Schall von Bell (1591-1666). These missionary-scholars introduced Western science to China by translating numerous European books into Chinese, including works on astronomy, geography, water conservancy, physics, and mathematics.

Qingjing Mosque, Quanzhou, Fujian Province

Underwater archeological site

2. Cultural Exchange in Modern China

The modern era has seen an influx of progressive Western ideas into China, giving rise to major changes in Chinese society. At the same time, the Chinese people have actively studied a wide range of cultural advancements, in order to more rapidly develop and transform their country.

The government of China has always placed great importance on learning from the achievements of other countries. Only in this way may Chinese culture continue to become stronger and more vital. In his work "On the Ten Major Relationships," Chairman Mao Zedong states, "Our policy is to learn from the strong points of all nations and all countries, learn all that is genuinely good in the political, economic, scientific and technological fields and in literature and art."

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Various Chinese cultural organizations and performing troupes have organized major events around the world, introducing Chinese culture to the international stage. At the same time, many internationally famous performers have been invited to China, where they have introduced the classical and modern art and music of their countries to the Chinese people. China has initiated Culture Years with a number of countries, starting with the China-France Culture Year in 2005. The 2008 Beijing Olympics, hosted by China, was a great worldwide sports event – but even more importantly, it was an incomparable opportunity for cultural exchange.

With the growth of the Chinese economy and tourist industry, international travel has increased rapidly. As of June, 2007, 86 of 132 countries and regions have been finalized as tourist destinations for Chinese citizens. Over the last five years, the number of Chinese citizens who have traveled abroad has increased by an average of 22.7% per year. The United Nations World Tourism Organization estimates that by 2015, China will become the world's most popular tourist destination, and the fourth largest source of tourists to other countries.

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Afterword

Chinese culture emphasizes harmony. It respects the differences between cultures and civilizations, in accordance with the traditional Chinese philosophy of "seeking unity in diversity." Chinese culture provides a unique foundation from which to learn from other cultures, maximize creativity, and pursue self-improvement. Like the Changjiang and Yellow Rivers, which have their sources on the heights of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, Chinese culture has flowed through many twists and turns over the ages. But it has always maintained its own course. It is this indomitable spirit that is the driving force behind China's continuing advance into the future.

Beijing

Thank you very much.

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