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Digital Re-print - September | October 2010 An innovative approach to animal diet formulation

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Animal diet can be formulat-ed by taking into account the properties and composi-

tion of feed ingredients.

A diet should supply all essential nutrients and energy to maintain vital physiological functions of growth, reproduction and health of animals.

A quality diet should supply all the neces-sary nutrients in adequate quantity with high digestibility.

Another important aspect is ensuring

good environmental conditions and animal yield based on nutrition of animal. Animals are fed with quality rations, not only to remain healthy but to be productive and efficient.

Diet should be in a form that is eas-ily acceptable to animals and have very less adverse environmental effect. All essential nutrients should be included in animal diet in adequate quantity with consideration of cost.

To formulate a quality diet for animals,

it is necessary to analyze the feed composi-tions thoroughly.

Nutritional requirementsDifferent species or classes of animals have

different requirements for energy, proteins, minerals and vitamins in order to maintain its various functions like maintenance, reproduc-tion, egg production, lactation and growth.

Selection of feed ingredients and the extent of their inclusion in mixtures will obvi-ously depend on what nutrients they contain, and what we need to provide the animal.

A number of methods have been defined for the formulation of animal diet; square method, two by two matrix methods, simultaneous equation method, trial and error method and linear programFigure 1ming method to formulate least cost diet. Every method has its own specification and limitations. Linear programming is widely used for the purpose of diet formulation.

Basically, linear programming is a method of deter-

mining the least cost combi-nation of ingredients, which will meet the necessary requirements. It is a math-ematical procedure involving the solution of a series of equations.

The fact, figures and phi-losophy can be integrated into ultimate objective-the formulation of nutritionally

adequate rations, or of feed mixtures with well-defined nutritive properties.

Relation between the nutrient ingredients was approximated by linear relationship.

The data available depict linear relations between the yield and the nutrient ingredi-ents individually, but complexity of different nutrient ingredients would possibly better described by nonlinear relations between them.

Most of the previous studies show the linear relationship between the animal yields, weight gain with nutrient ingredients taking one by one. These studies do not represent the relation taking the variables all together.

The present study is carried out to fulfill this motive and to extend this work to nonlinear extent. Leading to the same guideline a ration can be formulated using all its nutrient ingredients simultaneously at the optimum level.

This concept of non-linear programming

An innovative approach to

animal diet formulation Research into nutrition has been underway for more than 100 years

Table1: Percentage of crude protein and dry matter in feedstuffs

Feed Ingredient Crude Protein

Dry Matter

Crude fat

Peanut Meal 45 91.8 5

Soyabean Meal 48 89.3 1

Cottonsead Meal 41 90.4 2.1

Meat and Bone Meal 50 92.6 8.5

Fish Meal 62 92 10.2

Canola Meal 38 91 3.8

Poultry Byproducts 58 94 14

Blood Meal 85 91 1

Catfish Offal Meal 59 80 11

“A diet should supply all

essential nutrients and

energy to maintain vital

physiological functions

of growth, reproduction

and health of animals”

by Dr Pratiksha Saxena, Gautam Buddha University, India

Grain&feed millinG technoloGy28 | September - october 2010

FeatureAnimal feed

may be used to maxi-mize the weight gain of the animal or animal yields approximately.

Introduction of nonlin-ear programming to opti-mize yield and minimize feed cost in animal feed formulation may lead to better approximation as compared to those of lin-ear cases.

ConsolidationA number of components have con-

siderable effect on diet of animal. Before formulating the diet, it is very important to consolidate it.

No one feed ingredient can supply all of the nutrients and energy for best growth.

The amount of each feed ingredient depends on several factors including nutrient requirements, ingredient cost, availability of each ingredient, and processing characteris-tics. Feed formulation puts mixtures of feed-stuffs and feed additives into a usable form.

The main goal in making feedstuffs is to increase profits of animal production by increasing the nutritional value of the feedstuff or a mixture of feedstuffs. In this study three main feed ingredients are used to formulate animal diet by using non-linear programming.

One of the important factors to be included in animal diet is protein.

Providing adequate protein in animal diet is important for animal health and produc-tivity as well as ranch profitability. Crude protein is determined by taking the Kjeldahl nitrogen times (100/16 or 6.25) as proteins contain 16 percent nitrogen on average.

To determine the crude protein content of a forage or feedstuff, first measure the

nitrogen content of the feed. Then multiply the nitrogen value by 6.25, because proteins typically contain 16 percent nitrogen (1/.16 = 6.25).

Information about actual protein and non-protein content of a feed is not given by crude protein. Crude protein is included in diet more than diegestible protein because of the large contribution of body protein to the apparent protein in the feces.

Digestible protein can be calculated from the CP content of the ration fed to cattle or sheep by the following equation:

where % DP and % CP are the ration values on a dry matter basis.

Degradable and undegradable protein

Protein can be classified as either degra-dable or undegradable in the rumen.

Degradable can be broken down further and is used to meet the nitrogen require-ments of rumen micro-organisms.

Undegradable protein can not be bro-ken down further and is used to meet the nitrogen requirements of rumen micro-organisms. Balancing DIP and UIP sources provides a more accurate way of meeting the metabolizable protein needs of rumi-

nants. Classification of protein composition of feed is shown in Figure 1.

Feedstuffs containing 20 percent crude protein or more are considered protein supplements.

Protein supplements are classified as ani-mal and plant proteins. Marine fishmeals, catfish offal meal, meat and bone meal and poultry byproduct meal are main sources of animal proteins.

Oilseed meals, such as soybean meal, cottonseed meal and peanut meal are main plant protein sources. Animal proteins are generally considered to be higher quality than plant proteins.

A brief description of various animal and plant protein sources that can be used in catfish feeds is given in the table1. Energy supplements are feedstuffs that contain less than 20 percent crude protein. This includes grain and grain byproducts and animal fat or vegetable oil, corn, corn screenings, wheat grain, wheat middlings, rice bran, milo, animal fat and fish oil.

According to size of animal, stage of production and performance, requirement of protein varies for animals.

During lactation, larger animal typically require more pounds of crude protein per

Crude Protein

True protein

Undegradable

Non-protein Nitrogen

Degradable

Figure 1

Grain&feed millinG technoloGy September - october 2010 | 29

Feature Animal feed

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All the nutrients contained in the dry portion of the feed consumed by animals.

Dry matter intake can be measured in feeding studies by weighing the total ration fed and the amount of feed left by the animal. Feeding studies have shown that as the percent of neutral detergent fibre (NDF) increases in for-ages, animals consume less.

Therefore, the percent NDF can be used to estimate dry matter intake (DMI (as a per cent of body weight) equals relative feed value as

per cent of body weight divided by per cent NDF). DMI (% of body weight)=120/NDF (% of DM).

The third important factor to be included in the diet is Total Digestible Nutrient (TDN).

It is related to available energy of feeds and energy requirements of animals involv-ing a complex formula of measured nutri-ents. TDN values are usually quoted as percentages for feeds and as amounts per day for requirements. The values are usu-ally calculated on feed analysis reports. The simplest and most commonly used formula for estimating TDN is TDN = DE/0.044. One kilogram of TDN is equivalent to 4.4 megacalories of DE.Another formula to calculate is: %TDN={{DCP+DCF+DNFE+(DEE\

times2.25)} \over {feed\consumed\times100}}

where DCP = digestible crude protein, DCF = digestible crude fat, DNFE = digestible nitrogen-free extract, DEE = digestible ether extract.

One pound of TDN = 2000 kcal of digestible energy.

Linear programming Total digestible nutrients report the per-

centage of digestible material in forage. Total digestible nutrients are calculated from acid detergent fiber and express differences in digestible material between forages.

The fact, figures and philosophy can be integrated into ultimate objective-the for-mulation of nutritionally adequate rations, or of feed mixtures with well-defined nutritive properties.

Their selection and the extent of their inclusion in mixtures will obviously depend, in part, on what nutrients they contain,

attributes of feeds on dry matter (DM) basis. Dry matter of food includes fats, pro-teins, vitamins, mineral and carbohydrates and all its constitutes excluding water. Considering nutrient levels in different feeds on a dry matter basis makes a comparison easier because feeds contain different per-centages of water.

This also allows a comparison between the level of a given nutrient in dry matter and the level needed in an animal’s diet.

Changes in the weight of a feed due to changes in moisture alter the nutrient concen-trations supplied to the animal if appropriate adjustments are not made to accurately

reflect the actual nutrient concen-tration of the feed ingredient.

Determining the DM content of feed provides a measure of the amount of a particular feed that is required to supply a set amount of nutrients to the animal.

The amount of dry matter in a feed is simply: % dry matter = 100 - % moisture

Dry matterThere are various methods to

determine the DM of a feed. One of these is by sample and the sam-ple collected must be representa-

tive of the feed. The sample size needed to determine DM is dependent on the drying equipment that will be used, and can range from around 100 to 500 g (approximately ¼ to 1 lb). An accurate scale that reads in grams or tenths of an ounce is important to insure accuracy in the calculations. A formula for this purpose,

(Nutrient content (% as fed basis) x 100) ÷ Dry matter content (%) = Nutrient Content (% dry matter basis).

day than smaller animal but as a lesser per-centage of their total dry matter intake.

Cattle requirements for crude protein increase with increasing lactation and rate of gain. Protein is required for milk produc-tion and reproductive tract reconditioning after calving. Limiting dry matter intake on poor quality forages is another concern with regard to the crude protein content of the diet. Generally, forage dry matter intake as a percent of body weight increases until forage crude protein content as a percentage of dry matter decreases below a threshold of about eight percent.

Thus, if a minimum of eight percent crude

protein is not maintained in forage crops, cattle will decrease consumption of these poor quality forages.

Second important factor is moisture con-tent of feeds, it can vary greatly. It is impor-tant to express feedstuff composition on a dry matter basis because dry matter content can be the biggest reason for variation in the composition of feedstuffs.

This is the reason to show composi-tion of chemical constituents and biological

“The present work represents

the application of nonlinear

programming to maximize the

body weight of buffalo under the

given experimental conditions and

satisfying NRC feeding standards”

Grain&feed millinG technoloGy30 | September - october 2010

FeatureAnimal feed

ing, intake, and digestion and passage rates upon feed energy values, escape of dietary protein, and microbial growth efficiency to estimate energy, nutrient supply, requirements and feed utiliza-tion in each unique farm production scenario.

Therefore, they have an important role in assisting the improvement of feeding systems. These models can be used to further improve animal production systems by accounting for more of the variation in predicting requirements and supply of nutrients while minimizing the environ-mental impacts through reduced nutri-ent excretion in an economically feasible fashion.

For the coming decades, producing meat and milk will become more efficient in the use of nutrients by using mathematical models to accurately predict requirements and feed utilization in each unique produc-tion setting.

These mathematical models must allow inputs from each situation to be adjusted in a logical way until the cattle and feeds are accurately described. Depending upon the objectives, a number of different approaches may be used, including classical algebraic equations, predictive empirical relationships, and dynamic, mechanistic models.

The latter offer the best opportunity to make full use of the growing body of knowledge regarding animal biology. Continuing development of these types of models and computer technology and software for their implementation holds great promise for improvements in the effectiveness with which fundamental knowledge of animal function can be applied to improve animal agriculture and reduce its impact on the environ-ment.

The present work represents the applica-tion of nonlinear programming to maximize the body weight of buffalo under the given experimental conditions and satisfying NRC feeding standards.

To sum up, an effort has been made in this work to give a new dimension to the already existing multidimensional nonlinear models and its use to formulate a real world problem of optimizing the feed in terms of weight gain of the animal and to solve it as well. This objective supports the all over effect of nutrient ingredients simultaneously on the animal yield and weight gain of an animal.

which the nutrients are utilized mainly depend on three factors, which may be used to maximize it. Accounting all these facts, weight gain of an animal depends upon:• Digestible crude protein,• Total digestible nutrient and;• Digestible dry matter.

Metabolic weight is used as a base for whole of the calculations. Studying the intake in growing animals, had earlier reported that

a level between 200 and 300 K. Cal. DE per Kg0.75 is generally encountered.

ModelsAssuming a linear

relationship between weight gain of animal and dry matter, crude protein and total digestible nutrient, we decide the weightage of these variables.

By using least square method we establish the relation between y and x1, y and x2, y and x3 of different degrees and then by using F-test we decide the relation of best fit.

Now we combine these individual rela-tions between the variables according to the weightage as pre-scribed earlier. Now we establish objective function by using the appropriate relations of the variables x1, x2, x3 according to their weightage on weight gain of the animal. Now we apply the constraints accord-

ing to feeding standards on the above-mentioned variables according to feeding standards of NRC.

Three models have been derived which maximize the weight gain of buffalo, weight gain of sheep and milk yield of cow.

ConclusionMathematical models integrate our

scientific knowledge of feeds and feed-

and, in part, what we need to provide the animal.

Basically, linear programming is a method of determining the least cost combination of ingredients, which will meet the necessary requirements. It is a mathematical procedure involving the solution of a series of equations. Leading to the same guideline a ration can be formulated using all its nutrient ingredients simultaneously at the optimum level.

This concept of linear programming may

be used to maximize the weight gain of the animal or animal yields only approximately.

Introduction of nonlinear programming to optimize yield and minimize feed cost in broiler feed formulation may lead to bet-ter approximation as compared to those of linear cases. Now we are extending this work to maximize the weight gain of buffalo.

The weight gain and the efficiency with

Grain&feed millinG technoloGy32 | September - october 2010

FeatureAnimal feed

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• The law of diminishing

returns: - consequences

for feed enzyme strategy

• An innovative approach to animal diet formulation

• Global grain & feed markets

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• Theinfluenceoftemperature,humidityandairflowonthegraindryingprocess

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