An examination into the extent that cultural factors cause...
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1 An examination into the extent that cultural factors cause role confusion between ALTs and JTEs in the Japanese English classroom Paul Cotter Faculty of Social Sciences School of Education University of Ulster A dissertation submitted in partial requirement for the degree of MA in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) 2011 (20,824 WORDS)
Transcript of An examination into the extent that cultural factors cause...
1
An examination into the extent that cultural factors cause role
confusion between ALTs and JTEs in the Japanese English
classroom
Paul Cotter
Faculty of Social Sciences
School of Education
University of Ulster
A dissertation submitted in partial requirement for the degree of MA in Teaching English to
Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)
2011
(20,824 WORDS)
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Contents
Abstract..................................................................................................... 8
Acknowledgements................................................................................... 9
List of acronyms......................................................................................... 10
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 The motivation for the study..................................................................... 11
1.2 Setting the scene....................................................................................... 11
1.3 The focus of the research.......................................................................... 14
Chapter 2
2.1 A definition of culture.................................................................................... 15
2.2 An overview of Japanese society and culture................................................ 16
2.2.1 The group orientated society (Shudan Ishiki)......................................... 17
2.2.2 Insiders and outsiders (Uchi/Soto).......................................................... 18
2.2.3 Relationships within the inner group and hierarchy............................... 19
2.2.4 Group culture in the classroom............................................................... 20
2.2.5 Individualism.......................................................................................... 21
2.2.6 The Japanese work ethic......................................................................... 22
2.2.7 Private and public face (Honne/Tatemae)............................................... 23
2.2.8 Internationalisation and ethnocentrism................................................... 24
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2.3 The Japanese education system....................................................................... 26
2.3.1 The history of the Japanese education system........................................ 26
2.3.2 Group orientation in the school.............................................................. 28
2.3.3 The examination system......................................................................... 29
2.4 English education in Japan.............................................................................. 29
2.4.1 A brief overview..................................................................................... 29
2.4.2 The English examination........................................................................ 31
2.5 The ALT system.............................................................................................. 32
2.5.1 The origins of the JET programme........................................................ 32
2.5.2 The current role of the ALT.................................................................... 33
2.5.3 The selection criteria for ALTs............................................................... 35
2.6 Team teaching.................................................................................................. 37
2.7 Summary.......................................................................................................... 39
Chapter 3
The design of the study
3.1 Methods of investigation................................................................................. 40
3.1.1 Rationale for the study............................................................................ 40
3.1.2 Research questions and objectives.......................................................... 42
3.2 Research instruments....................................................................................... 42
3.2.1 Interviews with ALTs.............................................................................. 42
3.2.2 The unstructured interview..................................................................... 42
3.2.3 Eight semi-structured interviews............................................................ 43
3.2.4 Questionnaires........................................................................................ 43
3.2.5 Ethical considerations and approval.................................................... 45
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3.3 Research participants........................................................................................ 45
3.3.1 Interview samples.................................................................................... 45
3.3.2 Questionnaire samples............................................................................. 46
3.4 Data analysis..................................................................................................... 47
3.4.1 Interviews................................................................................................ 47
3.4.2 Reliability, validity and generalisability.................................................. 48
3.5 Description of the qualitative data analysis..................................................... 50
Chapter 4
4.1 Presentation of the results................................................................................. 51
4.1.2 Presentation and discussion of the interview data................................... 51
4.2 Research objective one: Defining the role of an ALT....................................... 52
4.2.1 The school hierarchy................................................................................ 52
4.2.2 Career development................................................................................. 53
4.2.3 Training.................................................................................................... 54
4.2.4 The relationship between the JTE and ALT............................................. 55
4.3 Research objective two: Views of English education....................................... 56
4.3.1 Examinations and study materials........................................................... 56
4.3.2 Class planning.......................................................................................... 57
4.3.3 The classroom environment..................................................................... 59
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4.4 Research objective three: Role confusion in the school in the classroom........ 61
4.4.1 School culture.......................................................................................... 61
4.4.2 The difference in JTEs............................................................................. 62
4.4.3 Language.................................................................................................. 64
4.4 Summary of interview data............................................................................... 65
4.5 Presentation of the survey results..................................................................... 66
4.6.1 Impressions of team teaching.................................................................. 66
4.6.2 The Japanese teacher‟s role expectations for the ALT............................. 70
4.7 Summary of questionnaire results.................................................................... 73
Chapter 5
Conclusions and recommendations
5.1 Conclusions....................................................................................................... 74
5.2 Limitations of the research.............................................................................. 77
5.3 Recommendations........................................................................................... 78
5.3.1The ALT................................................................................................ 78
5.3.2The JTE................................................................................................. 80
5.4 Suggested areas for further study.................................................................... 81
References............................................................................................................. 83
Appendices............................................................................................................ 90
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List of Tables and Figures
Fig 2.1 High school Entrance exam sample
from The Japanese education system, Nemoto, 1999, p.89
Fig 2.2. Selection criteria for the JET programme
from Importing diversity, McConnell, 2000, p.56
Table 2.1 JET participants
(by country of origin, TEFL/TESL certification and Japanese proficiency)
from Importing diversity, McConnell, 2000, p.56
Table. 3.1 Biographical information of the interview samples
Table 3.2 Response rate to the questionnaires
Table 3.3 Length of time JTEs have been an English teacher
Table 3.4 Number of ALTs the JTEs have worked with
Table 4.1 Number of schools and contract type of interview participants
Table 4.2 Questionnaire data/impressions of team teaching
Table 4.3 Questionnaire data/enjoyment of ALT class
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Table 4.4 Questionnaire data/lesson planning
Table 4.5 Questionnaire data/hierarchy
Table 4.6 Questionnaire data/ALT responsibility
Table 4.7 Questionnaire data/training
Table 4.8 Questionnaire data/training together with an ALT
Table 4.9 Questionnaire data/most important roles for the ALT
Table 4.10 Questionnaire data/least important roles for the ALT
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Abstract
This dissertation examines the extent to which cultural/societal factors contribute to role confusion
between Assistant language teachers (ALTs) and Japanese English teachers (JTE) in team taught
English lessons. ALTs have been a part of the Japanese English classroom since the establishment
of the JET programme in 1987. However, there is still very little consensus amongst ALTs and JTEs
as to what their role is and no clearly defined job description.
The paper begins by giving an overview of Japanese culture with particular regard to the education
system, education ideology and team teaching. It then proposes some of the possible causes of role
confusion in team taught English lessons based on the cultural differences between Japan and the
home countries of the ALTs.
A mixed methods research design which consisted of nine in depth interviews with ALTs and thirty
one questionnaires filled in by JTEs was used. In the interviews the ALTs defined their role based
on their own experiences and expressed their views about the Japanese English education system
and team teaching. The questionnaire asked the JTEs about the role of the ALT and their
impressions of team teaching.
The results highlighted some of the most prominent causes of role confusion that relate to
cultural/societal factors. The researcher then suggested some strategies that could be used to
minimize role confusion and develop good relations and team teaching practices
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Acknowledgements
First of all I would like to express my gratitude to my dissertation supervisor Dr. Jacqueline Reilly
who gave me a considerable amount of help with particular regard to research methodology of
which I was a complete novice in my understanding. She pointed me in the right direction, giving
me advice about which books to read and explained everything in simple terms that I could easily
understand. Her help was of invaluable importance to me, especially since I was in Japan for the
duration of the research.
I would like to thank the MA TESOL course co-ordinator Ms. Barbara Skinner for all her help
during the course. I would also like to thank Dr. Helen Hou for her wonderful lessons and
encouragement. I would not have been able to complete this dissertation without all the background
knowledge that I learned in their lectures.
I would also like to thank the 31 Japanese teachers who filled in the questionnaires. I am especially
grateful to Ms. Imanishi who was kind enough to help me to distribute the questionnaires and pilot
the first draft questionnaire with me.
Most of all I would like to thank the nine assistant language teachers that gave their time and their
insightful, considered and honest opinions.
Without the help of these people this research project would not have been possible.
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List of acronyms
ALT Assistant Language Teacher: Foreigners that assist in language teaching in Japanese
schools
BOE Board of Education
CLAIR Council for Local Authorities for International Relations: The administrative office
of the JET programme
CLT Communicative Language teaching
EIKEN English proficiency test used in the Japanese school system
GTM Grammar Translation Method
HRT Home Room Teacher: In Japanese Elementary schools the Home room teacher is
responsible for most subjects. There are no specialist English teachers
JET Japan Exchange and Teaching Programme
JTE Japanese Teacher of English
NHK Nippon Hosou Kyokai: The Japanese state radio and television broadcaster
TEFL Teaching English as a Foreign Language
TESL Teaching English as a Second Language
TESOL Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
TOEIC Test of English for International Communication
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Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 The motivation for the study
The purpose of this study is to examine the extent to which cultural and societal factors contribute
to role confusion between Assistant language teachers (ALT) and Japanese English teachers (JTE)
in Japanese school activities and English classes. 1The initial interest in the subject comes from my
experience of working in the Japanese school system as an ALT from June 2007 to July 2010.
During this period I was often dissatisfied with the level of communication between the JTE and the
ALT and the subsequent role confusion that occurred in the classroom. It was my impression that
much of the role confusion that occurred was in fact caused by cultural and social
misunderstandings. This was with particular regard to differences in educational ideology and
Japanese social structures. The role confusion was further compounded by my own lack of training,
cultural understanding and an inadequate job description for an ALT.
1.2 Setting the scene
ALTs have been part of English education in Japanese junior high schools and high schools since
the establishment of the Japan Exchange and Teaching Programme (JET) in 1987. However, despite
the fact that they have been part of the system for nearly twenty five years there is still a lot of
confusion about their role and very little consensus amongst JTEs, Boards of education (BOE), the
1 As this paragraph is regarding personal experience the first person singular is used, it will subsequently be replaced
by the more usual academic third person singular.
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Ministry of Education and the ALTs as to what their role should be. To date there is still no clearly
defined job description for the ALT and consequently it is often left up to the various JTEs to utilise
the ALT as they choose. Not surprisingly the ALTs often find themselves in situations where their
job varies depending on a particular school or JTE.
As of 2010 there are 4334 foreign employees from 36 countries working as assistant language
teachers as part of the JET programme (CLAIR, 2010). However, the most recent figures attest to
the fact that fewer ALTs are being recruited via the JET programme as the number of JET
participants has declined year on year from a high of 6273 in 2002 to 4334 in 2010 (CLAIR, 2010).
About half the estimated 10,000 foreign ALTs working in Japan are now sub-contracted through
recruitment agencies (NHK report, 2007, cited in Flynn, 2010) and a minority are hired directly by
their local board of education or school.
Although these ALTs are all essentially doing the same job they are likely to have very different
working conditions regarding remuneration, benefits and contractual stability. An often cited reason
for the change in these recruitment practices is that foreigners who are already resident in Japan are
more likely to have Japanese language skills and to have a better understanding of the culture
(Brown, 2005). This may be the case for the few ALTs who are hired directly by their BOE but the
majority of ALTs who are hired by recruitment companies are hired from abroad and therefore often
have little experience of Japan and no Japanese language skills. The reason that ALTs have been
sub-contracted through recruitment agencies is that the BOEs can save money and have less
responsibility for the welfare of the ALTs outside of the school.
Many ALTs who are brought to work in Japanese schools as ALTs have little experience or
knowledge of Japanese culture and society, no Japanese language ability and no training or
qualifications in TESOL/TEFL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages/Teaching
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English as a Foreign Language). Other ALTs have worked in the Japanese school system for many
years and have acquired a good understanding of Japanese language and culture and yet find
themselves in a job that offers no prospects for career development and no investment in their
training.
The Japanese teachers who team teach with the ALTs are also given very little training in team
teaching practices and many of the teachers are not trained at all in TESOL/TEFL or a field related
to language teaching. A survey of 1200 JTEs in Chiba prefecture (Browne and Wada, 1998)
revealed that 75 percent of English teachers in technical schools and 63 percent in general high
schools graduated in English literature and only 8 percent of JTEs were trained in TESOL/TEFL.
Of the teachers trained in literature 92 percent felt that they were inadequately trained to teach
English and lacked confidence in their own English abilities. However, of the 8 percent trained in
TESOL/TEFL 85 percent felt they were adequately trained to perform their duties as an English
teacher. Of more concern is the English ability of the JTEs which often seems inadequate to teach
the language. An article in the Asahi newspaper (cited in Miyazato, 2009) stated that only 8.3
percent of JTEs in junior high school and 16.3 percent in high school have a TOEIC score of 730 or
above which is defined by TOEIC as the absolute minimum requirement for workplace English
proficiency. To date there is no English proficiency test requirement to become an English teacher
in Japan.
Considering the shortcomings of the ALTs and JTEs in regards to training, language proficiency and
cultural understanding, as well as not having a clearly defined job description for the ALT, it is
hardly surprising that there is still little convergence of opinion as to what the role of an ALT should
be and that role confusion between the ALT and JTE is a common phenomena in the Japanese
English classroom.
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1.3 The focus of the research
The purpose of this paper is to highlight some of the causes of role confusion which can be
attributed to cultural or social differences or misunderstandings. In order to do this I will first give a
description of Japanese social structures, the wider education system and more specifically English
education and the team teaching situation.
Although there are 36 participating countries in the JET programme the vast majority of ALTs still
come from native English speaking countries. As of 2010 the USA accounts for 45 percent of ALTs,
this is followed by the UK (21 percent), Canada (17 percent), Australia (7 percent), and New
Zealand (6 percent). Of the remaining 4 percent the majority come from English speaking countries
such Ireland and South Africa. As the vast majority of ALTs come from Western English speaking
countries the discussion of culture will be confined to comparisons with these countries.
The research consists of nine in depth interviews with ALTs currently working in Japanese schools
and a questionnaire survey of thirty one JTEs. The interviews constitute the main part of the
research and will ascertain the problems that ALTs face working in the Japanese school system. The
purpose of the survey is to define the role of an ALT from the perspective of the JTE and the general
attitudes that the JTEs have towards the team teaching system.
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Chapter 2
2.1 A definition of culture
In order to understand the cultural differences between Japan and Western societies it is first
necessary to define what the word culture means.
According to Samovar and Porter (1994 quoted in Brown, 2005, p.121) “Culture refers to the
cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies,
religions, notions of time, role, spatial, relations, concepts of the universe and material objects and
possessions acquired by a people in the course of generations through individual and group
striving.”
A more concise definition of culture by Hofstede (1984, quoted in Brown, 2005, p.121) is 'Culture
is the continuing programming of mind which distinguishes one group of people from another.'
According to Hofstede's definition culture is something which exists not only within the society but
also within the mind of every individual from that society. Therefore culture is something that is
within us and we must take it with us as we move from place to place. When we take our own
cultural assumptions to a place that has a markedly different culture it is possible that conflict may
occur as we are in a place with different values and belief systems. In fact our culture may be such
an ingrained part of us that we may make the incorrect assumption that our beliefs and culture are
universal.
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It is also necessary to understand that there is a difference between 'visible' and 'invisible culture'
(Hinkel, 2007 cited in Hammond, 2007 p.42). Discussions of culture are usually confined to the
aspect of culture which is visible and therefore easily discussed. This is what Hinkel (2007) refers
to as the four Fs- folklore, festivals, food and facts. However, the 'invisible' aspects of culture are
less easily defined but much more important if we really wish to develop a deeper understanding of
a particular society and avoid cultural misunderstandings.
Of course it is very easy for a foreigner in any society to be aware of the visible aspects of that
society‟s culture such as festivals, the arts, architecture and famous people etc. However, the
invisible aspects of culture such as social structures, beliefs, inter-personal relationships and world
views are more difficult to access and consequently much more often the cause of cross cultural
misunderstandings. These parts of culture are part of an individuals or a group‟s identity and have
been created through years of socialization, they are so ingrained that the individual is often
unaware of them himself. However for a language teacher working in a foreign school it is essential
that an attempt to understand invisible culture is made. Hammond (2007, p.42) states 'while
“invisible” culture may be hard to identify and discuss, acknowledging their existence is crucial for
teachers...reflecting can help teachers learn what will work best for the language learners of a
certain group.'
There is no doubt that Japanese society and culture is different from that of the West in almost every
respect. Of course like many of the societies of Europe or North America, Japan is a post
industrialized and modern nation but if we look beneath the surface we see a society that is
markedly different in values, social structure and culture.
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2.2 An overview of Japanese society and culture
The following chapter examines some of the more important aspects of Japanese culture and society
and suggests how they may affect a Western foreigner working in a Japanese school. The discussion
will be centred on the Japanese values which are most often the cause of cultural misunderstandings.
These include group orientation over individuality, relationships within the group structure, the
Japanese view of the world and the Japanese work ethic
2.2.1 The group orientated society (Shudan Ishiki)
The expression shudan ishiki means group consciousness and it refers to the rules or social patterns
that exist within any group. However, as is common to most group orientated societies most of
these rules remain unsaid as they are often implicitly understood by all the group members who
share a common language and culture and have been socialised within the same systems. As the
group is seen as more important than the individual, co-operation and harmony are valued whilst
assertiveness and individuality are frowned upon (Davies and Ikeno, 2002).
Most Japanese people would certainly regard themselves and Japanese society as a whole as more
group orientated than western society which they view as being at best individualistic and at worst
selfish. A Japanese person is more likely to identify himself as a part of a group when introduced to
someone e.g. Westerners might identify themselves by their job title whereas Japanese will identify
themselves as belonging to the company they work for. According to Reischauer and Jansen (1988,
p.128) 'A job in Japan is not merely a contractual arrangement for pay but means identification with
a larger entity...a satisfying sense of being part of something significant...whereas an American
tends to see himself as a man possessing a specific skill and is ready to sell this skill to the highest
bidder.'
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Although the group structure of Japanese society works well in maintaining social harmony and
cohesion it obviously has a negative side. According to Nakane (1973. p.36) at its most extreme it
can manifest itself in 'the Japanese people's coldness, the contempt and neglect they will show for
people of an outlying island, or for those living in the special buraku (Japan's out caste society).'
2.2.2 Insiders and outsiders (Uchi/Soto)
In order to understand the Japanese group structure and the difference in relationships between
group and non group members it is necessary to look at the Japanese concepts of uchi (inside) and
soto (outside). This is a fairly rigid dichotomy in Japanese thinking that gives us some insight into
how the Japanese view the people within their society and those from other societies. The uchi/soto
distinction has its origin in the traditional Japanese household system which can still be seen by
looking at older Japanese houses in the countryside. If one travels through areas in rural Japan they
will see that the traditional Japanese house is often isolated in the middle of rice fields, on a raised
platform and surrounded by large stone walls which insure privacy from the outside. However,
inside the house the walls are made from paper and sliding doors and there is very little privacy for
the individual family members (Davies and Ikeno, 2002, p.218). Traditionally several generations of
male heirs and their wives lived together as a single unit and the household was considered to be
more important than the individual members within it.
Modern Japan is now mostly an urban bound population and many families live in small apartments
or houses in suburbs of the cities, however many of the communal aspects of traditional Japan still
exist and the systems have proved to be flexible enough to be adapted to post industrial society.
Nakane (1970, p.29) points out that the household system has transferred itself to the modern
Japanese workplace. She says 'the belief that employer and employee are bound as one by fate in
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conditions which produce a tie between a man and man is often as firm and close as between
husband and wife. Such a relationship is manifestly not a purely contractual one between employer
and employee; the employee is already a member of his own family, and all members of his family
are naturally included in the larger company “family”.'
Japanese society is unlikely to ever see a foreigner as part of the inner group and he/she will almost
always be considered as an outsider (the Japanese word for foreigner gaikokujin literally means
outside country person). According to Davies and Ikeno (2002, p.217) 'The Japanese generally call
people from other countries gaijin no matter how long they have lived in Japan or how well they
speak the Japanese language.' As a consequence the foreign teacher may feel isolated and lonely as
they find it difficult to make meaningful relationships. Brown (2005, p.7) states 'people from
English speaking cultures tend to join groups easily, and in an ad hoc fashion, leaving them just as
easily when the need arises. The difficulty of becoming an insider in Japan can lead to frustration,
incomprehension or even depression.' Alternatively the foreigner may be treated as a respected
guest and may enjoy considerably more privileges than his/her Japanese co-workers.
2.2.3 Relationships within the inner group and group hierarchy
Except in exceptional circumstances a foreigner working within a Japanese institution is unlikely to
have the same responsibilities as their Japanese counterpart and is unlikely to be part of the decision
making process unless specifically asked. Within the highly structured Japanese hierarchy the
foreigner assumes neither a low nor high ranking position but is rather outside of the hierarchy
altogether (Nakane, 1970, p.50).
Within the group there are further distinctions in hierarchy which are usually determined by age
rather than ability. A Japanese can usually only see himself in relation to other people in three ways.
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These are as an equal colleague (doryo), a junior (kohai) or a senior (sempai) (Nakane, 1970, p.44).
Although, this hierarchy is clearly defined and vertical in nature it can only be applied to people
within the group and therefore causes the foreign teacher in a Japanese school difficulty in knowing
their status in the hierarchy.
The power relationship between the JTE and ALT is one of the most problematic areas in their
relationship and certainly one of the main contributing factors to role confusion in the classroom. It
is a relationship that many JTEs have had difficulty in coping with as it falls outside the parameters
of Japanese societal norms. That is to say the foreigner cannot be seen as a junior (kohai) as they are
native speakers and have language power in the classroom but neither can they be viewed as a
senior (sempai) as they are unqualified and uncertified. When the Jet programme was first
introduced it was hoped that this confusion would be resolved by having the JTE as the one with
professional qualified status and the ALT as a young, uncertified and inexperienced assistant.
Miyazato (1998, p.39) states 'bringing in young, untrained native speakers as assistants was
considered less threatening to JTEs and as such thought to create more balanced power sharing in
the classroom.' However, because of the unequal distribution of political power within the
relationship coupled with an often poor grasp of communicative English abilities the Japanese
teacher is often unsure of how to utilise an ALT in a communicative language class context.
2.2.4 Group culture in the classroom
The group orientated nature of Japanese society manifests itself in ways in the classroom which is
often seen by the foreign teacher as a barrier to learning communicative English. In a group
orientated culture few people want to be seen as different, therefore the ideal student in a Japanese
classroom is seen as 'quiet, passive and obedient...who performs well on tests.' (Nozaki, 2003, p.28).
This of course is contrary to the ideal student in Western society who is creative, inquiring and
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gives considered opinions to the teacher‟s questions (Nemoto, 1999, p.51). In Japanese classrooms
there is very little personal inquiry into subjects, discussion or expressing personal opinions.
In fact the foreign teacher is often bemused to find that the Japanese student does not answer
questions at all or turns to the student sitting next to him for consensus for the correct answer to a
simple question. This is because giving the correct answer may be seen as boasting and giving the
wrong answer will invite ridicule from the student‟s peers. According to Hammond (2007, p.44)
'English classes are often filled with a combination of students who are uncertain of how to respond
in English and won't try out of fear of failing and students who know how to respond in correct
English but won't try out of fear of boasting.' As a result students often engage in consensual
decision making in order to not stand out and not disrupt the harmony of the group.
2.2.5 Individualism
One of the most frequent complaints from foreign teachers in Japan is that the Japanese education
system stifles creativity, does not encourage student centred learning and inhibits debate and
opinion forming. Although some of these criticisms are true to some extent they are measured from
a western perspective and thus are difficult to understand from a Japanese point of view. Until
relatively recently the debate about Japan has used a cultural relativistic approach, that defines
Japan within the 'everything is opposite' framework. Unlike other non western societies that have
often resented this approach of cultural analysis it has been welcomed by many Japanese writers
who also use the same cultural relativism to perpetuate an ethnocentric view of a unique Japanese
culture referred to as Nihonjinron (literally translated as discussions of the Japanese).
In the 'everything is opposite' model the Japanese are viewed as being group orientated, emotional
and intuitive whereas as western person is regarded as individualistic, rational and logical
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(Roesgaard, 1998). Of course such generalized differences are erroneous and these 'opposites' have
now been debunked as myths. Reischauer and Jansen state (1988, p.159) 'that although the Japanese
subordinates his individuality to the group more than the Westerner does, or at least thinks he does,
he retains a very strong self identity in other ways.' A Japanese person expresses his/her
individuality in ways such as cultivating emotional self expression and self improvement in their
individual skills. It must be remembered that Japan is a highly refined culture which has a history of
cultivating the arts and confers a high social status to the individual artisan.
2.2.6 The Japanese work ethic
In recent history the Japanese have become known in much of the world for their emphasis on hard
work, determination and pride in achievement. Like much of Japanese culture the work ethic has its
origins in ancient Chinese Confucian ideals and the group orientated culture. No doubt the
cultivation of the work ethic in modern Japan begins in the school and as is common to Confucian
societies there is a high value placed on education. The group orientated nature of society also
contributes to the work ethic as to be a good group member one has to be seen to be co-operative
(Reischauer and Jansen, 1988, p.170-171).
In Japanese schools one of the most commonly heard words is gambari which can be translated as
do your best, don't give up or try harder depending on the situation. For many Japanese students the
school day can begin early in the morning and continue until late at night, particularly for older
students who are preparing for high school or university entrance exams. More often than not the
students attend after school clubs and then may go to a cram school after their club activities finish.
To try one's best and not give up is considered as one of the highest virtues of the Japanese which of
course can have either positive or negative effects depending on the circumstances. Taken to its
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extreme suffering can be seen as noble and to many outsiders the Japanese are seen as having very
little free time and as sacrificing their own interests to those of the group which is more often than
not the school or workplace. However, the Japanese are also likely to take immense pride in
whatever job they are doing and in Japanese society people who do what are considered menial jobs
in Western societies are not looked down upon as they too are making a valuable contribution.
Consequently Japan is freer than Western countries from class prejudice.
2.2.7 Private and public face (Honne/Tatemae)
In a group orientated society the most important thing is to maintain harmonious relationships. In
order to achieve good group relations a Japanese will often refrain from asserting his/her opinion in
public and will discuss views that are potentially controversial only with people with whom they are
in a close relationship and even then only in private. The dichotomy of the private and public face is
referred to as honne and tatemae. Although this phenomena exists in almost every society on earth
it is certainly more institutionalised in Japan than it is in Western culture and therefore it is
implicitly understood by all the group members.
A Japanese person will go to great lengths to avoid disagreement or conflict. In Western culture to
speak and act in accordance to one's beliefs is considered as having moral integrity whilst in Japan
to not offend or hurt someone's feelings is of the most importance. As there is a difference in what is
considered as morally acceptable behaviour there is a potential for suspicion and distrust to occur.
The Westerner may see the Japanese as dishonest whilst the Japanese may see the Westerner as
inconsiderate and unfeeling.
The Japanese have grown up accustomed to using honne and tatemae but it can be difficult for a
foreigner living in Japan to understand the difference. They may also feel they are compromising
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their integrity if they don't offer a truthful opinion. According to Davies and Ikeno (2002, p.116)
'people switch easily and skilfully between the two and are rarely aware that they can cause
misunderstanding and confusion amongst people who are not accustomed to this way of
interacting.'
2.2.8 Internationalisation and ethnocentrism
Nihonjiron (discussions of the Japanese) reached a height of popularity during the late 1970's as the
Japanese economy began to overtake many of those in Western Europe. A Nomura survey of
publications of books about Japanese identity showed that from 1946 to 1978 approximately 700
titles of nihonjinron literature were published in Japan, of those 25 percent of them were published
in the peak period 1976-1978 (cited in Roesgaard, p.157). In this genre the Japanese are seen an
entirely homogeneous entity without much individual personality but a distinct and unique culture.
Sugimoto (2010, p.3) writes 'First, at the individual level, the Japanese are portrayed as having a
personality which lacks a fully developed ego or independent self...second at the interpersonal, intra
group level, human interaction is depicted in terms of Japanese group orientation.'
No doubt the origins of the Japanese sense of uniqueness come from the long period of self imposed
isolation called Sakoku (Island in chains). In 1638 the Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu passed an edict
which expelled all the foreign missionaries from Japan and banned any overseas Japanese from
returning to their home. Japan was effectively sealed off from the rest of the world until the
American Commodore Perry brought his 'black gun ships' and forced Japan to open its doors in
1853. During the Sakoku period the only foreigners permitted to trade were the Dutch and Chinese
who were restricted to an artificial island off the coast of Nagasaki called Dejima.
When Japan did open its doors it was shocked by how far behind the West it was in terms of
25
technology and military power. Like other Asian countries the Japanese were forced to sign unequal
trade treaties which they saw as humiliating. In 1868 the 15 year old Masuhito was crowned as
emperor and given the name Meiji and 700 years of Shogun rule was ended. During the Meiji era
(1868-1912) it became official nationwide policy to catch up with the Western nations and much of
traditional Japanese culture was spurned in favour of Western systems. A popular rallying cry of the
people at this time was wakon yosai which means Japanese spirit, Western technology.
By the 1970's Japan had already shown itself to be the equal (if not superior) to Western nations in
terms of technology, trade and economy. However, it was still seen as closed and protectionist by
much of the world community. In response to this criticism Japan embarked on a period of
internationalisation (kokusaika) with mixed results.
The original focus of the JET programme was as a cultural exchange programme with much more
focus on internationalisation than English teaching. However, the problem with many of the
internationalisation programmes is that they have largely been cultural exchanges with America and
consequently the main focus has been to create opportunities for cultural exchange between
Japanese and English speakers (Kubota 1998, p.303). Although Japan has made great strides to
show its international credentials and assume a position of responsibility in the world
commensurate with its economic status it is doubtful whether the recent period of Kokusaika can be
described as real internationalisation and perhaps it could be better described as Americanisation or
Westernisation.
A further negative result of the Japanese internationalisation model is that by focusing on America
the Japanese usually end up comparing themselves to a country and culture that is very different. By
doing so they reinforce the idea of Japanese uniqueness which further encourages an ethnocentric
debate, this of course is the opposite of the intended aim of Kokusaika. Kubota (1998, p.300) states
26
'the notion of Japanese uniqueness often lacks legitimacy when compared to non western
counterparts such as other Asian cultures.'
Much of the discussion about internationalization in Japan has centred on the question of bringing
Japan to the world rather than bringing the world to Japan. Many have contended that Kokusaika
has been nothing more than the promotion of Japan's national interests, particularly in response to
foreign pressure to open up its markets to foreign competition (Seargeant, 2009). According to Itoh
(1989 quoted in Seargeant, 2009, p.54) 'the primary goal of Japan's internationalization was to
enhance its economic interest, and thus the more Japan became internationalised, the more
nationalistic it became. Although the two notions were antithetical to each other, they were
inseparable in the Japanese case.'
Whatever the agenda of the Japanese government there is no doubt that the idea of Kokusaika has
been fashionable in Japan for the last 30 years even if there is no consensus about what being
international actually means. However, according to Rosegaard (2009, p.202) 'discussions of
internationalism tended to centre on activities rather than ends. Instrumental activities such as
learning English, travelling overseas, teaching more about foreign cultures in Japanese school etc.
were steps towards an undefined goal, which it turned out impossible to make the Japanese define
further.'
27
2.3 The Japanese education system
2.3.1 The history of the modern Japanese education system
The foundations of the Japanese education system which still exist today were put into place during
the Meiji period (1868-1912) with the establishment of the Education ministry in 1872 and the
creation of the comprehensive school system in 1886. In this time the old feudal system of the
Tokugawa shogunate and the closed country policy was swept away and almost every aspect of
society was reformed. Of course central to the modernization of Japan was the education system
which was to be egalitarian (at least for men) giving equal access to all from elementary education
upwards. Reischauer and Jansen (1988, p.187) writes 'Unlike the 19th
Century West (Japan) was not
encumbered by the aristocratic or religious overtones of earlier education but in a sense already
ahead of most of the West in the wholly secular and egalitarian nature of its education system.'
A large part of Japan's success in modernizing during the Meiji era and the rebuilding after World
War two has always been attributed to the comprehensive education system. It is interesting to note
that Japan purposefully chose to build an education system which concentrated on giving
comprehensive access to education in elementary and secondary schools unlike many other Asian
societies which have concentrated on University education. As a consequence other Asian countries
have created much more elitist societies than Japan (Reischauer and Jansen, 1988, p.190).
After the Second World War the American occupation patterned the new Japanese education system
on the American model. At the age of six students enter elementary school for six years, they then
proceed to three years of junior high school which is the end of their compulsory education.
However, 98 percent of the population progress to Senior high school so most people are educated
to at least 18 years old which has become the de facto age of compulsory education.
28
America also decentralised the education system giving more power to individual boards of
education which were to be elected within the community and encouraged local involvement in
education, particularly in establishing the PTA (Parents Teachers Association) which is now far
more active and larger than the American counterpart. However, the Japanese bureaucracy later
recentralised the system. By the 1960s textbooks had to be government approved and the local
boards of education became appointed rather than elected.
As is common with many of the institutions in Japan the education system is based on the American
model only at a superficial level. If one looks inside the Japanese school it evident that it reflects the
values of Japanese society.
2.3.2 Group orientation in the school
The entire structure of Japanese schooling from elementary school upwards revolves around being
part of a group. Every year group is divided into classes called kumi and for the next year or more
the kumi do everything together; they eat lunch together in their class rooms, have every class
together in the same classroom, clean the school together and more often than not play together.
Every kumi is assigned a home room teacher (HRT) who is responsible for the class. The home
room teacher visits the student‟s parents, holds meetings with the class twice every day, teaches the
class morality and ethics and eats lunch with the class. If the students are unruly outside of school
the home room teacher is likely to feel as responsible as the student‟s parents.
The Japanese education system is also regarded as being egalitarian and meritocratic as compared to
many other post industrialised societies. However, it is important to note that in a society as
29
homogeneous as Japan ideas of equality do not refer to equality of opportunity but rather in giving
equal distribution of resources. Japanese public schools up until the junior high school level are
remarkably similar. The Japanese education system does well in achieving uniform results in
compulsory education throughout the country with very little differences in educational level
between rural and urban (Reischauer and Jansen, 1988, p.190).
2.3.3 The examination system
The competition for entrance to the top universities is intense and parents and teachers push
students through a study programme of an intensity unimaginable in Western society referred to as
examination hell (Juken jigoku). The examination hell is as much of a test of the students‟
endurance as intelligence which can be seen as a reflection of the value placed on hard work rather
than innate intelligence or creativity. The examinations on the whole test rote learning of a specific
question type. Competition for Universities is so intense that it is common for parents to send their
children to private after school cram schools (Juku) which students often attend until late at night.
As the best cram schools are expensive the parents of a higher socio-economic class are able to
provide better opportunities for their children to pass the examinations. Cram schools often
advertise by showing their success rates in the examinations for the most prestigious universities
and high schools.
2.4.English education in Japan
2.4.1 A brief overview
During the Meiji era English education was introduced as a means of procuring the technology of
the Western countries. Seargeant (2009, p.49) writes 'the grammar translation method is explained
30
in functional terms within this historical narrative as an enabler of the modernization process of the
Mieji restoration.' English at that time was seen as a code that needed to be unlocked in order to be
able to access western technology rather than as a language which was needed as a means of
communication.
Although the Japanese education system is considered to be amongst the best in the world with
remarkable success in subjects such as maths, science and literacy it is also regarded as a dismal
failure in the teaching of English (Seargreant, 2009, p.48). Despite the fact that much research has
been done into second language acquisition methodology and successful language teaching
programmes have been implemented in many countries based on communicative language
techniques, the Japanese model has changed little from the Meiji era. The students still learn by rote
memorization, in large classes using the grammar translation method. The JTEs are also likely to
have no more than rudimentary communicative English skills which will often not extend to being
able to hold a fluent conversation. Nemoto (1999, p.87) writes 'Most teachers have little practical
knowledge of the language; they speak English slowly and with incorrect pronunciation and
articulation and are unable to understand spoken English at normal speed.' As these teachers lack
confidence in their spoken English abilities they resort to teaching to their strengths which are
teaching grammar, reading and writing. In the case of Elementary schools the home room teacher is
unlikely to be able to speak English at all. Despite this fact as of 2011, English has become a
compulsory subject in all Elementary schools and the home room teacher now has the responsibility
of teaching English, sometimes with the help an ALT.
Even though foreign ALTs have been brought into the English classroom very little has changed in
terms of the methodology and materials used for language instruction. Browne and Wada (1998)
found that despite the fact that the Ministry of Education claims that they are encouraging students
to use more English in the classroom, the teaching materials and textbooks they are directing the
31
JTEs to use are still based on the grammar translation method which is sending conflicting
messages to the teachers. They state (p.105) 'when one considers that the vast majority of English
teachers in Japan receive no formal training and that every ministry of education approved textbook
comes with a teachers' manual that has detailed lesson plans emphasising translation and drill
focused teaching techniques, there is no wonder that a large gap exists between the communicative
goals of the guidelines and the actual classroom practice.'
2.4.2 The English examination
A particular grievance of the ALTs is the examination system which means English more often than
not is taught as an 'exam subject.' According to McConnell (2000, p.22) 'English became a means of
sorting students rather than a basis of communication.' Many of the university and high school
entrance examinations test English in multiple choice format which is assessing factual knowledge
rather than actual language skills. The main tests are on grammar and vocabulary but there is also
often a section which tests pronunciation and phonetics theory.
In the following example (see fig.2.1) the students are being asked to differentiate pronunciation
and indicate word stress. It is incredible that students who do not have basic communicative English
skills are being asked questions that many native speakers would have difficulty in answering.
32
Fig 2.1 High school English entrance exam sample
A. In each parenthisis, choose one of the four words whose pronunciation of its underlined part is different
(a.excuse b. example c.experience d. explain)
(a.looked b.helped c.needed d.washed)
(a.cow b.town c.power d.slow)
Choose the one of the four underlined words one stresses when reading the conversation.
A: Good afternoon, Roy. How are you?
B: Very well thank you. 1.And 2. how 3. are 4. you?
Kokugakutochigi High school entrance exam.
Taken from The Japanese Education System. Nemoto (1999)
As the system is directed towards the twin goals of passing entrance exams which do not test
communicative English ability and socializing students towards group processes, it difficult for
Japanese teachers to know how to utilise an ALT effectively. McConnell (2000, p.168) writes 'The
presence of an ALT would take valuable time away from entrance exam study as well as constantly
threaten to embarrass the majority of the Japanese teachers of the language, whose language skills
are limited.'
The result is that after a combined total of six to ten years of English education most people have a
general understanding of the grammar and rules of English and an impressive vocabulary but can't
apply that knowledge to a basic English conversation.
33
2.5 The ALT system
2.5.1 The origins of the JET programme
The Japan exchange and teaching programme was presented as a “gift” to the US president Ronald
Reagan by the Japanese Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone in their 1986 summit (McConnell, 2000,
p.1). It was designed to appease the US administration who were growing frustrated by the growing
trade imbalance and unequal flow of exchange in goods and people. The Jet programme was
originally designed as grass roots international exchange programme where English speaking
(although mainly American) graduates would come to Japan to participate in cultural exchange and
help to improve the communicative abilities of Japanese English students. However, in the early
days the emphasis was much more on cultural exchange than English education (McConnell, 2000,
p.4).
As the JET programme was originally motivated by political rather than educational concerns and
the job of the ALT was ostensibly one of cultural exchange the first JETs were sent to a number of
schools as visiting guests. Juppe (1998 p.114), the first foreign co-ordinator of the JET programme
writes 'under internationalisation orientated teaching the following type of lesson was likely: an
ALT came for a short period time, the Japanese teacher worked largely as an interpreter, master of
ceremonies....the ALT, introduced him/herself, fielded questions, played a game/did a magic
trick/played a musical instrument and bade the class farewell. Perhaps forever.'
2.5.2 The current role of the ALT
The internationalisation focused teaching took place when the JET programme was still in its
infancy and it is now generally accepted that the job of an ALT has evolved into the role of an
34
educator. However the job description for an ALT is still rather vague and has changed little since
the early days of the JET programme. According to the JET handbook (CLAIR, 2008, p.90) 'ALTs
participate in team teaching. The goal of team teaching is to create a foreign language classroom in
which students, the Japanese foreign language teachers and the native speakers engage in
communication activities.' This description of the ALT‟s workplace duties does not explain what
'communication activities' means and since the majority of JETs are neither trained in TESOL/TEFL
or are experienced language teachers one only can assume that they would have little knowledge of
what these 'communication activities' are.
Due to inadequate training the JTEs are also unlikely to have an understanding of communicative
language teaching (CLT) approach. A two year longitudinal study by Sakui (2004) conducted
observational research into communicative language teaching practices in Japanese high schools
and found that the majority of the activities which the JTEs called communicative activities actually
used the audio lingual method. The teachers were also unable to define what communicative
language teaching means and what activities it might entail (p.158).
Communicative language teaching is a student centred approach which encourages language
learning to occur in an environment where the target language is also the medium of instruction. In
this approach mistakes are tolerated as a natural part of the learning process and language is taught
through communicative activities such as role-plays, games and task based learning activities
(Savignon, 1991).
Communicative language teaching has become a popular goal in the Japanese language classroom
but there is actually scant regard to what it really means. Depending on the JTE 'communication
activities' can mean anything from performing a model dialogue, playing games or reading out
words from flashcards (McConnell, 2000, p.175).
35
2.5.3 The selection criteria for ALTs
As well as there being no specific guidelines for team teaching practices and little description of an
ALT‟s job, the selection criteria for ALTs are also undefined. According to Juppe (1998, p115) 'As
ALTs work under a variety of conditions, job descriptions vary widely. Hours in the classroom
differ; the number of schools to which one is dispatched varies. The ALT may 22, the ALT may be
35; this might be the first job the ALT has held, it might present a career change.'
The selection criteria for the JET programme also gives little indication that the candidates are
being selected to work in language education. McConnell (2000, p.56) writes 'If an applicant makes
it to the interview stage, personal qualities become the dominant criteria for selection'. The selection
criteria for the JET programme at the interview stage are as follows-
Fig 2.2 Selection criteria for the JET programme
1. Personality (40 points)
Consider flexibility, strength of personality, ability to adapt to foreign cultures, etc.
2. Ability (20 points)
Consider self-expression, creativity, general knowledge.
3. Motivation (25 points)
Consider desire to participate in the JET programme, sense of purpose, interest in Japan.
4. Japanese ability (5 points)
Evaluate conversation and reading ability
5. Overall impression (20 points)
Please recommend those applicants who seem sociable, stable and can adjust well to
new situations.
(Taken from Importing diversity, McConnell, 2000, p.56)
36
Fig 2.3 shows a breakdown of ALTs by country of origin, whether or not they have TESOL/TEFL
certification and their Japanese proficiency level. If the job of the ALT has evolved from that of
international exchange to communicative English teacher it is as yet to be reflected in the hiring
practices. Admittedly these figures are from 2002 but there is little evidence to suggest that the
situation has changed.
Table 2.1 JET participants by country of origin, TEFL/TESL certification and Japanese proficiency
TEFL/TESL Certification Japanese proficiency
Country Yes No A B C D E
USA 73 851 22 58 141 254 449
UK 38 292 0 1 9 21 299
Australia 17 56 0 1 13 18 41
NZ 9 80 0 0 4 13 72
Canada 61 247 0 3 12 49 244
Ireland 7 20 0 0 1 7 19
France 0 4 2 1 1 0 0
Germany 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
Total 206 1551 24 65 181 363 1124
Total
percent
11.7 88.3 1.4 3.7 10.3 20.7 64
*Standard for evaluating Japanese ability: A) Can read and speak well enough to manage his/her duty, B) Can speak Japanese well enough to manage
his/ her duty. C) Has no trouble with casual conversation, D) Has trouble with conversation, E) Has no Japanese.
(Tokyo: CLAIR, 1992). (Taken from Importing diversity, McConnell, 2000, p.56)
According to Lai (1999, p.220) 'over the history of the JET programme, comprehensive government
initiated evaluations have never been done on the effectiveness of the programme with regard to
language improvement.' This seems incredible for an initiative that costs the Japanese tax payer 500
37
million US dollars a year (McConnell, 2000, p.3). However, the lack of interest in whether or not
the language ability of Japanese students has improved is hardly surprising given the fact that the
original intention of the system was not pedagogical in its concerns. In fact many have argued that
from the perspective of cross cultural exchange the JET programme has been a success (McConnell,
2000, p.272).
2.6 Team teaching
Collaborative teaching and learning has recently emerged as a significant area of study in TESOL
and applied linguistics. Team taught lessons have become a standard practice in much of East Asia
at least with regard to communicative language classes. The JET programme in Japan, the English
programme in Korea (EPIK) and the Native English teaching scheme in Hong Kong (NET) are the
three most well known examples.
There is no doubt that team teaching can be an effective teaching strategy if the lessons are well
planned, both the teachers have received appropriate training, there is ongoing support and time to
review lessons and teaching strategies (Nunan, 1992, p.6). Sturman (1992, p.145) suggests that in
order to develop good team teaching practices there has to be a degree of flexibility and mutual
personal and professional respect as there is often a difference in cultural assumptions regarding
good pedagogical practices. He writes (p.145) 'the two teachers have different pedagogical
principles and ideas...consequently there has to be a considerable amount of compromise.' He terms
this compromise as 'flexible equality' and suggests that it can be achieved by adhering to three
simple principles. These are: 1) use of materials and methods that are acceptable to both parties, 2)
to discuss the exact roles for each part of the lesson and 3) adapt the materials and methodology
according to the cultural practices of the country.
38
Carless (2006) conducted a case study of three successful team teaching partnerships in Japan,
Hong Kong and Korea. He found that all three cases shared common features which were related to
good personal relations rather than pedagogical practices. These were good relations inside and
outside of the classroom, the willingness to ignore minor points of contention, willingness to
compromise, native English speakers showing respect for established classroom practices and
continuity of the team over time to give the team time to develop good relations.
In order for team teaching to be successful it has to be recognised by both teachers that they can
bring something positive and that the ideal environment is one where both teachers can work
together in a complementary way. The non- native speaker teacher can act as a good role model of a
successful language learner, anticipate difficulties, share the mother tongue and have more cultural
knowledge of the situation than the native speaker (Medyes, 1992, cited in Tajino and Tajino, 2000).
Tajino and Tajino (2000) suggest that team teaching should be re-formulated to include the students
and should be termed „team learning‟. They suggest many more patterns of interaction than are
currently used and suggest ways that encourage autonomous learning strategies within a group
setting. They write (2000, p.9) 'It is a long-held assumption that team teaching consists of two or
more teachers. We argue that such a view limits the possibilities...give students more possibilities to
involve themselves in authentic language use.' It is interesting that they re-structure the traditional
team-teaching setting in a way which incorporates group learning which of course would be ideal
for a group orientated society such as Japan.
39
2.7 Summary
Several issues that have a potential to contribute role confusion between the ALT and JTE have
emerged during the preliminary reading. These are- the group orientated nature of Japanese society
and the structure within the groups, the difference in education ideology between the JTE/students
and the ALT, the difference in the classroom environment and learner types and the lack of training
in collaborative teaching and communicative teaching methods. The research aimed to explore the
extent to which these and other issues are perceived to have contributed to role confusion by both
the ALTs and the JTEs. The next chapter will detail the methodology used to achieve the results.
40
Chapter 3
The design of the study
3.1 Methods of investigation
This chapter begins with a brief rationale for the study, followed by the research questions and the
research objectives. This will be followed by an analysis of the research design- the chapter
concludes with a description of the research instruments, participants, the data collection methods
and a description of the data analysis techniques.
3.1.1 Rationale for the study
Recently there have been many studies into the team teaching system in Japanese English education
which have produced good suggestions for improvements in team teaching methods and how to
effectively utilise ALTs in the classroom (Nunan, 1992, Tajino and Tajino, 2000, Carless, 2006).
However, to date few of these studies (McConnell, 2000, Igawa, 2009) have included the ALT as
part of the research and consequently the ALT's voice has rarely been heard. It is the contention of
the researcher that as so few studies of team teaching have included the ALTs the accumulated
research has not yet been able to fully describe or explain the range of problems that may occur
with particular regard to the role of the ALT and subsequent role confusion between the ALT and
JTE. Unless the role of the ALT is more fully defined and the ALT is able to have a voice this role
confusion will continue to occur and it will remain difficult to implement new team-teaching
practices.
41
In a small scale research project it is impossible to determine all the causes of role confusion.
Therefore this paper will look at the causes as they specifically relate to cultural and social factors.
These factors may be due to the JTE and ALT's different belief systems such as differences in
educational ideology and consequently different learning outcomes for the students; they may be
institutionalised factors such as being bound by a rigid curriculum and the examination system; or
they may be due to social structures such as pressure from the JTEs‟ superiors. All of these factors
are likely to have a profound effect on how the class is conducted. These influences are what can be
termed cultural/social factors and it is the purpose of this paper to determine how much they
contribute to role-confusion and how their negative effects can be minimized.
3.1.2 Research questions and objectives
The main research question that I am attempting to answer is:
To what extent is role confusion between the ALT and JTE caused by cultural/social factors?
As this is a complex question it can be broken into simpler component parts. These are:
1. How does the ALT define his/her role and status in the classroom
and the school? (Interview)
2. How does the ALT view English education in Japan and the team-teaching
system? (Interview)
3. In what ways does role confusion manifest itself? (Interview)
42
4. How does the JTE view the team-teaching system? (Survey)
5. What are the JTEs' role expectations of the ALT? (Survey)
The research design and choice of research instruments has emerged from the research questions. It
is a mixed methods design collecting qualitative data from nine in depth interviews and mainly
quantitative data from 31 questionnaires.
3.2 Research instruments
3.2.1 Interviews with ALTs
A total of over ten hours of interviews were recorded with nine ALTs. The justification for using
interviews is that the researcher was attempting to ascertain the opinions and experiences of ALTs.
The advantage of using interviews is that they allow the researcher to gather information with more
depth and insight. The semi-structured interview format is flexible enough to allow the interviewee
to elaborate on any important points as they emerge during the conversation (Denscombe, 2007,
p.193).
3.2.2 The unstructured interview
The rationale for conducting a preliminary unstructured interview was that the interviewee had vast
experience of working in the Japanese school system. The first interviewee (Peter) has lived in
Japan for 21 years and can speak Japanese at an advanced level. Due to his in depth understanding
of the Japanese education system and society an unstructured interview was conducted in order to
discover and develop the focus of the study. By conducting this preliminary interview the researcher
was able to narrow the focus of his research and develop more specific interview questions for the
43
remaining eight interviews.
3.2.3 Eight semi-structured interviews
It was decided to use semi-structured interviews for the remaining eight interviews as the
unstructured interview is flexible enough to ask questions that are specific to the different
circumstances of the various ALTs and to allow the informant to expand upon and develop ideas
during the interview process. However, there was a clear list of issues that the researcher wished to
address and a clear research focus. Therefore it was important that the eight semi-structured
interviews were consistent enough to be able make comparisons between the various ALTs
conclusions. This would prove important during the analysis of the data.
The researcher was aware that the interviewer effect can cause the interviewee to respond
differently depending on the interviewer's background. This leaves the research open to criticism of
researcher bias and lack of reliability. In order to negate the interviewer effect the researcher
introduced himself as a former ALT in order that the interviewees would feel on an equal footing.
3.2.4 Questionnaires
The rationale for using questionnaires for the JTEs was that a questionnaire limits the potential for
language misunderstandings that perhaps would have occurred in an interview. However, a
questionnaire was also particularly well suited to the task as the main focus was to specifically
define the role of an ALT from the perspective of the JTE.
The questionnaire was first of all written in English and then translated into Japanese (see
appendices 9 and 10). Rather than a simple back translation method, this was piloted with a JTE
44
known to the researcher and some of the questions were changed as they were not explicit enough
or contained language errors that could potentially be misinterpreted.
In order to ensure a high response rate three strategies were used. These were: 1) Using 5 ALTs and
1 JTE to distribute and collect the questionnaires, 2) By guaranteeing complete anonymity it was
anticipated that the JTEs would be more likely to respond and 3) By providing the questionnaire in
Japanese it would be easier and take less time to complete.
The questionnaire (see appendix 9) is six pages long and it consists of 30 closed and 2 open
questions. It begins with a cover letter stating that the intended purpose of the research is for part
requirement for Masters degree in TESOL and that the information supplied will be completely
anonymous.
The questionnaire consists of four parts. The first part comprises of four general biographical data
questions. The second part incorporates 15 questions about the JTEs‟ general impressions of
working with ALTs. Eight of these questions were measured on a five point Likert scale
(respondents marked that they strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree or don't know to
eight statements about team taught classes). The other seven questions of part two were questions
about lesson planning, training, ALT responsibilities and the status of the ALT in the classroom. Part
3 included 11 questions about the importance of the ALT in various classroom roles. The statements
were graded from 1 to 5 (1= very important, 5= unimportant). Finally there were two open
questions giving the participants the opportunity to add any further information either about the
ALTs role or more generally about English education in Japanese schools.
As well as increasing the response rate the reasoning behind the anonymity of the questionnaire was
that the JTEs would likely give more honest answers about the ALTs in an anonymous format.
45
However, the researcher is also aware that the JTEs are often quite polarized in their attitudes
towards ALTs (McConnell, 2002, p.193) and there may be questionnaire bias as the JTEs that are
enthusiastic about the ALT programme were more likely to respond.
3.2.5 Ethical Considerations and approval
A proposal for the research was made to the University of Ulster‟s School of Education Ethics filter
committee and approval was granted under the condition that the data be stored in a password
protected computer at all times. The research was assessed as being a low risk project (see appendix
1 for more details).
The interviews were completely confidential and consent forms (see appendix 2) were signed by all
the participants who were also supplied with an information sheet to ensure informed consent.
These forms also assured that the data would be kept in the strictest confidentiality and that any
quotations etc. would be anonymous. The questionnaire data was to be completely anonymous,
therefore the names of the participants were not even known to the researcher. A cover letter was
provided with the questionnaire which clearly provided information on the procedure and the
purpose of the research (see appendix 3 and 4). Return of the questionnaire to the researcher was
taken as implicitly signifying informed consent.
3.3 Research participants
3.3.1 Interviews samples
A convenience non-probability sample of eight ALTs was chosen for the semi-structured interviews.
The ALT sample was not chosen to reflect the diversity that exists amongst ALTs as many of the
46
participants were chosen simply because they were the first at hand. However, the chart below (fig
3.1) shows that there was considerable diversity in the sample. The names of the ALTs have been
changed in order to maintain confidentiality.
Table. 3.1 Biographical information of the interview samples
Name/nationality Japanese ability Time living in Japan Time as ALT Certification Previous employment
Peter/us Fluent 21 years 5 years None Language school
Gary/us Basic 4 years 3 years CELTA Bank
Carl/us Basic 9 years 4 years None Printer
Danny/us Reasonably fluent 9 years 7 years None Business
Robert/us Fluent 13 years 2 years None Journalism
Jason/uk Conversational 8 years 8 years None Office
Rebecca/us Advanced 18 years 16 years QTS Student
Elaine/aus Beginner 10 months 4 months None Student
3.3.2 Questionnaires samples
The questionnaires were distributed by one JTE and five ALTs. As the JTEs were known to the
distributors the response rate was quite high. The response rates were as follows:
Table 3.2 Response rate to the questionnaires
Distributed by: No. of questionnaires
distributed
No returned Response rate
JTE 20 7 35 percent
Peter 2 1 50 percent
Jason 12 9 75 percent
Elaine 11 7 63.6 percent
Larry 4 3 75 percent
ALT 10 (not interviewed) 10 4 40 percent
Overall 59 31 52.54 percent
47
As the questionnaires were completely anonymous there was limited information about the
background of the participants. The biography data section only asked what type of school they
work in, how long they have been an English teacher and how many ALTs they have worked with.
Of the 31 teachers that participated 21 work in Junior high school, 3 work in High school and 7
work in elementary school. There is considerable difference in the number of years they have been
an English teacher and the number ALTs they have worked with (fig. 3.3 and 3.4). The sample
includes many JTEs and home room teachers (HRT) that are new to teaching and others that have
been teaching for over 20 years. The sample therefore included teachers from a full range of school
types and with a broad variety of experience. 1 JTE has worked with only 1 ALT while at the other
extreme, 8 JTEs reported that they had worked with more than ten ALTs (Fig 3.4 below).
Table 3.3 Length of time JTEs have been an English teacher
How long have you been an English
teacher?
Years No. Of teachers
1 to 5 10
6 to 10 4
11 to 15 4
16 to 20 5
21 to 25 2
26 to 30 2
(4 Elementary school teachers didn't answer this question. This is because they don't consider themselves as English teachers but
rather as home room teachers)
Table 3.4 Number of ALTs the JTEs have worked with
How many ALT's have you worked with?
No. of ALTs 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10 plus
Teachers 0 1 3 7 3 2 0 1 4 0 2 8
48
3.4 Data analysis
3.4.1 Interviews
Denscombe (2007) lists the four principles of analysis of qualitative research as:
1. the conclusions should be firmly grounded in the data
2. explanations should emerge from thorough reading of the data
3. researcher should avoid introducing preconceptions
4. analysis of qualitative data is an iterative process- the process moves
back and forth comparing empirical data with codes and categories
The analysis of qualitative data is different from that of quantitative in the sense that, depending on
the approach taken, theories may continue to emerge throughout the process of data analysis.
According to Denscombe (2007, p.287) '(Analysis of) qualitative data is based on the logic of
discovering things from the data, of generating theories on the basis of what the data contains, and
from moving from particular features of the data towards the more generalised conclusions.'
3.4.2 Reliability, validity and generalisability
It is important to recognise that as far as qualitative research is concerned the researcher is often
intimately involved in the collection and analysis of the data and often makes informed subjective
decisions about the data. Therefore it is important that the data is verifiable in order to enhance its
credibility.
The term reliable refers to whether or not the research instrument is neutral and consistent over
49
multiple uses (Denscombe, 2007 p.296). Of course in the case of the unstructured and semi-
structured interviews it is impossible to replicate the setting exactly. As well as this the researcher is
in fact an essential component of the research instrument. As this makes it difficult to claim that the
results are reliable the researcher has to use other methods to increase the integrity of the results. An
accepted way of doing this is to give an explicit account of the research procedures which should
include a detailed description of the methods and analysis. This is referred to as an audit trail.
Denscombe (2007, p.298) writes 'the principal behind the audit trail is that the research procedures
and decision making could be checked by other researchers who would be in a position to confirm
the existence of data and evaluate decisions made in relation to the data collection and analysis.'
The important point is that the collection and analysis of the data should be transparent and
dependable.
It is also important that the researcher can demonstrate that the means of measuring the data are
accurate and they measure what they intend to i.e. that the data is valid (Golafsham, 2003, p.599).
The qualitative researcher can show that their data is valid by triangulating the data. This can be
done by checking the data with other sources such as previous studies into the subject area or by
collecting data from other sources using different methods. The advantage to triangulation is that it
can allow the researcher to look at the data from more than one viewpoint, validate the accuracy of
the data and give a broader picture. Another way of demonstrating the validity of interviews is
respondent validation. This simply means going back to the participant with the interview
transcripts and asking them to confirm that it is what they said.
It is difficult to make claims for the generalisability of data collected from in depth interviews as all
data collected using this method are unique. Linclon and Guba (1985 cited in Denscombe, 2007)
say that generalisability is the wrong term to apply to qualitative data and suggest the term
transferability. Therefore rather than making claims the results are generalisable to similar instances
50
the researcher can claim that they are transferable.
3.5 Description of the qualitative data analysis
It was decided that a grounded theory approach would be used to analyse the interview data.
Although this approach can be time consuming it is well suited to small scale studies and
exploratory research. According to Denscombe (2007, p.93) 'the point of grounded theory is to
generate theories not to test them'.
The researcher coded and categorised the data, by means of an iterative process, in four stages.
These were:
(1) The researcher transcribed the interviews, read through the initial transcripts of the data and
made notes. From these notes ten categories emerged and within these categories 46 codes
(see appendix 6). By transcribing and coding the data the researcher was able to become
more familiar with the data.
(2) A total of 27 questions were asked in all the interviews. The researcher wrote the
interviewees responses under the question headings and again coded the data according to
the 46 codes. (see appendix 7)
(3) The interview data from the questions was again analysed and the 46 codes were reduced to
26 codes, each of the answers was sorted into one of the 26 codes. A margin was left again
to make notes. (see appendix 8)
(4) Codes of a similar subject area were grouped together. The 26 codes were grouped into three
broader subject areas which corresponded to the research objectives.
51
Chapter 4
4.1 Presentation of the results
4.1.1 Presentation and discussion of the interview data
The interview data will form the focus of the study. The discussion will be confined to the
categories that have emerged from the data analysis with regard to the research objectives, rather
than a descriptive account or summary of the data collected.
In order to fully understand the ways that role confusion manifests itself and why it occurs, it is first
necessary to define the role of an ALT. As we have already discussed in Chapter 2 the job
description up until now has been vague and non descriptive and it has been up to the individual
schools and JTEs to utilise the ALT as they choose. However, many of the JTEs have had
inadequate training in team teaching and ESL methodology and therefore they may not have the
background, training or experience to utilise the ALT appropriately (Browne and Wada, 1998).
In the next part of this paper the results from the nine ALT interviews are presented. The
participants have explained in their own words what their role is on a day to day basis, their
impression of English education in Japan and the team-teaching system and in what ways they think
that role confusion occurs. These data have been analysed and the results will be illustrated by
quotations.
52
4.2 Research objective one: Defining the role of an ALT
4.2.1 The school hierarchy
The interview data illustrate that the nine ALTs do not have a clear idea about where they fit in the
overall school hierarchy. This may correspond with the idea previously discussed in chapter 2
(uchi/soto) that the foreign worker is often not considered as an inner group member and therefore
is placed outside the hierarchy altogether.
The nine ALTs that were interviewed work in very different situations regarding the number of
schools they work in and their contract type. The table below gives a brief description of the
conditions they are working in. It is generally considered that the direct hire and JET programme
are the best conditions with regard to benefits and remuneration.
Table 4.1 Number of schools and contract type of interview participants
ALT No No of schools Contract type
Peter 1 elementary Hourly pay
Gary 3 elementary Direct hire
Carl 3 Junior high Direct hire
Danny 1 Junior high Sub-contract
Robert 3 Junior high JET
Jason 9 Junior high Sub-contract/former JET
Rebecca 22 Elementary Hourly pay
Elaine 5 Elementary
1 Junior high
Sub contract
Larry 1 High school JET
With such a diverse set of experiences represented in the sample, one would assume that the ALTs
would have a different set of opinions regarding their status within the school. However, for the
most part there is considerable convergence of opinion. Most of them either see themselves as
53
outside the hierarchy altogether, as a guest or in a low ranking position.
ALTs are at the bottom of the totem pole. I don't understand what their purpose is in
Japan....You're not even in the hierarchy. (Peter)
We are treated as a guest, not necessarily as a co-worker but as a guest.(Gary)
In some ways a part of the school and in a lot of ways not. (Carl)
An ALT is not even on the same plain, you are just a foreign body, the line that you travel is
askew, you are near....They are too respectful and yet they don't treat you as part of the
system. (Danny)
I don't think that the ALTs are disrespected particularly. I think they are respected to do their
job and they are respected as a member of staff, but in no way on the same level as a
Japanese teacher...a guest, at best a respected guest and at worst an unwanted guest.
(Jason)
I feel like they are outside the status hierarchy in some ways because you don't fit in
anywhere. (Elaine)
Robert describes the ALTs place in the hierarchy as a position of superficial importance.
In terms of the actual power hierarchy at the bottom but in terms of symbolic hierarchy near
the top, it is like a superficially privileged position but actually inferior and irrelevant.
(Robert)
4.2.2 Career development
Not surprisingly the ALTs who have been in Japan for some time showed more concern about this
issue than ALTs who plan on returning to their home countries after one or two years. Despite the
fact that many of the ALTs have been working for the same company for years their contractual
conditions are temporary and their salary remains static.
It is very rigid. There is no scope for career development as far as I can tell. (Jason)
When you are here you are always torn- do I stay or do I go? Because there is no
opportunity here. (Danny)
54
Gary has recently been hired directly by his local BOE and has seen an improvement in his salary
and working conditions. However, he still views the job as temporary.
There is none (career opportunities). I am only a foreign language specialist, that is all I
am...It is just a temporary job. You really ought to try hard and you know you can make a
good impact with the kids just being an ALT but it would be nice to have more say and be
able to offer more and to be able to grow professionally and personally. (Gary)
Robert and Danny both suggest that the lack of opportunity is caused at an institutional level.
Robert sees this as being deliberately planned whereas Danny considers it as being due to apathy on
the part of those who are responsible for the planning of English education.
They need to have conditions and pay scales that are good enough that people want to
stay...the reason they are racing to the bottom is that there will always be more foreigners
coming to fill the positions no matter how crappy the conditions are. (Robert)
I seriously doubt anyone has ever sat down and thought- What are we going to do with all
these English speakers? How are we going to create a higher quality of job pool? (Danny)
4.2.3 Training
The ALTs that were interviewed had various levels of experience and Japanese language ability but
there is very little difference in terms of training and qualifications. Gary is qualified in ESL as he
has recently completed a CELTA and Rebecca is a certified teacher in her home country but the rest
of the ALTs have no teaching or ESL qualifications.
Peter expressed the opinion that the JTEs don't really consider the ALT as a teacher because they
don't have the appropriate qualifications. Despite the fact that there is no evidence to corroborate
this statement it does seem to be a commonly held view amongst ALTs.
For an ALT with no qualifications no other teacher considers that person as a teacher in the
strictest sense of the word, they are just someone they can utilize. (Peter)
55
The other ALTs were concerned by the lack of training they have received.
I have never actually received any team teaching training....I was not trained adequately
during my two and a half years as an ALT. (Gary)
Danny is more explicit in his opinions about the lack of training.
Actually zero training.....nothing about how junior high schools are run, nothing about rules,
nothing about culture, nothing about laws. I never received any information about teaching
theory, about how to work with kids, especially young teenagers...I have never received a
textbook. (Danny)
The ALTs who are part of the JET programme or have been part of the JET programme have
certainly received more help in terms of orientation and adjusting to Japan but still very little in
terms of actual ESL training or teacher training.
Yeah it wasn't really that extensive...they sent out some materials...I wouldn't really call it
training but they sent out a preliminary textbook to study about Japan. (Robert)
A weeks pre-departure JET course...whether it was actually training, the training doesn't
match the job requirements. (Jason)
There was a bit of ESL training but not much...a current ALT came and showed us a few
games...gave us a feel of what we would be doing in the first few weeks but after that it was
learn on your own. (Rebecca)
In terms of teacher training, not a great deal. With JET we had a lot of preparation in terms
of living in Japan but in terms of preparation for teaching the students, not nearly as much.
(Larry)
4.2.4 The relationship between the JTE and ALT
The best team teaching practices occur when both the JTE or home room teacher and ALT develop
a good personal relationship. However, a good relationship takes time to build and as many ALTs
move from school to school on a regular basis it is can be difficult for such relationships to develop.
In circumstances when the ALT formed a good relationship with their JTE they felt valued, were
more aware of their role and generally happier.
56
However, because of the balance of power a good working relationship is usually more dependent
on the attitude of the JTE than the ALT. Peter spoke about that how in the current situation even an
unskilled and inexperienced ALT can be used effectively by a good JTE.
If you are an unskilled ALT and you are working with a skilled teacher then the skilled
teacher can use you in such a way that you will be productive in the classroom. (Peter)
He goes on to say that if the situation is reversed it doesn't help to make a good class.
It can be really hard to have a bad Japanese teacher and a good ALT or an ALT that is a
good English teacher it doesn't work out well. (Peter)
In the current system it is up to the individual JTEs to utilise an ALT in any way they choose. This
in effect means that the level of responsibility that each ALT has is not necessarily linked to their
experience or competence but dependent on the JTE that they are assigned to work with.
Gary spoke about what he thinks are good team teaching practices and how both teachers can utilise
their skills to the greatest advantage in a classroom.
Team teaching to me is they do a lot of the classroom management, they help with the set,
they help with the set up of the activities...and then I provide a lot of the language analysis
and a lot of the information....I think I have a great set of skills and they have a great set of
skills and the key is to combine that set of skills so you have a great class. (Gary)
4.3 Research objective two: Views of English education
4.3.1 Examinations and study materials
Analysis of the interview data and wider reading on the subject area suggest that the examination
system and study materials are one of the primary causes of role confusion in the classroom. The
57
role of the ALT as defined by the Ministry of Education is to assist the JTE in the teaching of
communicative English. However the textbooks that have been supplied by the same Ministry
almost entirely use the grammar translation method, consequently when using such materials there
is very little the ALT can do to assist the JTE. The entrance examinations which are the main focus
of education in high school and junior high school mostly test grammar, reading and writing.
Consequently the JTE may see the ALT classes and communicative English teaching as having little
importance in the main objectives of the student‟s education.
The ALTs in the schools are generally redundant because there is no purpose for them in
terms of getting the kids into the next phase of education. If each school had an oral
examination which the ALT was responsible for I think the whole situation would be
different.(Jason)
They learn to test well and very few kids learn how to communicate well. Just because you
are good at English doesn't mean you will even pass the entrance exam. They learn
grammar and they learn how to make good grades on the English test and they can't even
communicate and that is where the ALT’s role should be. (Rebecca)
Some of the ALTs also spoke about how the content of the textbooks was detrimental to
communicative language teaching.
None of these people have a clue as what to teach as communication...The textbook aspect is
a good one. It has the same problems as the whole system. For people who aren't paying
attention it looks like it’s conversational English. Well what is that? How does it apply to
these kids who have to pass the grammar tests? That's the problem the kids don't understand
it and the teacher can't use it properly. (Danny)
I would scrap the textbook. I don't think you need a textbook to teach communicative
English...For the JTE with no English ability the textbook serve the purpose to get the kids
to pass the exams. (Jason)
Peter and Gary both commented on the fact that the JTEs, the ALTs and the students may not even
really understand what communicative language teaching is. What is termed as communicative
language teaching in the classroom is often nothing more than activities and role plays.
They don't know what it (CLT) means and if you haven't studied the methodology how are
you supposed to implement it?(Peter)
58
No I don't think they understand it (CLT) and I don't think the students understand it
either...because they are so used to their structure based approach. So they have their
previous learning experience to overcome...it is not just training but it also culture. (Gary)
4.3.2 Class planning
Another problem area amongst the ALTs was the planning of classes. In many cases there was good
planning and time set aside for discussion and post class reflection. However, this was entirely
dependent on the JTE so there could just as likely be no planning or inconsistency in planning. Of
course in order to have a successful team teaching relationship there should be good planning and
inadequate planning will almost certainly lead to role confusion.
The lack of planning can be caused by any number of reasons such as the ALT goes to so many
schools that there is no time to have meetings, the Japanese teacher is not confident in their English
ability and consequently doesn't want to talk to the foreign teacher, the Japanese teacher is not
enthusiastic about the ALT system or both the ALT and JTE are untrained and therefore do not
know how to plan for team teaching.
When an ALT is not based in one school there is no real time to chat about the format of the
class and lessons...I am at nine schools so I go to one school every couple of days and as
soon as I go in it is class time...because there is no planning beforehand you (the JTE and
the ALT) are looking at each other wondering whose turn it is to say what. (Jason)
Rebecca who works in 22 schools says that for her there is no team teaching and more often than
not they turn the entire class over to her:
They just let me take the reins and go because neither of us likes team teaching. We don't
plan lessons because I am not in the schools. I walk in 15-20 minutes before the class and
we have a 2-3 minute discussion. (Rebecca)
59
For Carl the lack of planning was the main cause for concern.
The teachers should definitely sit down and let us know what we can expect each time before
the class...More planning...it makes the lesson go easier as well. (Carl)
Elaine spoke about having meetings and planning lessons with home room teachers that don't speak
any English. This has become a particular problem in elementary schools since the introduction of
compulsory English for 5th
and 6th
grades in 2011. Many of these home room teachers do not speak
English at all and many of the ALTs that have been assigned to the elementary schools can't speak
Japanese.
The B.O.E. has written up manuals. So we basically sit there and look at the lesson plan and
point and I use my limited Japanese and they use their limited English to make some sense
out of it...It is pretty pointless because I turn up and something different is happening.
(Elaine)
Jason and Elaine both regarded insufficient planning as a definite cause of role confusion. In Jason‟s
case both the teachers are unsure about what to do in the class and in Elaine‟s case the class is
different from what she expected. Insufficient time to plan the class seems to be a common problem
amongst the ALTs that were interviewed. However, without planning it is impossible to implement
successful team teaching.
4.3.3 The classroom environment
The classroom environment and the learner profile of the students can be the cause of a lot of
misunderstanding between the students, ALT and JTE. At the crux of these misunderstandings is the
fact that the JTE and ALT often have entirely different ideas of what a normal and healthy learning
environment should be. Even if the ALT has a good understanding of Japanese learning culture
he/she may still see the classroom environment as not being conducive to communicative language
learning. Of course there are many JTEs who have progressive ideas about language teaching and
60
want to integrate new ways of learning into their classrooms and yet there are others who are
resistant to any changes. In the latter case the ALT may become frustrated as he/she sees the
traditional Japanese learning environment as an impediment to language teaching and thus becomes
disillusioned about the entire team teaching exercise.
Gary suggests that it is obviously difficult for the students to engage in communicative based
student centred learning as they are used to being in a teacher centred environment.
When they have five or six classes a day in a very teacher centred and teacher controlled
classroom and they step into yours once a week...you try to get them to be more open and
more communicative and get them talking to one another...I think it is something you will
find a lot of resistance to.(Gary)
This point is important as it addresses the fundamental differences in educational ideology. It is
ambitious to expect Japanese students to suddenly adapt to a communicative language learning
approach which stems from Western educational practices.
The Japanese group orientated culture and its emphasis on conformism is cited by some as one of
the reasons it is difficult to implement communicative tasks.
The problem is that they don't want to stand out in Japan. Standing out is uncomfortable and
if you speak English with a good accent you stand out. (Peter)
The culture of learning here in Japan has a lot to do with it. Even in Japanese you're not
going to talk a lot, you're not going to stand out but especially in foreign language which is
still seen as different. (Gary)
The learner profile of an ideal student in Japan is also very different from what the ALT may
consider to be a good student. Some of the ALTs that were interviewed were concerned about the
lack of creativity and open discussion in the classroom.
One of the things that is lacking in the Japanese classroom is creativity. Firstly the students
don't really have the opportunity to be creative and secondly when they do have the
opportunity they lack the initiative or skills for a good outcome because they worry about
61
what they have come up with, if it is acceptable to the group. (Larry)
In the (United) states if you are not raising you hand and asking questions and thinking
things through on your own you are not a good student. But here if you are quiet you are a
good student. (Rebecca)
The ideal student in the western sense is one who actively engages with the material and
asks questions and thinks very laterally about the materials and very creatively. Whereas the
ideal student in Japan is one who can respond very quickly giving a rote answer or is
generally pretty quiet and doesn't say much. (Elaine)
The difficulty here is that both the JTE and the ALT may have different ideas about what they
consider to be the ideal classroom environment and student profile. This situation is unlikely to be
resolved if the ALT does not adapt to the Japanese classroom and suggest communicative language
learning tasks that are compatible with the environment. However, with regard to communicative
language teaching methodology which is often student centred and based around classroom
discussions it is unlikely to be successful unless it can be adapted to different cultural settings. If the
ALT and the JTE have a trusting relationship they are likely to find some compromise and establish
a healthy learning environment which is acceptable to both of the teachers and the students.
4.4 Research objective three: Role confusion in the school and the classroom
4.4.1 School culture
Many of the ALTs spoke at length about how every school was different and how the role
expectations and the way they were treated by the teachers and general staff varied depending on
the school they work in. The ALTs who work in multiple schools feel that the situation exacerbates
role confusion. The data also suggests that some schools are more aware of how to effectively
utilise an ALT. Jason and Rebecca spoke about how having an understanding principal or vice-
principal can enhance the school experience.
62
You can have a bad school one year and then it changes...the staff are warmer on a daily
basis or the kids seem more relaxed...I think it has a lot to do with the principal. (Jason)
(Japanese schools regularly, rotate their staff. A principal is likely to change schools every two or
three years).
It depends on the principal the vice principal and the teachers. If I were able to pick and
choose my schools I would choose smaller schools. (Rebecca)
The principal or vice principal having such an effect on a school can be at least partly attributed to
the hierarchical society. The attitude and management style of the boss is likely to have a more
pronounced effect on the atmosphere and working environment than Western societies where people
identify with their peers rather than the institution they work in.
Carl also spoke about how the attitude of the teachers towards the ALT can change depending on
the school.
If teachers tend to be stressed they don't talk and it is a serious situation all the time and
they just make everything serious...I also have schools where I go and everyone is happy, I
walk in and everyone says good morning and I have schools where I say good morning and
nobody answers. (Carl)
Other ALTs spoke about how certain schools don't know how to utilise their skills effectively.
The fact that I am in one school now, that I am here every day sort of freaked them out....I
mean more than before they are not sure what to do. (Danny)
Sometimes I do feel undervalued not only by the JTE but also by the school in terms of how
they plan my time. (Larry)
4.4.2 The differences between JTEs
By far the biggest cause of concern and one of the main reasons for role confusion was how
different the classroom situation can be depending on the JTE/HRT. The following are just a few of
63
the comments:
I work with two teachers and both are extremely different experiences and no training has
been done. (Peter)
Some teachers just show up to class and that is it and others want to sit down and work
through things and get you involved. (Gary)
Some teachers told me exactly what to do...some teachers didn't want me to do any activities
they just wanted me to teach grammar. Some teachers just wanted me to repeat whatever it
was that they wanted me to, to get the native speaker pronunciation and some of them
wanted to leave it all up to me. (Danny)
It is a case by case....there was an older teacher that enjoyed it and a younger teacher
basically my own age who didn't want to work with me...he resented the whole exercise quite
frankly. (Robert)
Some JTEs like to give you the rein of the class, they see the ALT as fundamental to the
class...but every situation is different. Some teachers feel like they should be in charge and
the ALT should be an assistant as the job title suggests. (Jason)
Teachers working together in a planned way is unfortunately in the minority....it totally
depends in the Japanese teacher how the lesson pans out. (Elaine)
It depends on the person you are working with...I teach with four different JTEs and it is the
most part four different ways of going about teaching the students. (Larry)
The difference in the JTEs attitudes towards team teaching and the ALT is of course a major cause
of role confusion and a source of frustration for the ALTs.
Nobody had any idea what an ALT is supposed to do, nobody has a goal. Do we play
games? Do we become the kid’s friends? Do we behave as their regular teacher? Do we
teach them grammar points? I mean we have no clue. So then it is 100 percent left to the
individual teacher to decide what they want to use us for and most of the time it is this silly
part in this silly little activity. (Danny)
Be prepared for any situation whether it be a JTE that sits at the back of the class and says
get on with it or a JTE that is standing at the front and talking in Japanese and instructing
the kids in Japanese. You know that you don't have any input, you don't use your imagination
in the classroom and you just pronounce words...and there is everything between that.
(Jason)
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4.4.3 Language
The English level of Japanese teachers is more of a problem in elementary schools than junior high
schools or high schools. This is because many of the teachers in elementary schools are not
specialist English teachers and in many cases they can't speak English at all. However, these
teachers have been directed by the Ministry of Education to teach English classes with an ALT who
may or may not speak Japanese. Not surprisingly many of these teachers feel anxiety about teaching
a language they can't speak with a co-teacher with whom they cannot communicate.
If you work with a home room teacher you are going to have some problems because a lot of
those teachers are scared of English...they are being forced to teach English and they are
scared of it. (Carl)
A lot of these teachers think 'Why do we have to hire these ALTs?...They make us nervous.
Why do we have to teach English? I don't speak English, English makes me nervous, I don't
want to teach English. (Peter)
It can often be the case that the Japanese teacher will conduct the entire class in Japanese with little
regard to the ALT.
Because they are obviously not comfortable they just end up speaking Japanese the whole
class and I don't know what is going on. (Elaine)
However, this is not confined to elementary school as the specialist English teachers in junior high
schools may also conduct a lesson entirely in Japanese in the presence of the ALT.
Japanese teachers are aware of their lack of ability in English....they are conscious of
speaking English so they (either) let the ALT get on with it or they can do the majority of the
class in Japanese which is when the ALT becomes redundant. (Jason)
Jason goes on to suggest that the English ability of the JTEs is an indication of the true value of
English in the wider Japanese society.
The status of English is reflected in the ability of JTEs. Eigo (the Japanese word for English)
is an important subject...and that is reflected in the level of English of the average JTE who
65
can read and write in English but has no real ability to hold a decent conversation. (Jason)
When he refers to eigo he is speaking about the English lessons that are focused entirely on
preparation for the entrance exams based on grammar, reading and writing. He is suggesting that
these classes are seen as important but the communicative English classes with the ALT are less
valued.
The ALTs may also have to watch the JTEs or home room teachers teach English that is incorrect
and they are often reluctant to correct the mistake as it may cause embarrassment in front of the
students.
Japanese teachers on the whole they don't consult...I hear bad English being taught all the
time and I can't interrupt because I am stepping on their toes. (Peter)
It is a bit awkward when you are trying to correct the teachers...when teachers make
mistakes grammatically or their English isn't very good...so it is just knowing when to step in.
(Elaine)
4.5 Summary of interview data
The interview data suggests that from the perspective of the ALT the primary causes of role
confusion are lack of training and pre-departure preparation, study materials that are inappropriate
for team taught communicative classes, the examination system, lack of consistent meetings and
class planning, the classroom environment, the different culture in different schools (particularly
with regard to the head teacher) and the different role expectations depending on the JTE.
The data also shows that many of the ALTs are dissatisfied with their position with regards to career
development and investment in their training. They also consider themselves to be of a low status
within the school hierarchy, outside the hierarchy altogether or occupying a place that has the
66
superficial appearance of being high status but actually has little real relevance. These factors result
in the individual ALT not having a specific idea of what his/her role is in the wider school or
English class should be.
4.6 Presentation of the survey results
4.6.1 Impressions of team teaching
This part of the survey assesses what the JTE/HRTs think about team teaching and their general
attitudes towards the ALTs. The first nine questions are general questions about the team teaching
system and the impact on the student‟s English education. The teachers were asked to what extent
they agree to various statements (The answers have been measured on a four point Likert scale of
strongly agree (SA), agree (A), disagree (D), strongly disagree (SD) and don't know (DK)). The
results show that the JTEs mostly report that they have a very positive attitude about working with
the ALTs and consider the system as being beneficial to the students' English education.
The data suggests (fig 4.1) that the JTE/HRTs on the whole think that the ALT system is very
successful in teaching the students about foreign cultures and also successful in raising the students'
communicative English ability.
Table 4.2 Questionnaire data/impressions of team teaching
Rating
Question SA A D SD DK
Team teaching is good because it allows the students
to have experiences with foreigners and learn about
foreign cultures
17 14 0 0 0
The students English ability improves as the result of
team taught lessons
8 17 1 0 5
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The results show (table 4.3) that the teachers‟ responses to the question of whether or not the ALT
class should be more enjoyable than the normal English class are mixed. However, on the whole
they have the impression that the class with the ALT is more enjoyable for the students than their
normal English classes. This may be because it is difficult for the teachers to maintain the same
levels of enthusiasm in their normal English class which follow a more rigidly defined curriculum
and mainly teaches using the grammar translation method.
Table 4.3 Questionnaire data/enjoyment of ALT class
Rating
Question SA A D SD DK
As the class with the ALT is different from normal
English class it should be more enjoyable for the
students
0 16 11 0 4
The students think that the class with the ALT is more
enjoyable than normal English class
12 15 1 0 2
As we have already seen from the interview data the ALTs spoke at length about inconsistency or
insufficient class planning and meetings. Of the 31 teachers that completed the questionnaire 19
reported that they had regular meeting with their ALT. In terms of lesson planning there is also quite
a difference depending on the JTE as the table below shows. This confirms the opinion expressed
by the ALTs that every JTE is different in how they work with the ALT and in terms of class
planning and meetings the JTEs can be quite inconsistent.
Table 4.4 Questionnaire data/lesson planning
Do you plan lessons with the ALT?
Always 13
Sometimes 11
Never 4
Depends on the ALT 3
In terms of the ALT‟s place in the school hierarchy the results from the questionnaire are entirely
different from the views of the ALTs. In fact the majority of the teachers see the ALT as an equal co-
worker.
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Table 4.5 Questionnaire data/hierarchy
How do you view the ALT in the school structure
Main teacher 4
Equal co-teacher 18
Assistant 3
Guest teacher 3
Other (please specify) Depends on the content of class (3)
It is possible that the JTE is viewing the status of the ALT in terms of the ALTs classroom role
whereas the ALT is considering his wider working conditions and his position in the school. The
ALT is very unlikely to enjoy the same rising pay scale, career opportunities and benefits as his co-
teacher and therefore likely views him/herself as being less valued in the wider system. Whatever
the reason the results show categorically that there is a difference between how the ALTs perceive
themselves and how the Japanese teachers view them which must certainly be a cause of role
confusion.
The JTEs were also asked if the ALTs should have more responsibilities for the student‟s English
education with regards to setting homework and giving grades.
Table 4.6 Questionnaire data/ALT responsibility
Do you think that the ALT should have more responsibility for the class, setting and checking
homework, giving grades and the student‟s general English education?
Yes 7
No 7
Depends on the ability of the ALT 5
Only if the ALT has the appropriate
qualifications
6
I don't know 6
The teachers were given five choices and the answers were almost equally spread amongst them all.
It is not surprising that the JTE/HRTs are cautious about giving responsibility to the ALT for
something as important as the student‟s grades and it is appropriate for them to be sure that the ALT
69
is competent and/or qualified. However, if the Japanese teachers really viewed ALTs as equal co-
teachers they would surely like them to have equal responsibilities.
The level of team teaching training that the Japanese teachers have received is also an area of some
concern. Out of the 31 teachers surveyed only 14 had received any team teaching training and 17
had received none at all.
Table 4.7 Questionnaire data/training
Have you received team teaching training?
Yes 14
No 17
The questionnaire did not enquire about the amount of training they had received but out of the 14
teachers that had received training only 9 felt that it was sufficient (see appendix 11).
The fact that only 6 out of 31 Japanese teachers had attended any team teaching training with an
ALT was perhaps the biggest cause of concern. This would undoubtedly be a major cause for role
confusion as the JTE/HRT and the ALT are working in a co-teacher relationship and yet they do not
attend the same training sessions as part of a team. Do the JTEs and ALTs even have the same
learning outcomes, objectives and views of what team teaching practices should entail? One would
have to ask questions about the value of the team teaching training that is attended by one half of
the team.
Table 4.8 Questionnaire data/training together with an ALT
Question Yes No
Have you received team teaching training together with an ALT 6 25
The results from the interview data and the survey indicate that both the ALT and the Japanese
teachers are under trained with regards to team teaching.
70
4.5.2 The Japanese teachers role expectations for the ALT
The final part of the survey is answering the research question of defining the role of the ALT from
the perspective of the JTE/HRT. The JTEs and HRTs ranked 11 tasks that the ALT may perform as
part of his/her job on a rating scale of 1 (very important) – 5 (unimportant).
There was considerable convergence of opinion amongst the Japanese teachers with regard to what
are considered as the most important duties of the ALTs. The results were also consistent regardless
of if the teacher worked in a High school, a Junior High school or an Elementary school. The most
important duties of the ALT were to teach communicative English, to teach about foreign culture,
pronunciation and guidance model and student motivator. This corresponds with the data from the
previous part of the questionnaire where the teachers agree that the ALT classes are beneficial to the
students because they improve communicative English ability, give the students opportunities to
interact with foreigners and are enjoyable.
Table 4.9 Questionnaire data/most important roles for the ALT
Ranking from 1- 5
Role of ALT 1 2 3 4 5
To teach communicative English 27 4 0 0 0
To teach about foreign culture and customs 25 6 0 0 0
Pronunciation and guidance model 24 6 1 0 0
Student motivator 21 6 3 1 0
It is unsurprising that the first three are considered to be the most important from the JTE/HRTs
point of view as they are the three tasks that the Japanese teacher is most likely to lack the skill and
confidence to be able to perform independently. They also correspond most closely to the directives
of the Ministry of Education i.e. the job of the ALT is to teach communicative English and to be a
cultural ambassador. Another role that the Japanese teachers considered important for the ALT was
that of student motivator. Many of the ALTs also spoke how they believe that their role was to help
encourage the students to become interested in English.
71
The teachers consider correcting written English and teaching grammar as the least important roles
for the ALT.
Table 4.10 Questionnaire data/least important roles for the ALT
Ranking from 1- 5
Role of ALT 1 2 3 4 5
To teach grammar 4 9 11 4 3
To correct student‟s English papers 2 1 13 4 11
This may be because the JTE feels more confidence in the correction of written English. The
teaching of grammar is seen as a moderately important job for the ALT. This is likely because of the
way that grammar is taught in preparation for examinations which often relies on complex
explanations of grammatical rules in Japanese rather than demonstrating and using the grammar in a
communicative way. If communicative English teaching is seen as the most important function of
the ALT and the teaching of grammar is seen as only moderately important then this inconsistency
would lead one to question whether or not the JTE/HRTs actually know what communicative
language teaching method is. Does the JTE/HRT know that grammar can be taught using the
communicative method?
Of the remaining tasks that the Japanese teachers were asked about the most important was helping
the JTE/HRT with their own English, to think of games and activities, help with the eiken interview/
English speech contest preparation and teach English idioms were all considered to be moderately
important (see appendix 11 for the full results).
On the whole there is considerable agreement amongst the Japanese teachers as to what the most
important roles of the ALT should be. However, this is not consistent with the ALT perceptions
which emerged in interview data, which suggest that there is considerable difference in how they
are utilised in the classroom depending on the JTE they are working with.
72
In the final part of the questionnaire the Japanese teachers were asked two open questions
1) Are there any other roles for the ALTs?
2) Is there anything else about English education system?
Fifteen teachers answered the open questions. The answers to the first question were mostly related
to speaking English to the students outside of class, eating lunch with the students and creating
situations where the students could use English (see appendix 11)..
The answers to the second questions showed that some of the Japanese teachers share the same
concerns as the ALTs concerning the syllabus, the examination system and the lack of training.
Besides teaching the syllabus teachers should give the students the skills to express their
thoughts and opinions.
So that Japanese teachers can teach the students basic communicative English, the ALT
should give support to the Japanese teachers while they are teaching the students and
evaluate the student’s English ability.
I think that the purpose of English education should not be for passing exams but for
practical use. (teacher 1)
The teachers and the ALTs should plan more lessons together. They should have meetings
and actively discuss their opinions and ideas. They should build a relationship of mutual
trust and respect.
There should be more lectures and training about team teaching and then they will have
more opportunities to participate- they can then improve the student’s skill level and that of
the students. (teacher 6)
Most of the teachers commented that there are not enough classes with the ALT and that they need
far more time with the ALT to really improve the student's spoken English.
73
4.6 Summary of questionnaire results
The results of the questionnaire show that on the whole the JTE/HRTs regard the team teaching
system as successful in terms of raising the students‟ communicative English ability and introducing
them to foreign culture. They are in general agreement about what the most important tasks of the
ALT should be (teaching communicative English, teach about foreign culture, pronunciation and
guidance model and student motivator) and what they consider to be the least important roles for the
ALT (correcting written work and teaching grammar).
The main cause of concern is the lack of team teaching training that the JTE/HRTs have received
and the inconsistency of meetings with the ALT and class planning. This was also seen as a
significant cause of role confusion from the perspective of the ALTs.
The biggest discrepancy in the two sets of data was the how the ALT is viewed in the school
hierarchy. The majority of the JTEs and the ALTs have diametrically opposing views on this
particular issue. Another discrepancy in the two sets of data is that the JTEs are in general
agreement about what they think the role of an ALT should be. However, the interview data shows
that the ALTs consider working with different JTEs as a significant contributor to role confusion as
the different JTEs will utilize the ALT in different ways. The differences in the two sets of results
certainly suggest that there is role confusion between the ALTs and JTEs.
74
Chapter 5
Conclusions and recommendations
5.1 Conclusion
The results of the research indicate that role confusion definitely occurs between the ALT and the
JTE/HRT. It also determines the main factors of role confusion, from the perspective of the ALT, as
a lack of training and inadequate class planning/meetings, a rigid curriculum and examination
system which use a teaching methodology and materials which are inappropriate for team taught
lessons and the fact that the ALT often has to work in different school environments and with
different JTEs who may choose to utilize the ALT in different ways. The ALT is also unaware of
his/her place in the school hierarchy and has an inadequate job description.
From the perspective of the JTE, the results indicate that that over half the JTEs have received
inadequate team teaching training and the vast majority have not attended any training with an ALT.
Also less than half the JTEs consistently plan classes with the ALT or hold regularly scheduled
meetings. These factors are consistent with the views of the ALTs who all spoke at length about lack
of training and class planning.
Therefore the primary causes of role confusion can be determined as inadequate training for both
the JTE and ALT, a curriculum and examination system which is inappropriate for team taught
classes, the ALT being utilized differently depending on the JTE and/or school and an inadequate
job description for the ALT.
75
What is perhaps the most difficult to explain is that the majority of the JTE/HRTs view the ALT as
an equal co-teacher but the interviews with the ALTs show that they mostly see themselves as being
outside the hierarchy. This cannot simply be explained by the in group/out group (uchi/soto)
construct as the majority of the JTE/HRTs see the ALT as part of the group but the ALTs see
themselves as outsiders. It is possible that the JTE/HRTs see the ALTs as equal co-teachers from the
perspective of tatemae (public face) but their true feelings (honne) are somewhat different. However,
this claim does not have any basis in the data presented and would be difficult to substantiate in
further research due to the high likelihood that the social desirability biases inherent in honne would
render it inaccessible. Whatever, the reason the data suggests that if there isn‟t agreement about
something as fundamental as the ALTs position in the school then there is certainly role confusion.
Most of the ALTs view role confusion as something which occurs in the classroom. However the
results indicate that although role confusion may manifest itself in the classroom it has many of its
origins outside of the classroom. The lack of an adequate job description, inappropriate teaching
materials which the teachers are directed to use by the Ministry of Education and inadequate
training are all factors which are beyond the control of the individual ALTs and JTEs. Many of these
causes are institutionalised within society and can be termed as cultural/social factors. However,
although causes of role confusion such as lack of training certainly have their proximal causes at an
institutional level it would be disingenuous to suggest that they are the result of social/cultural
differences, as they are more likely the result of, at a fundamental level, poor policy planning.
The current examination system which has a direct impact on the choice of teaching materials and
methodology is unlikely to change even though it has a detrimental effect on English education.
This is not only because it is an ingrained part of the education system but also because it performs
an important societal function which is the stratification of society and reproduction of hierarchies
(McConnell, 2000, Seargeant, 2009). The examination system also reflects the cultural values of
76
Japanese society as it rewards the work ethic and the ability to endure rather than creative thinking
or innate intelligence (Roesgaard, 1998, Seargeant, 2009).
The causes of role confusion which are more easily attributable to cultural and societal differences
are those which relate to differences in educational ideology, learning environment and the ALT‟s
understanding of his/her place in the wider school society. These cultural factors are mostly related
to the group oriented nature of Japanese society and the difficulty that the non-Japanese has in
adapting to such unfamiliar group processes. This is of course caused by cultural differences but it
is probably further exacerbated by the fact the ALT often works in many different schools and thus
is unable to be become a group member at a single school. This is also likely to be a factor in the
ALTs‟ perceptions of themselves as outside the school hierarchy, of low status or occupying a
superficially high status position.
It is not the individual ALT or JTE that is to blame for role confusion and cultural
misunderstandings but rather the current system which, even after twenty five years, has not
determined clearly defined goals in terms of language learning. This of course is reflected in the
current selection criteria for ALTs which gives no indication that ALTs are being employed as
serious language instructors (McConnell, 2000, p.56). The background of the JTEs is also of
concern as they do not feel confident in their skills as English teachers (Browne and Wada, 1998)
and often do not possess adequate English ability (Miyazato, 2009).
However, much of the existing literature and research about team teaching does suggest that good
team teaching practices are possible (Nunan, 1992, Carless, 2006) and that the team teaching model
is flexible enough to be adapted to different cultural situations (Tajino and Tajino, 2000). Despite
the current failings these studies show that the system does have the potential to be successful.
However, given the findings on training and the experiences of the ALTs, one would have to assume
77
that the current system would require significant structural reforms to achieve these goals.
The original research question was „To what extent is role confusion between the ALT and JTE
caused by cultural/social factors?‟ The question has been answered inasmuch as the research has
determined that social/cultural factors are a significant contributor to role confusion. However, the
research, in particular the interviews with the ALTs, also shows that there are other factors which
contribute to role confusion which are not caused by cultural/social misunderstanding.
Some of the causes of role confusion, such as those at a policy making level, are really beyond the
power of the individual JTEs and ALTs to change. However, many changes in the classroom can be
realized if there is a willingness to compromise, mutual respect, regular meetings and sufficient
classroom planning (Nunan, 1992, Carless, 2006, Hammond, 2007). Both the JTE and ALT should
come to realize that they can both contribute something of value to the class that perhaps the other
can‟t which enables the use of both cultural perspectives to be of benefit to the students.
5.2 Limitations of the research
There were limitations in the research design with particular regard to the survey sample. The
sample that completed the questionnaire was too small to claim that results are transferable. It was
also a convenience sample and consequently did not adequately represent the diversity amongst the
Japanese teachers. The sample consisted mainly of junior high school teachers and therefore did not
allow an analysis between different school types. A larger and more representative sample would
have yielded more reliable and transferable data.
Another shortcoming of the research was that the questionnaire asked the JTE/HRTs to define the
role of the ALT by asking what they thought the role of the ALT should be, and what tasks they
78
considered to be most important for the ALT to perform (see appendix 9, part 3). The results from
the questionnaire would likely have given more reliable data if the questionnaire asked the
JTE/HRTs to define how they actually utilize the ALT in their classes.
Another limitation of the research is that it does not determine if role confusion occurs between the
ALT and the JTE/HRT in their personal relations and whether or not role confusion on a personal
level is caused by cultural/societal factors. This is due to the limitations of the research design and
may be better suited to a case study.
5.3 Recommendations
The research suggests many factors are currently inhibiting the development of team teaching
conditions that are successful in terms of language learning and the creation of a learning
environment that is appropriate for communicative English classes. Many of these issues occur on a
structural level and would require reforms in education policy in order to see meaningful change.
However, there are also many positive changes that the individual ALTs and JTEs can make if they
have the necessary commitment and willingness.
5.3.1 The ALT
Under the current system the selection criteria do not reflect the fact that the ALT is being employed
as a language educator. These criteria have not changed since the ALT was performing the role of
international exchange. Experience and qualifications in education and/or TESOL should be a
consideration during the hiring process.
The ALTs need to receive pre-departure training and orientation that is relevant to the job that they
79
will be doing, they also need a job description which clearly defines the duties that they will be
performing and their position in the school. They should be clear about their own role and the
JTE/HRT‟s role in team teaching situations.
The ALTs need to receive ongoing training and they need to attend training seminars and workshops
with JTEs. The ALT‟s employers and the Boards of Education should invest in their professional
development and create conditions which encourage and motivate them to stay in the job. It is
possible that career development and better training can be complementary if experienced and
qualified teachers progress to become trainers and instructors for recognised courses and
qualifications.
The ALT should also be given a greater purpose in terms of the examinations and preparing the
students for the next phase of their education. In the present situation the role of the ALT has very
little purpose for both the ALT and the students, so it has been difficult to define any goals. A
possible solution would be to add an oral component to the examinations which could be the
responsibility of the ALT.
If possible the ALTs should work in fewer schools. However, if the ALTs are required to work in
multiple schools due to economic considerations then it becomes imperative that the role of the ALT
is clearly defined as this would certainly limit the potential for role confusion.
The ALT should be aware of Japanese cultural norms with particular regard to classroom
environment and learner profiles (Hammond, 2007). To expect to be able to apply communicative
language learning techniques and Western style learning environments into a teacher centred system
is not a viable solution. Therefore the ALT needs to be sufficiently familiar with the Japanese
education system to be able to adapt communicative learning strategies to a Japanese learning
80
environment such as those recommended by Tajino and Tajino (2000).
Some of the ALTs also claimed that the principal and vice-principal have a significant impact on the
school‟s atmosphere and the way the ALT is treated by the school‟s staff. The structure of Japanese
society is such that the attitudes of those at the top of the hierarchy have a more profound effect
upon overall working conditions. It important that the issue of the ALT‟s role with regard to his/her
place in the school hierarchy is made clear so that the ALT can develop appropriate relations with
the school staff.
Finally it is important that ALTs learn about and become aware of Japanese cultural and societal
norms, especially those aspects of culture that are invisible, as they are more often the cause of
misunderstanding (Hammond, 2007). By recognising cultural and social practices that exist beneath
the surface the ALT can identify some of the reasons for role confusion and develop strategies to
either eliminate them or reduce their negative impact on classes. An ALT that is knowledgeable
about Japanese culture and educational practices would also be able to contribute to discussions
with the JTE/HRT and make suggestions that are appropriate in the cultural context.
5.3.2 The JTE
The JTEs also need to receive training in TESOL methodology and team teaching practices and
they should attend training seminars with the ALTs. If the issue of training is resolved then better
class planning could be accomplished as any team teaching training would undoubtedly incorporate
class planning techniques. The JTEs and ALTs should also be allowed to choose which teaching
materials they use for communicative English classes. This would enable them to plan classes more
closely together which should also build good relations.
81
The Japanese Ministry of Education should create language proficiency requirements for new
Japanese English teachers. They should also invest in improving the English skills of the current
teachers. However, the teachers can take responsibility for their own language leaning and work
harder to improve their skills. If ALTs who are qualified in TESOL are employed they can also
work as language mentors to the JTE/HRTs and teaching English to the JTEs can be incorporated
into their job.
The JTE/HRTs also need to be provided with clear job description for the ALT‟s role and their own
role in team-taught classes.
In order to build good team teaching relationships there should be understanding between the
JTE/HRT and ALT. To build such a relationship there needs to be mutual trust and sufficient
openness that both partners can express their opinions. This calls for cultural sensitivity on the part
of both partners and willingness to compromise as is suggested by Sturman (1992) in his flexible
equality model. Attending training and seminars together would undoubtedly help to build such a
relationship but there also needs to be continuity in team teaching partners (Carless, 2006). In the
current system the ALT changes school too often which makes it difficult to develop and maintain
relationships and even more difficult for the ALT to be considered as a part of the school.
5.4 Suggested areas for further study
With regard to the questionnaire a larger and more representative survey sample, which asked
JTE/HRTs about their actual classroom practices rather than their views would undoubtedly produce
results that are more reliable. It would also allow for more comparisons to be made between
different teachers and school types which would give more insight into the causes of role confusion
from the perspective of JTE/HRTs.
82
Despite the fact that the JTE/HRTs spoke about communicative English teaching as being one of the
most important roles of the ALT the results of the questionnaires and the ALTs experiences show
that there is scant understanding of the approach. The question of whether or not the Japanese
teachers or the ALTs understand the methodology is worth pursuing as an area of research.
This study has ascertained that inadequate training is a major cause of role confusion in team taught
lessons. Therefore a more specific study into team teaching and training could make a positive
contribution to improving the current system.
83
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90
Appendices
Appendix 1- Ethical approval form- RG3 from University of Ulster........................................... 91
Appendix 2- Consent form for the interviews.............................................................................. 93
Appendix 3- Permission letter for the questionnaire.................................................................... 94
Appendix 4- Permission letter for the questionnaire (Japanese).................................................. 95
Appendix 5- Interview protocol................................................................................................... 96
Appendix 6- Categories and codes for qualitative data............................................................... 98
Appendix 7- Stage 2 qualitative data analysis............................................................................. 99
Appendix 8- Stage 3 qualitative data analysis.............................................................................100
Appendix 9- Questionnaire..........................................................................................................117
Appendix 10- Questionnaire (Japanese)......................................................................................122
Appendix 11- Questionnaire results.............................................................................................127
91
Appendix 1
UNIVERSITY OF ULSTER RESEARCH GOVERNANCE
RG3 Filter Committee Report Form
Project Title
Chief Investigator
Filter Committee
This form should be completed by Filter Committees for all research project applications in categories A to D (*for categories A, B, and D the University’s own application form – RG1a and RG1b – will have been submitted; for category C, the national, or ORECNI, application form will have been submitted).
Where substantial changes are required the Filter Committee should return an application to the Chief Investigator for clarification/amendment; the Filter Committee can reject an application if it is thought to be unethical, inappropriate, incomplete or not valid/viable. Only when satisfied that its requirements have been met in full and any amendments are complete, the Filter Committee should make one of the following recommendations: The research proposal is complete, of an appropriate standard and is in
category A and the study may proceed*
category B and the study must be submitted to the University’s Research Ethics Committee** Please indicate briefly the reason(s) for this categorisation
category C and the study must be submitted to ORECNI along with the necessary supporting materials from the Research Governance Section***
category D and the study must be submitted to the University’s Research Ethics Committee**
*The application form and this assessment should now be returned to the Chief Investigator. The Filter Committee should retain a copy of the complete set of forms. ** The application form and this assessment should now be returned to the Chief Investigator so that he/she can submit the application to the UUREC via the Research Governance section. The Filter Committee should retain a copy of the complete set of forms for their own records. *** The application form and this assessment should now be returned to the Chief Investigator so that he/she
Signed: Dr Alan McCully Date: 28.06.11
Chairperson/Administrator of Filter Committee
An examination into the extent that cultural factors cause role confusion between ALTs and JTEs in the Japanese English classroom.
Dr Jackie Reilly
Dr Una O‟Connor
X
92
can prepare for application to a NRES/ORECNI committee. The Filter Committee should retain a copy of the complete set of forms for their own records.
Please complete the following
The application should be accompanied by an appropriate and favourable Peer Review Report Form (if not, the Filter Committee should be prepared to address this as part of its review). Please comment on the peer review (include whether or not there is evidence that the comments of the peer reviewers have been addressed).
The peer review was favourable, subject to a few minor amendments.
Please provide an assessment of all component parts of the application, including questionnaires, interview schedules or outline areas for group discussion/unstructured interviews.
The application is satisfactory in respect of the use of the questionnaire and interviews. A summary of each of these was provided for the Filter Committee.
Please comment on the consent form and information sheet, in particular the level of language and accessibility.
The consent form and information sheet are satisfactory. NB please note comment on consent for questionnaire in RG2.
Please comment on the qualifications of the Chief and other Investigators.
Chief investigator is an experienced supervisor. Student is undertaking the study in fulfilment of a Masters degree.
Please comment on the risks present in conducting the study and whether or not they have been addressed.
The risks which are low have been addressed.
Please indicate whether or not the ethical issues have been identified and addressed.
Ethical issues have been addressed. NB please note comment on care of information in RG2.
Please comment on whether or not the subjects are appropriate to the study and the inclusion/exclusion criteria have been identified and listed Subjects are appropriate to the study. Inclusion criteria have been identified and listed.
93
Appendix 2
CONSENT FORM
Title of Project:
An examination into the extent that cultural factors cause role confusion between ALTs and JTEs in
the Japanese English classroom
Name of Chief Investigator
Please initial
I confirm that I have been given and have read and
understood the information sheet for the above study
and have asked and received answers to any questions
raised.
I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I
am free to withdraw at any time without giving a reason
and without my rights being affected in any way.
I understand that the researchers will hold all information
and data collected securely and in confidence and that all
efforts will be made to ensure that I cannot be identified as
a participant in the study (except as might be required by
law) and I give permission for the researchers to hold
relevant personal data.
• I agree to take part in the above study
Name of Subject Signature ____________________________
Date ____________________________
Name of Person Taking
Consent Signature ____________________________
Date ____________________________
Name of Researcher Signature ____________________________
Date ____________________________
94
Appendix 3
To whom it may concern,
I am currently a post graduate student of TESOL in the University of Ulster doing research as part
of my course requirement. I am also a former alt in Ebino city.
As part of my MA Thesis I am conducting research into team teaching practices in Japanese schools.
I would like to distribute questionnaires to Japanese English teachers as part of my research.
The main focus of the research is to examine role confusion that occurs between JTEs and ALTs in
the classroom with particular regard to cross cultural misunderstandings. It is my hope that the
research will be of interest to English teachers in Japan and that it offers some positive suggestions
for implementing good team teaching practices.
I would be very grateful for your permission to distribute questionnaires to teachers.
Yours sincerely,
Paul Cotter
２０６７－９ shimauchi
Ebino shi
Miyazaki
Tel
95
Appendix 4
平成２３年６月吉日
関係者各位
えびの市大字島内 2067-9
コッター ポール・ ジョセフ
アルスター大学
言語学修士課程在学中
アンケート調査のご協力についてのお願い
拝啓 時下ますますご清祥のこととお慶び申し上げます。
当方、以前えびの市内の各中学校におきましてＡＬＴとして勤務しておりました。
さて、この度、私事ではございますが修士論文執筆にあたり「日本の小中学校における
チームティーチングについて」の調査を致したく、またその為のお力添えを頂きたくお願
い申し上げます。主に、英語教員がＡＬＴをどのように位置づけ、どのような役割を担う
べきであると考えておられるのか、を調査したいと思っております。
つきましては、英語教育に携わる諸先生方にアンケートのご協力を頂きたくよろしくお
願い申し上げます。
なお、アンケート内容につきましてご不明な点等がございましたらご連絡頂ければ幸い
です。
敬具
96
Appendix 5
Interview questions
1. How long have you been an ALT?
2. How long have you lived in Japan?
3. How would you describe your Japanese ability?
4. Why did you initially come to Japan?
5. How long do you intend to stay in Japan?
6. What do you think is the purpose of the ALT system?
7. What sort of training/initiation have you received?
8. How would you describe team teaching?
9. The words 'team teaching' denotes some kind of equality. Do you think that the relationship
between the foreign teacher and Japanese English teacher is equal?
10. What are the positives and negatives about the job? Are there any career opportunities?
11. How many schools do you work in?
12. Is there a difference in the schools you teach in? (English teachers, principals, students etc.)
13. Is there a difference in how you are utilized in the schools?
14. Is there role confusion with the ALT and Japanese teacher? Why does it occur?
15. To what extent do you think the ALT is dependent on the Japanese teacher in terms of being
able/allowed to teach?
16. How much do the high school/university entrance exams stop the students from learning real
English?
17. How would you define the status of English in relation to other subjects in Japanese schools
and Japanese society?
97
18. Where do you think the ALT ranks in the school hierarchy?
19. Do you think it is the responsibility of the Japanese schools to accommodate the foreign
teacher or should the foreign teacher adapt to the Japanese education system?
20. What do you think the word internationalization means from a Japanese point of view and a
western point of view?
21. Do you think the Japanese teachers like working with an ALT?
22. Can you give me some examples of problems you have had working in Japanese schools?
(e.g. Caused by cultural/language misunderstanding)
23. Can you give me some examples of positive experiences? How much has living and
working in Japan enabled you to grow as a person, learn more about the world etc.?
24. What are some of the problems working in the Japanese education system? (lack of
technology in the classroom, large class sizes, teaching materials, textbooks, pedagogical
methods etc.)
25. What makes a good ALT?
26. What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of having a native speaker in the
English classroom in Japan?
27. What is the purpose of English education is in Japan?
28. What would be your ideal for English teaching in Japan? What would you introduce to the
system?
29. When you go back to your country or speak to people from back home what do you tell
them about Japan? Are your experiences largely positive and would you recommend Japan
as a place to live and work?
30. Would you recommend being an ALT to a friend back home?
98
Appendix 6
Categories and codes
General
English
English class Education
system
Team
teaching
Job Reforms Differences Society and
Culture
Purpose of
English
education
(PEE)
Materials and
syllabus (MS)
General
education
system (GE)
Team teaching
(TT)
Working
conditions
(WC)
ALT suggested
reforms (SR)
Different
school (dS)
Japanese
culture and
society (JS)
Exam
preparation
(EP)
ESL
Methodology
(EM)
Ministry of
education
(ME)
Role of ALT
(AR)
Different
contracts (dC)
Different JTE
(dJ)
Internationaliz
ation (I)
Status of
English (St)
Class
preparation (P)
Difference in
education
ideology (Id)
ALT Class
input (CI)
School
treatment of
ALT (ScT)
Diferent
students (dS)
Adjusting to
culture (AC)
Learning
environment
(LE)
ALT
qualifications
(AQ)
ALT in
hierarchy
status (Hier)
Communicativ
e English (CE)
ALT training
(ATr)
Students
comm. English
ability (CEAb)
ALT
Experience
(AEx)
Career
prospects (CP)
Previous
learning
experience
(Pex)
Role confusion
(RC)
Relationship
between ALT
and JTE (Rel)
Effective
utilisation of at
(AU)
Students JTE ALTs
experience in
Japan and
language
ability
(AEx&L)
Students
comm. English
ability (CoAb)
Role of JTE
(TJR)
ALT
effectiveness
(AEff)
Previous
learning
experience
(Pex)
JTE English
ability (JTEA)
Japanese
learner profile
(JLP)
Utilisation of
ALT (UA)
Motivation
(Mot)
99
Appendix 7
Question Responses to question were sorted
in the following:
1 What is the purpose of the ALT system? 6 (I), 3 (CE), 1 (mot), 1 (AR)
2 What sort of training have you received? 13 (Atr), 1 (EM), 1 (AQ)
3 How would you describe team teaching? 5 (dSc), 12 (TT), 1 (JTR), 4
(AR), (Rel), 2 (RC), 3 (UA), 1
(Hier), 5 (dJT), 1 (EP), 3 (P), 1
(AEx)
4 Do you think the relationship is equal? 5 (TT), 4 (AR), 4 (RC),
1 (JTR), 1 (Rel), 1 (Hier)
5 What are the positives and negatives about the job? 1 (RC), 1 (CI), 1 (AR), 1 (P), 1 (EP),
2 (CP), 1 (JSC), 1 (ScTr), 1 (TT),
1 (JTEA),
6 Are there any opportunities for career development? 5 (CP), 1 (In), 2(AR),
7 Is there a difference between the schools? 4 (dSc), 1 (LE), 1 (JTEA), 1 (JTTr)
8 Is there a difference in how you are utilised in the classroom? 2 (AR), 2 (dJT), 2 (UA), 1 (rel), 1
(dSc),
9 Is there role confusion between the JTE and ALT? 12 (RC), 1 (JTEA), 1 (TT), 1 (dALT),
dSc (2), dJT (2)
10 Is the ALT dependent on the JTE in being allowed to teach? 1 (JTR), 2 (dJT), 2 (TT), 2 (RC), 1
(P), 1 (AEx)
11 How much do you think the high school/uni entrance exams hinder
communicative English teaching?
9 (EP), 2 (JSC), 3 (PEE), 4 (AR),
12 Do you think that the JTE or ALT even understand what
communicative English teaching means?
2 (JSC), 2 (JLP), 1 (PLEx), 1 (Eid), 1
(AQ), 1 (MS), 1 (EM), 1 (CEAb)
13 How about differences in education ideology? 4 (JLP), 3 (Eid), 1 (JSC),
14 Do you think the people in Japan who are making English education
policy understand English?
2 (ME), 2 (MS), 1 (EP),
15 How would you define the status of English in comparison to other
subjects?
6 (st), 1 (ASR), 1 (EP)
16 How would you define the status of English in Japanese society? 3 (st), 1 (Eid), 1 (JSC), 1 JTEA), 1
(CEAb)
17 Where do you think the ALT ranks in the school hierarchy? 12 (hier), 2 (JSC), 1 (ScTr), 1 (AR)
18 Is it the responsibility of Japanese schools to accommodate the
foreign teacher or should the foreign teachers adapt?
1 (hier), 1 (rel), 1 (AC), 1 (ScT), 1
(ScE)
19 What do you think the word internationalization means from a
Japanese point of view?
5 (In), 1 (JSC), 1 (AR)
20 Can you give me some examples of problems you have had in schools
which were due to cultural misunderstandings?
1 (RC), 1 (mot), 2 (AR)
21 What about the physical classroom environment? 5 (MS), 5 (LE), 3 (EM), 1 (EP), 1
(Tech)
23 What are the advantages and disadvantage to having a native speaker? 2 (AR)
25 What makes a good ALT? 5 (AR), 1 (Tr), 1 (JSC)
26 What would be your ideal for English teaching in Japan? 2 (Tr), 1 (LE), 2 (Oral exam)
27 Would you recommend being an ALT to a friend back home? 5 (CP), 1 (Tr),
100
Appendix 8
Exams
ALT No. notes
1 It (English) is used for testing to get into college, no one is fluent and no one
can write their own opinion..the purpose is to pass college entrance exams and
there is no other purpose than that.
1 In Japan scholastic achievement had to do with the ability to remember facts,
rote memory or procedures. The ability to apply knowledge as an individual is
avoided.
4 I think that any standardized test is going to stop students from learning
anything. But especially language...each person is so different in the way that
they learn languages that you can't really standardized it.
5 That entrance exam is all about sorting the kids out in terms of ability to endure,
to study long hours.
6 ALTs in the schools are generally redundant because there is no purpose for
them in terms of getting the kids into the next phase of education. If each school
had an oral examination which the ALT was responsible for...I think the whole
situation would be different
7 They learn to test well and very few kids learn to communicate well. Just
because you are good at English doesn't mean you will even pass the entrance
exam. They learn grammar and they learn ways to make good grades on the
English test and they can't even communicate. That is where the ALTs role
should be.
9 I can't see the relationship between real life, everyday English and what is being
taught for the examination...it seems just rote memorizing sentences.
6 The ALT is not really important in the schools, not really contributing to the
success of the kids test levels..no oral test so let the kids have fun with the ALT
and nothing more really.
5 I would add a spoken component to the entrance exam...
5 I would say that is a big problem, de-emphasising the entrance exam to some
extent or making it less of a barrier.
6 I would definitely have an oral examination. I would have the ALT have a
good amount of training before they came over to Japan..an have an ALT class
with a trained ALT who is part of the school, a respected member of staff, have
responsibility for the planning of the classes, doing the classes on their own and
obviously end of term assessments...give English a goal, a purpose and give it a
test.
6 But the situation where the kids are learning all this grammar because it is
important for the test to get into University and the ALT comes in once a week
and does these oral communication activities, you can't help wondering if the
schools are thinking what's the point.
5 I would add a spoken component to the entrance exam...trying to get an
exposure that is detached from the entrance exam
6 I would definitely have an oral examination. I would have the ALTs have a good
amount of training before they come over to Japan...and have an ALT who is
part of the school, have the responsibility for planning the classes, doing
classes on their own and obviously end of term assessments...give English a
goal a purpose and a test.
101
Culture
ALT No.
1 You have groups of kids and they are such a group minded
culture that when things start going crazy everyone joins in
1 The problem is that they just don't want to stand out in
Japan. Standing out is uncomfortable and if you speak
English with a good accent you are standing out.
1 I think every culture has an ugly side and Japanese people
are extremely insular, they don't feel comfortable with
outsiders.
1 One of the things in Japan and it largely remains unsaid for
obvious reasons is that if they were to learn how to speak
English they would lose their sense of Japaneseness.
6 Cultural difference is very noticeable in Japanese schools
and the staffroom...it is very tough being in a Japanese
staffroom where 90 percent of the time people don't talk to
each other....unless it is directly related to you which is not
very often you don't tend to get involved in daily
conversations which is quite frustrating.
9 The students are pushed way too hard and it is frustrating
when you are trying to teach them and they are so exhausted
by the end of the week because they have been in school
from 7 to 7 and then cram school.
7 In the states if you are not raising your hand and asking
questions and thinking things through on your own you are
not a good student. But here if you are quiet you are
considered a good student.
7 They would confer with their friends and then they would
give an answer. They wouldn't give their answer and that
would bother me...to not be willing to be doing what
everyone else is doing can cause problems.
8 The ideal student in the western sense is one who actively
engages with the material and asks questions and thinks
very laterally about the materials and very creatively.
Whereas the ideal student in Japan is one who can respond
very quickly, giving a rote answer or is generally pretty
quiet and doesn't say much.
9 One of the things that is lacking in the Japanese classroom
is creativity. Firstly the students don't really have the
opportunity to be creative and secondly when they do have
the opportunity they lack of initiative or the skills for a good
outcome because they worry about what they have come up
with. If it is acceptable.
5 The definition of Japaneseness is at the crux of that fear.
And they probably would lose a sense of Japaneseness as
being totally different from everyone else.
2 In Japan I would say that everything is about being
different, they want to show how different they are from
everyone else, their group think.
102
Study materials and syllabus
ALT No.
1 None of these teachers teach English at a level that is
challenging. It's frustrating the level of English we are
teaching at.
1 There are resources allocated and they could be better spent
on a better curriculum and materials. I would much rather
see better study materials than ALTs.
4 We have all these people fresh off the aeroplane and they
have to get up in front of the kids and they have to teach and
they can't do that so what are we going to do? Well let's
create lesson plans for them...well everyone is stuck in two
camps; to teach a foreign language you have to cram
grammar and vocabulary down their throats or you have to
play with them.
2 Even though they all have a new curriculum they haven't
read it and I am not talking about a lot of pages....they
haven't covered all the crucial guidelines and when I am
referring to those activities and the teachers look at me and
say what are you talking about.
4 None of these people have a clue as to what to teach as
communication. You know the textbook...it is full of random
information at breakneck speed and it leaves the kids behind
by chapter 3 of the first year...by the summertime that is
when I first notice the kids who hate English.
2 The textbook aspect is a good one. I have never worked with
someone who used a textbook made by somebody else.
They've went out and made one themselves. ...I don't know
why, I don't fully understand why they don't use very well
made English textbooks made by MacMillan or Oxford or
Cambridge or of those.
4 The biggest problem is the textbook. It has the same
problems as the whole system. For people who aren't paying
attention it looks good, it's conversational English. Well
what is that? What is conversational English? How does it
apply to these kids that have to pass the grammar tests?
That's the problem, the kids don't understand it and the
teachers can't use it properly.
6 I would scrap the textbook. I don't think you need a textbook
for communicative English...For the JTE with no English
ability the textbooks serve the purpose to get the kids to pass
the exams.
7 I am not satisfied with Eigo Noto. For one thing it is too
easy...I think the teachers who are teaching the subject
should have some say in the books they use.
103
Learning environment
ALT No.
1 They need to be more active in expressing their
opinions...read more challenging materials that are up to
date...they need to draw upon countries where English is a
native language and draw upon their materials and
incorporate them into the system here.
1 It is not the model education system that everyone thought it
was. Language is awful really terrible.
1 In some cases you've got to watch teachers teach horrible
lessons and you just have to sit around and watch it.
5 The passive and disengaged students with no demonstrative
need to learn English makes it hard to keep them motivated.
8 The class numbers at some of the schools are terrible. There
may be forty students in a classroom and they can barely fit
in a room.
9 I would like to see a lot more creativity in the classroom...so
they are not afraid to come up with their own ideas and not
afraid to make mistakes and have a much more relaxed
learning environment.
Methodology
ALT No.
1 We need communicative English, we need to get off the
grammar translation method.
1 They don't know what it (communicative language teaching)
means and if you haven't studied the methodology how are
you supposed to implement it?
2 No I don't think they understand it (CLT) and I don't think
the students understand it either...because they are so used to
their structure based approach, so they have their previous
learning experience to overcome...students are used to sitting
and listening, it is not just training but also culture.
Classroom management
ALT No.
1 There are no sanctions, the ALT English time is
something to look forward to because they are not under
the same rules or regulations that they under normally.
They don't have tests...It is not taken that seriously in
school.
2 Team teaching to me is they do a lot of the classroom
management, they help with the set, they help with the
set up of the activities...and then I provide a lot of the
language analysis and a lot of the information.
104
Training and qualifications.
ALT No.
1 Hire native professional teachers who have qualifications or
you need to hire them as civil servants from within the
country...ALTs in general should be trained to teach classes
because no one is fluent in English
1 For an ALT with no qualifications no other teacher considers
that person as a teacher in the strictest sense if the word,
they are just someone they can utilize.
2 I have never actually received any team teaching training.
4 Actually zero training....nothing about how junior high
schools are run, nothing about rules, nothing about culture,
nothing about laws. I never received any information about
teaching theory, about how to work with kids, especially
young teenagers...I never even received a textbook.
5 Yeah it wasn't really that extensive..they sent out some
materials..I wouldn't really call it training but they sent out a
preliminary textbook to study about Japan
6 A weeks pre-departure Jet course...whether it is actually
training, the training doesn't match the job requirements
7 There was a little bit of esl training but not much...a current
alt came and showed us a few games...gave us a feel of what
we would be doing in the first few weeks but after that it
was learn on your own.
9 In terms of teacher training not a great deal. With Jet we had
a lot of preparation in terms of living in Japan but in terms
of preparation for teaching the students that was not nearly
as much.
2 More training a lot more training. Not only for the home
room teachers but also for the ALT and a lot more training
together.
7 During the summer vacation I would have lots of workshops
for the teachers and lots of training.
2 I was not trained adequately during my two and a half years
as an ALT
Career development
ALT No.
6 It is very rigid, there is no scope for career development as far
as I can tell.
7 Career wise I don't see it as a long term thing. If I was nine
years old and I saw a fifty year old women walk in I might be
disappointed, in that case I think it is nice to have the nice
energetic, fresh ALT.
2 There is none, I am only a foreign language specialist that is all
I am...It is just a temporary job. You really ought to try hard and
you know you can make a good impact with the kids just being
an ALT but it would be nice to have more say and to be able to
offer more and to be able to grow professionally and personally.
4 Heavens no....my bonus has been chopped in half and from
what I understand the new people have zero bonus. And they
are getting paid less than ALTs were getting a couple of years
105
ago.
4 When you are here you are always torn- do I stay or do I go?
Because there is no opportunity here.
5 They need to have conditions and pay scales that are good
enough that people want to stay...the reason they are racing to
the bottom is that there will always be more foreigners coming
to fill these jobs no matter how crappy the conditions are.
English level
ALT No.
1 What you need is fluent JTEs. They don't have to speak like an
American or a Brit but they have to be fluent.
1 A lot of teachers think 'why do we have to hire these
ALTs?..they make us nervous. Why do we have to teach
English? I don't speak English, English makes me nervous, I
don't want to teach English.
8 But also the teachers don't speak any English...I am a bit
surprised that the teachers that teach with the ALTs don't speak
much English and I am surprised by the level of English that the
English speakers do speak. I thought it would be a lot higher in
general.
3 If you work with a home room teacher you're are going to have
some problems because a lot of those teachers are scared of
English...they are being forced to teach English and they are
scared of it.
6 The status of English is reflected in the ability of the JTEs. Eigo
is an important subject...and that is reflected in the level of the
average JTE who can read and write English but has no real
ability to hold a decent conversation in English.
8 It's a bit awkward when you are trying to correct teachers..when
teachers make mistakes grammatically or their English isn't
very good..So it is just knowing when to step in.
6 Japanese teachers are aware of their lack of ability in
English..Because they are conscious of speaking English they
let the ALT get on with it or they can do the majority of the
class in Japanese which is when the ALT becomes redundant.
8 Because they are obviously not comfortable so they just end up
speaking Japanese the whole lesson so I don't know what is
going on.
ALT No.
1 My point is they (ALT) don't really add to the students ability to
speak English at all.
6 The whole set up of the education system especially towards
English is nothing to do with speaking English.
4 And what is interesting is that the skill level of the brand new
first years is higher than the third years in terms of
communication.
5 It seems that the whole system is geared towards preventing not
enabling Japanese people to speak English in a productive and
communicative manner.
6 The current system is designed to get the kids to memorize
methodically but it has nothing to do with communication.
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6 The kids leave school not being able to string a sentence
together in English...I don't think it is anything to do with what
is in the classroom, it is how the subject is being taught by the
teachers and the goals that have been set.
9 If you come over with really high expectations for the English
ability of the students you are going to be disappointed.
Hierarchy
ALT No.
1 ALTs are at the bottom of the totem pole, I don't understand what
their purpose in Japan. If you don't let them teach you might as
well not have them.
1 You're not even in the hierarchy...at the bottom and no power
1 Everyone should know when they take the job, someone should
be telling them...you are lower than you would like to imagine
when you are become an ALT, you are resented a lot too.
3 The word ALT explains it all really. An assistant to my English
teacher
4 An ALT is not even on the same plain, you are just a foreign
body, the line that you travel is askew, you are near. You are near
enough to repeat whatever it is that they want you to repeat and
that is just about it. They are too respectful and yet they don't
treat you like you are part of the system.
8 The Japanese teacher has more status but he foreign teacher has
the novelty factor..they treat me like a rock star.
2 One above the office staff and I would even say above the
teacher trainers.
3 We are just pretty much there to be Mr. smiley smiley
5 In terms of actual power hierarchy at the bottom but in terms of
the symbolic hierarchy near the top. It is like a superficially
privileged position but actually inferior and irrelevant.
6 I don't think that ALTs are disrespected particularly. I think they
are respected to do their job and they are respected as a member
of staff but in no way on the same level as a Japanese teachers...a
guest, at best a respected guest and at worst an unwanted guest.
8 I feel like they are outside the Japanese status hierarchy in some
ways because you really don't fit in anywhere.
9 I am not sure if I am above or below the school nurse.
2 We are treated as a guest, not necessarily as a co-teacher but as
a guest.
6 When you first come to Japan you do honestly regard yourself as
a teacher and In think you expect that you are going to be in the
classroom actually teaching...You are an assistant and the level to
which you are an assistant depends on which school and which
teacher.
3 In some ways I am part of the school and in a lot of ways no.
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Difference in schools
ALT No.
2 Every schools has it's own culture not only amongst the teachers
but also amongst the students, the PTA and the community
2 Some schools do additional training, some teach in English
teaching methods an foreign language teaching methods..some
don't. Some teachers have had more training and are better
prepared.
6 You can have a good school one year and then it changes....the
staff are warmer on a daily basis or the kids seem more
relaxed..I think it has a lot to do with the prinicipal
8 There is a huge difference...they do all the announcements in
English and play English during lunch . You can see a really
positive vibe towards teaching English.
7 It depends on the principal and the teachers. If I were able to pick
and choose my schools I would choose the smaller schools, I
don't like really huge classes, I feel like a robot in some ways. If
it is smaller and I have may 20 kids I feel like I can interact with
each kid and I am not rushed.
4 The BOE should hold them (dispatch companies) more
accountable, they should sit them down and say 'what is it you
are going to do for us?' They don't do that. That is why the
experience from one school to the next is so different.
Difference in teachers
ALT No.
1 I work with two teachers and both are extremely different
experiences and no training has been done
2 It all depends on the teacher you work with...they may
not only understand teaching but they may also understand
foreign language teaching...
2 It still varies from teacher to teacher, with some it is great
and with others there is none. They just turn to you and say
yoroshiku onegaishimasu
2 Some teachers just show up to class and that is it and
others want to sit down and work through things and get
you involved.
4 Nobody has any idea what an ALT is supposed to do,
nobody has a goal. Do we play games? Do we become the
kids friends? Do we try to behave as their regular teacher?
Do we teach them grammar points? I mean we have no
clue. So then it is 100 percent up to the individual teacher
to decide what it is they want to use us for and most of the
time is it is this little part in this silly little activity.
6 It depends on the situation, it can be great and
fulfilling...on the flip side you have a situation where you
are basically no more than a human tape recorder.
7 I've had a few teachers that don't want to give up the
spotlight, they feel very confident as English teachers and I
try to read that and when I have read it I back off and I
basically act as their little robot and do what they ask.
9 It depends on the person you are working with...I teach
with four different JTEs and it is for the most part four
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different ways of going about teaching the students.
9 Some JTEs I work really closely with in terms of planning
the class, planning the assessment and reflecting on the
class. Whereas a couple og the other JTEs , we talk for
may be a minute before the class and they say OK this is
what we are going to do and I read the textbook and for the
most part there isn't a lot of reflection, a lot of planning.
6 Some JTEs like to give the ALT the rein of the class, they
see the ALT as fundamental to the class..but every situation
is different. Some teachers feel like they should be the one
in charge and the ALT should be their assistant as the job
title suggests.
2 You are always relying on another teacher which is fine
when you are working with a good teacher but when you
are in a rough situation....
2 It is their class. It always has been and it always will be ans
the onus is on them...if you have a very inexperienced
teacher or a teacher that is always late or a teacher who
likes to have a very free class. That is out of your
control. ...They can choose whether or not or how much to
help you...a lot of it is out of your control.
6 Be prepared for any situation whether it be a JTE that sits
at the back of the class and says get on with it ot a JTE that
is standing at the front and is talking in Japanese and
instructing the kids in Japanese. You know that you don't
have any input, you don't use your imagination in the
classroom and you just pronounce words and things...and
everything between that.
4 Some teachers told me exactly what to do...some teachers
didn't want me to do any activities they just wanted me to
teach grammar. Some teachers just wanted me to repeat
whatever words they wanted me to, to get the native
speaker pronunciation and some teachers would leave it all
up to me.
5 It is a case by case....there was an older teacher that
enjoyed it and a younger teacher basically my own age
who didn't want to work with me..he resented the whole
exercise quite frankly
7 I have a different hat for each teacher...and they have had
so many ALTs, some great, some crappy and they just don't
know what to do with us.
6 I have JTEs ask me. What are we going to do today?...and
other situations when they say we are going to do this
today
8 Teachers working together in a planned way..unfortunately
is the minority...it totally depends on the Japanese teacher
how the lesson pans out.
9 You are quite dependent, especially if they are used to
planning and implementing the class by themselves....it is
hard for the ALT to become more involved in the class.
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Planning classes
ALT No.
1 One thing is that if you don't have time to preapre for the
class you are not going to achieve equal team teaching..the
best team teaching is planned
1 Japanese teachers do not, on the whole they don't consult...I
hear bad English taught to students all the time and I can't
interrupt because I am stepping on his toes.
7 I would say that 80 percent of the time they just let me take
the reins and go because neither of us like team teaching. We
don't have time to plan lessons because I am not in the
schools. I walk in 15-20 minutes before the class and we
have a 2-3 minute discussion.
3 The teachers should definitely sit down and let us know what
we can expect each time before the class...More planning it is
not hard to plan stuff, it makes the lesson go easier as well.
6 When an ALT is not based in one school there is no real time
to chat about the format of the class and the lessons...I am at
nine schools so I go to one school every couple of days and
as soon as I go in it is my class time...because there is no
planning beforehand you are looking at each other in the
class wondering whose turn it is to do what.
8 The BOE has written up manuals. So we basically sit there
and look at the lesson plan and point and I use my limited
Japanese and they use their limited English to make some
kind of sense out of it. It is just overall pretty pointless
because I turn up and something different is happening.
3 I think the Japanese teacher definitely has a course book and
should go over that course book with you...They have this
book with all the plans in it....as long as you know what you
are going to do every class it works out best.
8 At another school because the teachers there don't speak
English at all and the class size is huge. Whenever I do
lesson planning with the teachers I always turn up and it is
always different from what we have planned.
Team teaching (successful)
ALT No.
1 If you are an unskilled ALT and you are working with a
skilled teacher then the skilled teacher can use you in such a
way that you will be productive in the classroom.
1 The ideal is what they call team teaching which is really
good but it is a luxury. If you have two god teachers, a good
ALT and a progressively minded Japanese teacher who is
fluent in English you can have a great team but that is the
exception.
2 Team teaching to me is they do a lot of the classroom
management, they help with the set, they help with the set up
of the activities...and then I provide a lot of the language
analysis and a lot of the information.
2 You've got to be easy going, you've got to know when to step
back and let the other person take the lead, you've got to be
able to anticipate what the other person is going to do.
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2 If they let you really help them then you really have a great
experience and the students can feed off the interaction
between the home room teacher and the ALT.
3 I like team teaching with Japanese teachers, if they speak
pretty good English and know what is going on and give you
some time to explain about the class...but that doesn't always
happen because a lot of the teachers are busy.
6 When you have a good JTE you get on well with, teach well
with and have a good class with it can be quite rewarding,
you feel like you are making a difference. Unfortunately it
doesn't happen often enough
6 A more experienced ALT will take the teacher aside after the
class and suggest ways it should be improved or if they feel
they are not being utilised enough then perhaps they can
suggest the ALT jiggling the lesson a little bit to make them
more involved...most JTEs are happy to change the lesson a
bit to make sure the ALT is a little more involved.
2 I think I have a set of great skills and they have a set of great
skills and the key is to combine that set of skills so you have
a really great class.
2 There is a lot to do with activities that I promote that I help
chose...I can really set the pace and tone of the class.
2 When I first went to JHS I wasn't utilised much. But as I was
able to show and do more, as I had good ideas I was able to
be utilised more and more...they could step back and let me
professionally grow and get more experience and design my
activities.
Team teaching (unsuccessful)
ALT No.
1 I think the programme is generally pretty useless. First of all
why do they need two teachers to teach one subject?
1 It can be really hard to have a bad Japanese teacher and a
good ALT or an ALT that is a good English teacher, it doesn't
work out well.
3 Some of them just sit there and they say 'go for it' and they
give me no idea nothing. And they act like they just don't
know what the class is about in the first place. So I just have
to make up everythig from scratch. Sometimes two minutes
before the class.
5 The main teacher would have some idea of what he wanted
me to do and it would incorporate some parts for me to be the
proverbial tape recorder on cue I would put my native
pronunciation and there might have been some games. ..I
wouldn't say a full partner and I would say as far as lesson
planning went 20 percent may be.
9 They know the kids like to go to school with a foreigner
there...but are they making use of me? Not really...Last year I
was teaching 15 oral communication classes and this year I
walked into the first meeting and they said you'll be teaching
five classes this year.
7 I hate it. I am a confident teacher now and I have a good
experience behind me. I would rather they let me be in charge
of the classroom and let the teacher have a break.
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1 A lot of Japanese teachers don't like the presence of an ALT
who is supposedly a teacher....a foreigner to a lot of teachers
is probably an annoyance.
Utilization of ALT
ALT No.
1 You can be a great English teacher and not be able to use
your skills. This is often the case when you are an ALT.
5 There would be months you know out of the school year
where the students were taking tests. On those days my team
teaching partner would come up to me and say 'there is a
testing period so no team teaching this week.'
5 Whatever active input into teaching that I had at all was a
relatively small percentage of the whole school year. There
were months at a time that I wasn't in the classroom at all and
when I was I was a junior partner.
9 Sometimes I do feel undervalued not only by the JTE but also
by the school in terms of how they plan my classes and how
they plan my time.
6 Not under the current situation no...I don't think it matters if
the ALT is qualified or not. As it is a good ALT goes into
class and basically does what the JTE expects of
them...whether or not you can teach English fantastically I
think is by the by at the moment.
1 What makes a good ALT is a good Japanese teacher and good
Japanese staff, principal and vice principal.
Relationship
ALT No.
4 I noticed that some teachers were under pressure and wanted
to do things they had always done. Let's play games, let's do
an ALT activity. I noticed that some of them resented that. In
fact I had teachers that didn't want me to come to class, one
teacher specifically and it wasn't me personally...one day he
just sighed and said to me 'what do you want to do? Do you
want to do an activity?' and I said 'Not if you don't want to.'
and from then on he never stopped asking me to come to his
class.
7 It depends on the home room teacher and the ALT. I think if
you are in school enough you have time to build a
relationship of trust etc. in that case I think there are some
great relationships with teachers.
2 It takes a while to build up trust. The first semester in a new
school is a long semester.
3 I think the best solution is to make sure you work with the
same teachers and teach the same classes. In all the grades
you work with the same teacher, she is your partner, you work
as a team, you do all your classes together.
3 They just need to get one teacher that speaks good English,
may be just a couple teachers, one for shogakko and one for
chugakko and the ALT should always work with that teacher
every class. You do not work with the home room teachers.
The home room teachers are never going to get it because
they are not there to teach English.
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Role confusion
ALT No.
6 I think each teacher reacts to times when they are not sure
who is doing what..some teachers will take it upon
themselves to take the reins and other teachers will move you
to the front and say do something. There is definitely role
confusion in the schools.
8 There is quite a bit of role confusion, sometimes in who is
going to say what...sometimes I find the teachers take over
my bits of the lessons or if I try to do something a little bit
different...there is a set question and a set answer and if I feel
like being a little bit more creative ad elicit different answers
I just get chopped off.
6 If you do three classes with the same grade then the first class
with that grade you have role confusion but by the second or
third class you know the pattern.
4 How can you go into a school and get a job done? Be an ALT.
How can you work well with the teachers and get around
problems? Because the ALT that I replaced just went in and
did what she wanted to....she would have this activity and say
we are going to do it. Well that is definitely not my style and I
noticed certain teachers avoided me at first. And I had this
one teacher who would come up to me before the lesson and
say what are we going to do? They avoided me because they
were used to ALTs coming in and forcing their plans on the
teachers.
Definition of role
ALT No.
1 They do help the students be less afraid and less racist against
foreigners..they are very popular amongst the students, the
students like them.
1 Advantages of having ALTs is disarming the kids towards
foreigners, they help with xenophobia and racism.
7 Mostly the kids need interaction with foreigners so they can
remember the English they are learning..the confidence factor
is very important.
9 To provide a natural speaker, a native speaker for Japanese
students....But also to give Japanese students the opportunity
to interact with someone outside of Japan.
5 The focus was more on you know not so much English
education necessarily but on school spirit building,
community building relations, that sort of thing.
3 I consider my job to be to help the kids learn English and
speak English.
2 Very flexible, very forgiving, very easy going. Trying to find
a good balance of training, teaching skills, good Japanese
skills.
3 A good ALT is an ALT that makes the class positive and
doesn't really pressure any child, make sure the child enjoys
English. He is not their Japanese teacher but he is this guy
who says 'I am going to show you this really neat language.
Would you like to learn?'
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6 You just need to be flexible, you have to be prepared for any
situation, you have to be culturally sensitive towards Japan.
7 Someone who actually cares about the kids, who likes kids. I
don't think they have to be ESOL trained to be an ALT but it
is definitely a plus.
9 Somebody who can relate to the students and someone who is
adaptable.
7 The kids are able to gain confidence, they can practice the
little English they know and the ALT can e a great motivator
and try to keep an interest.
4 I have absolutely no idea. I know what they say...they say for
the purpose of teaching English to the kids...to be able to get
there no one has ever planned anything.
9 Having someone show them how the language is actually
spoken.
Motivation
ALT No.
2 You can have a lot of great fun, a lot of positive interaction
with the kids, you can make a difference in the kids lives. You
can see them learn, you can see them grow, you can see them
change.
3 Right now they tend to be very positive about the kids. The
kids are having a lot of fun and they are smiling. I work in a
small community so I see a lot of country kids. I like that.
8 Really seeing them get excited and seeing them enjoy
English
9 I also enjoy a lot of satisfaction from watching these kids
learning and enjoying the whole education journey.
Adjusting
ALT No.
1 You've got to be able to diffuse people and the only way to do
that is to speak (Japanese) well.
8 Also for me it is a cultural thing as well. Understanding the
way Japan works and seeing inside people's lives.
3 It is important that the schools make you feel comfortable.
Right now my schools are nice to me and I feel very
comfortable and I think that is important. And the same for
you to make sure you do your best. Give and Take.
4 In terms of practicality the ALT should adapt to the Japanese
system....we are not cultural guests any more we are teaching.
9 We are still in a foreign environment and they are still hosting
us. So I definitely think there is a responsibility on the part of
the school to provide a comfortable working environment.
6 Become socially aware and become aware of how you are
expected to behave in Japan and I think it becomes much
easier to fit into everyday life.
2 You can't change people's attitudes....and their attitudes
towards foreigners or the need for English education or even
on their outlook of teaching English.
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Policy
ALT No.
1 What I see is a kind of stubbornness on the part of Japan to
research and incorporate teaching methods from other
countries.
1 The ministry of education has been really irresponsible in
implementing this whole thing, they haven't given any
guidelines..there is no plan there is nothing you can read.
1 They should have a guidebook of goals to aim for that tells
them how to deal with the ALT..
4 It is like the bureaucrats and the politicians are requiring all
these things to be studied and the English companies are out
there filling their pockets with lots of tax payer money.
4 I seriously doubt anyone has ever sat down and thought –
what are we going to do with all these English speakers?
What do we need to create a higher quality of job pool in
which to choose from?
2 The people who are promoting I (English) don't understand
it. Most of them don't even speak it.
9 Sometimes it surprises me how bad it is. The fact is that the
system isn't working but being stubborn in their ways and
terribly bureaucratic they won't change it.
9 But I think it has huge potential if only someone in the
government recognised that the current system isn't working
at all. If they consulted with people, with students, teachers
and schools.
6 Just if there was a purpose for them to learn English other
than the government thinks it is a good idea to have
foreigners in the schools to speak to the students.
Internationalisation
ALT No.
1 Internationalisation means meeting a foreigner or having a
foreigner in the work environment
1 I would say that the Japanese people hope that
internationalisation means that other countries are going to
be more friendly towards Japan. They want to be more
friendly so they are less isolated.
5 In my case the goal of the ALT system in that particular
small town was internationalisation, much more than
English teaching.
5 It was designed to be short term. Ideally most people who
would have gotten their college degree, you know they are
fresh out of college and they have their bachelors degree of
some sort and it is a very nice two year work abroad
interlude before they go back to their own country..and
promote Japan.
6 It was initially designed to bring foreigners over to Japan
from America and English speaking countries..I think it has
slightly evolved since the initial reason behind the
programme but I think it is still largely to do with getting
foreigners into Japan.
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8 I think it is to introduce kids to foreigners because they can
get Japanese people to teach English. So I think it is just to
bring something new into the classroom. A foreign face.
5 Especially in rural Japan the first wave is always going to
be a more internationalisation focus and then when the
novelty wears off they will get down to teaching English.
6 Jet obviously started and the the majority of the ALTs were
from America and I think Japan is still somewhat obsessed
with American culture so I think that when Japanese people
think foreign they think America.
7 I think there is far too much focus on America for one thing
and English for another. I mean honestly
internationalisation needs to be more rounded with more
countries.
Status of English
ALT No.
2 It is highly promoted there is no doubt about that...the hours
are increasing, the money is being spent, they invest a lot of
money in the hiring of foreign teachers. But the execution in
the schools and the boards of education is at best moderate.
5 It is fairly serious in that everyone studies it. One possible
reform that people have suggested is to make English non
compulsory. The fact is that most Japanese are never going
to need it.
6 Eigo i.e. grammar and their preparation for the next stage is
just as important as the rest of the subjects but that has
nothing to do with the ALT. Doing communicative activities
isn't really part of the curriculum, it could be the same level
as a club activity.
8 It depends on the school. One school seems to place a really
high value on English education they designate English
days. Other schools it feels just like another subject. It
doesn't really matter if they remember what you told them
last week.
ALT problems in the schools
ALT No.
1 You know we have this guy, this gaijin guy walking around
our school and we don't know what to do with him.
1 In the workplace they face a lot of problems, they just get
ignored. It is discrimination but that is hardly surprising is it?
The problem is that they have a job to do but they don't have
anything to do and that gives them a real kick in their self
esteem.
1 In the worst case they can be hostile but in better cases they
are just nervous..Teachers feel they have a responsibility and
they don't want to lose that responsibility. A lot of teachers
think 'why do we have to hire these ALTs? Why do we have to
teach English? I don't speak English, English makes me
nervous.
6 Being the token foreigner in the school you are the only
foreigner in the school and you are treated differently. You are
aware you are different all the time
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7 I think the language barrier can be a big problem, especially
with Japan having the hierarchical system...it depends on the
school in some ways you are treated like a guest and in some
ways you are part of the team..it can feel very lonely in a big
school, I have seen some ALTs so unhappy here because they
don't know what is going on.
4 The fact that I am in one school , that I am here everyday sort
of freaked them out...I mean more than before they are not
sure what to do.
9 ALTs hand have been warmly accommodated almost over the
top in some schools and then there are schools where the
ALTs are treated terribly by the staff and kind of ignored and
used as a bit of a machine.3
3 We are always going to be foreigners no matter how long we
live in Japan
3 If teachers tend to be stressed they don't talk and it is a serious
situation all the time and they just make everything
serious...and I also have schools where I go and everyone is
happy..I walk in and I say good morning and I have schools
where I say good morning and no one answers.
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Appendix 9
The purpose of this questionnaire is to assess the attitudes of Japanese English teachers
towards ALTs.
The information will be used as part of my MA thesis which is an investigation into the role
confusion that sometimes occurs in team teaching practices.
I am very grateful for your co-operation.
The results will be kept in the strictest anonymity. Please do not write your name on the
sheets.
How many years have you been a teacher? years
Which type of schools do you/have you worked in?
Elementary Junior High school High school
How many ALTs have you worked with?
0 1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 10 plus
Do you enjoy team teaching?
Yes No It depends on the ALT
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Part 2.
Impressions of the team teaching system?
How much do you agree with the following statements:
The team teaching system improves the student‟s communicative English ability.
Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree Don't know
The team teaching system is good because it enables the students to interact with foreigners and
have a variety of cross cultural experiences.
Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree Don't know
The team teaching system is a necessary part of English education.
Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree Don't know
The students don't have enough classes with the ALT.
Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree Don't know
The class with the ALT is a break from the normal English class so it should be more fun.
Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree Don't know
The students enjoy the class with the ALT more than their regular English class.
Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree Don't know
The class with the ALT is less important than the regular English class.
Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree Don't know
It would be beneficial for the students to have more communicative English classes with th ALT
but we have to prepare the students for exams/teach from the textbook and don't have enough time.
Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree Don't know
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I would like to have more time to plan classes and have meetings with the ALT about the students‟
progress.
Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree Don't know
Do you plan lessons with the ALT?
Always Never Sometimes It depends on the ALT
Do you have regular meetings with the ALT?
Yes No Sometimes
How do you view the ALT in the school structure?
Main teacher Equal co-worker Assistant Guest teacher
Other (please specify)
Have you received training specifically for team teaching?
Yes No
Have you and an ALT attended training or seminars together?
Yes A few times but not enough Never
Do you think that the ALT should be given more responsibility and say in the students learning?
Yes No Depends on the
ALT
Only if they have
the appropriate
qualifications
Don't know
120
Part 3
What do you consider the job of an ALT? (Please grade from 1 to 5) 1 = Very important part
of the job, 5 = Not very important at all)
Pronunciation guidance and model
1 2 3 4 5
Student motivator
1 2 3 4 5
To help me with my English
1 2 3 4 5
To correct the students English papers
1 2 3 4 5
To teach the students communicative English
1 2 3 4 5
To plan activities/games
1 2 3 4 5
To help with Eiken preparation
1 2 3 4 5
To help with preparation for the speech contest
1 2 3 4 5
To teach English idioms or expressions
1 2 3 4 5
121
To provide information and experiences of foreign culture
1 2 3 4 5
To explain grammar points
1 2 3 4 5
Other roles for the ALT (please specify)
Is there anything you would like to add about the English education system
122
Appendix 10
このアンケートは日本人英語教員がＡＬＴをどのように評価しているかを知るためのも
のであり、このアンケートで得た情報は修士論文（テーマ：「チームティーチングにお
いて生ずる役割の混乱を調査」）の資料として使わせて頂きます。
また、無記名での回答をよろしくお願いいたします。
ご協力のほど、よろしくお願いいたします。
英語教員になって何年経ちますか？ 年
勤務先の学校は下記のうちどれですか？
小学校 中学校 高等学校
今まで何人のＡＬＴと一緒に働きましたか？
0 1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 10 plus
ティームティーチングで充実感を感じますか？
はい いいえ ＡＬＴによる
123
Part 2.
ティームティーチングについての感想
以下の項目について共感できるものを選んでください。
ティームティーチングで生徒の英語でのコミュニケーション能力が改善されると思う。
強くそう思う そう思う 思わない 全く思わない わからない
ティームティーチングは、生徒たちが外国人と触れ合い様々な文化に出会う経験ができ
るから良いと思う。
強くそう思う そう思う 思わない 全く思わない わからない
ティームティーチングは英語教育において必要だと思う。
強くそう思う そう思う 思わない 全く思わない わからない
ＡＬＴ参加の授業はまだ足りないと思う。
強くそう思う そう思う 思わない 全く思わない わからない
ＡＬＴ参加の授業は通常授業と違うので、楽しく行うべきだと思う。
強くそう思う そう思う 思わない 全く思わない わからない
生徒たちはＡＬＴ参加の授業の方が通常授業よりも楽しいと感じていると思う。
強くそう思う そう思う 思わない 全く思わない わからない
ＡＬＴ参加の授業は通常授業に比べて、それほど重要ではない。
強くそう思う そう思う 思わない 全く思わない わからない
生徒たちの英語力向上のために授業前の準備やＡＬＴとのミーティングにもっと時間を
かけたい。
強くそう思う そう思う 思わない 全く思わない わからない
124
ＡＬＴと一緒に授業の計画を立てますか？
いつもする 時々 全くしない ＡＬＴによる
定期的にＡＬＴとミーティングをしますか？
はい いいえ
授業においてＡＬＴの立場は以下のどれですか？
T1 メインティーチャー 同等のパートナー T2アシスタント ゲストティーチャー
その他 ：
ティームティーチングの研修を受けましたか？
はい いいえ
受けたと答えた方は、満足のいく研修を受けられたと思いますか？
はい いいえ
ＡＬＴと共にティームティーチングのトレーニングに参加したことがありますか？
はい いいえ
ＡＬＴは英語教育に関する業務全体（授業、宿題の確認や成績を出すことなど）にもっ
と取り組む立場であるべきだと思いますか？
はい いいえ ＡＬＴの能力に
よる
ＡＬＴが資格所
持者であれば
わからない
125
Part 3
ＡＬＴの仕事についてどう思いますか？ (１～５まで適当なものを選んでください)
1 = とても重要～5 = 全く重要ではない
正しい発音の仕方を教える
1 2 3 4 5
生徒たちのモチベーションを高める
1 2 3 4 5
英語教員の英語力のスキルアップ
1 2 3 4 5
生徒たちのテストの点数をつける（答え合わせ）
1 2 3 4 5
生徒たちにコミュニケーションとしての英語を教える
1 2 3 4 5
アクティビティやゲームを考える
1 2 3 4 5
英検の面接の練習を手伝う
1 2 3 4 5
英語スピーチ大会の発表練習の手伝いをする
1 2 3 4 5
イディオムや表現などを教える
1 2 3 4 5
126
外国の文化や様々な情報を伝える
1 2 3 4 5
文法を教える
1 2 3 4 5
その他：ＡＬＴの仕事として考えるものを書いてください。
その他、今後の英語教育についてなど、思うことがあれば自由に記入してください。
ご協力、ありがとうございました。
127
Appendix 11
Questionnaire data reults
Part 1
Q.1
How long have you been an English
teacher?
Years No. Of teachers
1 to 5 10
6 to 10 4
11 to 15 4
16 to 20 5
21 to 25 2
26 to 30 2 4 didn't answer
Q.2
What sort of school do you work in?
Elementary school Junior High school High school
7 21 3
Q.3
How many ALT's have you worked with?
No. of ALTs 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10 plus
Teachers 0 1 3 7 3 2 0 1 4 0 2 8
Q.4
Do you enjoy team teaching?
Yes No It depends on the ALT
12 0 19
128
Part 2
Your impressions of team teaching
Q.5
The students communicative English ability improves as a result of team taught lessons.
Strongly agree 8
Agree 17
Disagree 1
Strongly disagree 0
Don't know 5
Q.6
Team teaching is good because it allows the students to have experiences with foreigners and learn
about various cultures.
Strongly agree 17
Agree 14
Disagree 0
Strongly disagree 0
Don't know 0
Q.7
Team teaching is a necessary part of English education.
Strongly agree 16
Agree 13
Disagree 1
Strongly disagree 0
Don't know 1
129
Q.8
There are not enough classes with the ALT.
Strongly agree 3
Agree 11
Disagree 13
Strongly disagree 0
Don't know 4
Q.9
As the class with the ALT is different from normal English it should be more enjoyable for the
students.
Strongly agree 0
Agree 16
Disagree 11
Strongly disagree 0
Don't know 4
Q.10
The students think the ALT class is more enjoyable than normal English class
Strongly agree 12
Agree 15
Disagree 1
Strongly disagree 0
Don't know 2
130
Q.11
The class with the ALT is less important than normal English class
Strongly agree 0
Agree 1
Disagree 19
Strongly disagree 10
Don't know 1
Q.12
I would like to have more time to plan classes and have meetings with the ALT about the students
progress.
Strongly agree 6
Agree 19
Disagree 4
Strongly disagree 0
Don't know 2
Q.13
Do you plan lessons with the ALT?
Always 13
Sometimes 11
Never 4
Depends on the ALT 3
131
Q.14
Do you have regular meetings with the ALT?
Yes No
19 12
Q.15
How do you view the ALT in the school structure
Main teacher 4
Equal co-teacher 18
Assistant 3
Guest teacher 3
Other (please specify) Depends on the content of class (3)
Q.16
Have you received team teaching training?
Yes 14
No 17
Q.17
Do you feel that this training was sufficient?
Yes 9
No 5
132
Q.18
Have you received team teaching training together with an ALT?
Yes 6
No 25
Q.19
Do you think that the ALT should have more responsibility for the class, checking homework,
giving grades and the students general English education?
Yes 7
No 7
Depends on the ability of the ALT 5
Only if the ALT has the appropriate
qualifications
6
I don't know 6
133
Part 3
What do you consider to be the role of an ALT
Rated responses
1= very important
2= Not important
Q.20
Pronunciation guidance and model
1 24
2 6
3 1
4 0
5 0
Q.21
Student motivator
1 21
2 6
3 3
4 1
5 0
Q.22
To help the JTE with his/her English
1 19
2 9
3 3
4 0
5 0
134
Q.23
To correct the students English papers
1 2
2 1
3 13
4 4
5 11
Q.24
To teach communicative English
1 27
2 4
3 0
4 0
5 0
Q.25
To think of activities and games
1 10
2 14
3 6
4 0
5 0 1 didn't answer
135
Q.26
To help the with preparations for the Eiken interview
1 10
2 6
3 9
4 3
5 2 1 didn't answer
Q.27
To help with preparation for the English speech contest
1 15
2 11
3 4
4 0
5 1
Q.28
To teach English idioms and expressions
1 12
2 11
3 4
4 1
5 2 1 didn't answer
136
Q.29
To teach about foreign culture and customs
1 25
2 6
3 0
4 0
5 0
Q.30
To teach grammar
1 4
2 9
3 11
4 4
5 3
137
Other jobs of the ALT
Teacher 1
1. To give the students motivation to study English
2. If the students speak English to a native speaker they gain confidence
3. To improve English skills writing and communication
Teacher 3
6. Make a situation where you can use English.
7. If you give them too many opportunities to speak English with the ALTs it will not be good
because they still have to learn basic English skills. They should be prepared first and then they
should talk to the foreigners.
Teacher 5
3. Talk to the students while they are having lunch.
4. Should introduce foreign culture that is related to the textbook.
Teacher 7
3. The ALT should talk to the students inside and outside of class to give the students the
motivation to speak and study
138
Teacher 14
1. to teach real English as it is actually spoken and do communicative activities.
Other general
Teacher 1
8. Besides teaching the syllabus teachers should give the students the skills to express their
thoughts and opinions.
9. So that Japanese teachers can teach the students basic communicative English, the ALT should
give support to the the Japanese teachers while they are teaching the students and evaluate the
students English ability
10. I think that the purpose of English education should not be for passing exams but for practical
use
Teacher 2
11. A lot of the students think that the ALT class is for nothing more than playing games. If it is
possible the ALTs should join a least one class a week and give some activities for improving
communication. If that is done for three years the students communication skills will much
improve and the ALT will be more effective.
12. The situation that the students only have one class a month with the ALT or even less, the
students think the class with the ALT is for fun or playing games. The teachers can't have
meetings with the ALTs so the ALTs must find it difficult to teach in the class.
139
Teacher 3
3 It is very difficult to teach English only three times a week because English education in Japan
is not just about speaking and listening but also about learning grammar, reading comprehension.
Most students think it is cool to speak English so there should be a balance.
Teacher 4
4 The class that the ALT participates in is very important but they don't attend every class.
Teacher 6
3. The teachers and the ALTs should plan more lessons together. They should meetings and
actively discuss their opinions and ideas. They should build a relationship of mutual trust
and respect.
4. There should be more lectures and training about team teaching and then they will have
more opportunities to participate- they can then improve the students skill level and that of
the students.
Teacher 8
3. Even if the teachers can get good training they can't have enough classes to teach properly .
The training is meaningless.
Teacher 9
3. ALTs should be based in one school.
140
4. They should not only participate in class but they can also help with Japanese English
teachers jobs such as marking papers. Then the teachers ability of speaking, reading and
writing will improve.
Teacher 10
3. I think they should more enthusiastically learn about Japan and Japanese culture.
Teacher 11
2. I would like my own English to improve.
Teacher 12
3. Compared to other countries I think that the Japanese start learning English late.
4. The ALT class is very important because the students don't get to learn about other cultures,
different culture etc. in other classes.
5. From now on the ALT should be a proper teacher and not an assistant and they should speak
Japanese.
Teacher 13
3. ALT should have more meetings and prepare for classes. It will be good for the JTE as it
will improve their English.
141
Teacher 14
3. The class with the ALT is not related with the other classes. I would like more classes with
the ALT.
Teacher 15
3. To introduce foreign culture.
4. Communication is more important. The class should mainly be a conversation class.
