KEY LITERARY ELEMENTS

SETTING

An Enemy of the People is set in a provincial town of Norway. It depicts the life of Scandinavian people in the remote northeast of Europe. In the play, Ibsen portrays small-town politics in the last quarter of the nineteenth century.

LIST OF CHARACTERS

Major

Dr. Thomas Stockmann - medical officer of the Baths who discovers the contamination of the baths and fights to have it corrected.

Peter Stockmann - the Burgomaster (or the Mayor) and the doctor's elder brother. He is Chairman of the Baths Committee and opposes correcting the contamination problem, claiming it is too costly.

Hovstad - editor of the People's Messenger. He is a hypocrite who easily switches his opinion to side with the popular viewpoint. His main concern is printing stories that will sell the newspaper.

Aslaksen - the financier of the newspaper. He is the representative of the compact majority, serving as the Chairman of the Homeowners' Association and the Temperance Society. His is known for his views on moderation.

Minor

Morten Kiil - Dr. Stockmann's father-in-law who owns the tannery that has contaminated the baths.

Mrs. Stockmann - the doctor's wife who loves and supports her husband.

Petra - the doctor's daughter, who is a teacher.

Eilif, Morten - the doctor's sons, thirteen and ten years old respectively.

Horster - a ship's captain who offers his house for the citizens meeting. He is the only citizen, outside the family, who stands by Dr. Stockmann.

Billing - a member on the staff of the People's Messenger.

Participants in a citizens' meeting

CONFLICT

Protagonist:

Dr. Stockmann is the protagonist of the play. He is an idealist who is imprudent in his behavior. When he discovers that the water in the bath is contaminated, he rushes to the press and leaks out the information. This leads to a confrontation between Dr. Stockmann and the Burgomaster, who is also the chairman of the Baths Committee. The doctor's saving grace is the courage with which he adheres to his convictions. Standing alone, he bravely faces the citizens when he finds himself "gagged" by Hovstad and the Burgomaster.

Antagonist:

The general antagonist to Dr. Stockmann is corruption and deceit, which are clearly symbolized in Peter Stockmann, the Burgomaster. He is a representative of the Old World order. Unable to understand the ethical aspects of any issue, he resents his brother's attitude in making public the unsanitary condition of the baths. He also believes that all individuals should subordinate themselves to the authorities. Dr. Stockmann disapproves of these attitudes of his brother, and the Burgomaster is aware of his feelings. As a result, he conspires with Hovstad and Aslaksen to have Dr. Stockmann declared an enemy of the people.

Climax:

The differences between Dr. Stockmann and the Burgomaster deepen over the issue of the baths. The Burgomaster wants to hush up the matter to save his own face; but Dr. Stockmann is adamant about making the people away of the true conditions of the baths. The Burgomaster wins over Hovstad and Aslaksen to his side and uses them as pawns to checkmate his brother at the citizens' meeting. The moment of climax comes when Dr. Stockmann is declared an enemy of the people and hounded by the citizens.

Outcome:

The story ends in tragedy. Once Dr. Stockmann is declared an enemy of the people, he has a series of misfortunes. He and his daughter lose their jobs, and his landlord wants to evict the family. In spite of his troubles, he refuses to succumb to the pressure tactics of the Burgomaster and determines to carry on his fight until the end, with the support of his wife and children

. He even wants to start a school at the very place where he was ignominiously declared an enemy of the people. Experience has made him discover a new truth: the strongest person in the world is he who stands most alone. Although the play has a tragic ending, there is an aura of hope at the close. Although Dr. Stockman has lost the battle, it seems he has not lost the war.

PLOT (Synopsis)

Dr. Stockmann is the Medical Officer of the Baths. He is a jovial and independent person who likes to live in style and be surrounded by cheerful, intelligent people. After sampling and testing the water from the baths, he discovers that they are contaminated and dangerous for the health of the people. Dr. Stockman reports his discovery to Hovstad, the editor of the local newspaper, the

People's Messenger. At first, the citizens praise the doctor for his discovery; it is even suggested that they hold a torchlight procession in his honor.

Morten Kiil, Stockmann's father-in-law, visits the doctor to confirm the reports about the baths. He is delighted when Stockman confirms the contamination of the water, for he wants to expose the misdeeds of the Burgomaster and his followers, who have dislodged Kiil from the Town Council. Aslaksen, the leader of the Homeowners' Association, also calls on the doctor to extend his support, but cautiously urges Stockmann to proceed with moderation.

Peter Stockmann is the Burgomaster (mayor) and the Chairman of the Baths Committee. He is also Dr. Stockmann's brother and is very angry about his discovery of the contamination. He wants to hush up the matter, claiming the town cannot afford the huge cost of re-laying the pipes leading to the baths. He also feels that the citizens will suffer financially if the baths are closed for nearly two years for repairs. Dr. Stockmann cannot believe his brother wants to cover up the contamination and refuses to be a party to such dishonesty, which he feels is a crime against society. The Burgomaster threatens his brother with dismissal from his position if the doctor refuses to withdraw his claim. Dr. Stockmann vows to continue his fight and assumes that the press and the compact majority will support him in his struggle.

Dr. Stockmann's article is discussed by Hovstad and his staff. They then tell the doctor that his article is a masterpiece, which will sway every intelligent person to his side on the issue. The Burgomaster, however, comes to have a private talk with Hovstad in order to explain the technical and economic aspects of the baths. He warns that the citizens may have to bear the entire cost of repairs if the improvements suggested by Dr. Stockmann are to be implemented. Additionally, Peter Stockmann states that the baths will have to be closed for two years for repairs, causing considerable hardships to the citizens who depend on the baths for their livelihood. Hovstad and Aslaksen have not taken these facts into account

while extending their support to Dr. Stockmann.

The editor decides to publish the Burgomaster's statement instead of Dr. Stockmann's article, a change that shocks the doctor. When he criticizes his brother for his stance, Dr. Stockmann is removed from his office by the Burgomaster. Dr. Stockmann then determines to read his article to a mass meeting of the citizens, but his brother warns him that no place in town will let him hold a meeting for such a purpose. As a result, Dr. Stockmann decides to read his paper at every street corner, an action that is supported by his wife.

Finally, Captain Horster places his house at the disposal of Dr. Stockmann for the citizens' meeting. Unfortunately, the Burgomaster and his allies have entered into a conspiracy to sabotage the proceedings. When Dr. Stockmann rises to speak, Aslaksen suggests that the meeting should have a chairman. The Burgomaster proposes Aslaksen's name for chairmanship. Aslaksen cautions the citizens that no exaggerated statements should go abroad as to the unsanitary conditions of the baths and of their town. Next the Burgomaster suggests that the meeting should decline to hear the proposed lecture on the subject of the baths by the ex-Medical Officer. Instead, Aslaksen invites the Burgomaster and Hovstad to address the meeting. The Burgomaster discusses the large cost involved in carrying out needless repairs to the baths and the hardship the citizens will have to undergo while the baths are closed.

Hovstad speaks next and points out how he was misled by Dr. Stockmann, who gave false statements about the baths. Shocked by these statements and the proceedings in general, Dr. Stockmann points out how the sources of spiritual life are poisoned and how the society rests on falsehood. He claims that the authorities have shown colossal stupidity in their judgement to perpetrate a lie. In fact, Dr. Stockmann shouts that "I would rather ruin the native town than see it flourish upon a lie." Dr. Stockmann's words provoke the citizens. The Burgomaster seizes the moment, and in a climatic move, he has his brother declared "an enemy of the people."

As a result of the judgment on his character, Dr. Stockmann undergoes a series of misfortunes that cause him to feel depressed. The citizens ignore him, making him feel isolated and lonely; he and his daughter, Petra, lose their jobs; and the landlord wants to evict him. Then the Burgomaster accuses Dr. Stockmann of entering into a plot with Morten Kiil, who he claims is trying to buy all the shares of the baths at a low price. The Burgomaster suggests that the doctor will personally benefit from the contamination issue. Such insinuations infuriate Dr. Stockmann, and he becomes more determined than ever to fight the authorities and to tell the truth about the baths. He even thinks about setting up a school in the very room where he was declared an enemy of the people in order to help young boys grow into free, high- minded, and independent men.

Dr. Stockmann accepts that his battle against the corrupt authorities will not be easy; but he also realizes that his isolation has made him stronger. In fact, he believes that the strongest person in the world is he who stands most alone.

THEMES

Major

Throughout the play, Ibsen portrays the negative side of small town politics and the power of persuasion. At first the citizens are on the side of Dr. Stockmann, praising him for his discovery of the baths' contamination. Then the authorities, who are opposed to the disclosure about the contamination, begin to make their political moves. They convince the editor of the paper of their point of view and persuade him to publish their statements rather than Stockmann's article. They next disrupt a citizens' meeting and sway the people to their side, not giving the doctor a chance to read his paper about the dangers of the baths. The citizens are like puppets, easily manipulated by the right words.

Closely coupled with the predominant theme, is the theme of the nobility of a person who bravely fights for truth. Dr. Stockmann is the representative of the truth seeker who refuses to give in to lies and dishonesty. Even when he is ignored by the people, loses his positions, and is almost evicted, he still stands up for the truth. Through him, Ibsen is clearly stating another theme - that strong persons should have the courage to stand alone without compromising their principles.

Minor

Through the play, Ibsen warns against leaders who are solely rooted in the past, having only myopic vision. The refuse to look to the future and are afraid of new ideas, like Peter Stockmann, the mayor. In fact, the Burgomaster curtly tells the doctor, "The public has no need for new ideas. The public gets on best with the good old recognized ideas it has already." By contrast to his brother, Dr. Stockmann is convinced that it is a citizen's duty, when he has conceived a new idea, to communicate it to the public.

MOOD

Centered on the negative aspects of small town politics and corrupt leaders driven by self-interests, An Enemy of the People has a pessimistic, depressing mood. The only positive note in the play comes at the end when Stockmann vows never to give in to the corrupt leaders and to fight for his cause no matter the price.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Author Information

Henrik Johan Ibsen was a well-known Norwegian playwright and poet who became known as the father of modern drama, for he successfully introduced modern social problems into his plays in a realistic way. Ibsen was born in Skein, Norway, on March 20, 1820. Because his father was an unsuccessful businessman, Ibsen had to spend his childhood and youth in abject poverty. At the age of eighteen, Ibsen parented an illegitimate son, but he never married the servant girl. In 1844, he left Skein for Grimstad to become an apothecary's apprentice; he wanted to eventually study medicine. In 1855, Ibsen went to Christiania, hoping to enter the university; however, he failed the entrance examination.

Ibsen began to write at an early age. By nineteen, he was composing poems, and he completed his first play, Catilene, when he was twenty-two years of age. A year later, he joined a theater company, where he wrote and directed several plays; he also designed costumes. Because of his successes, Ibsen was appointed manager of the National Theater at Christiania (now known as Oslo) in 1857. In 1858, Ibsen married Susannah Thoresen; they had one son. In 1862, Ibsen wrote Love's Comedy, a drama in epigrammatic verse. At about the same time, the theater for which Ibsen had been working went bankrupt, and for a period of time, the playwright was unable to stage any of his plays. In 1863, he received a scholarship that allowed him to travel extensively. In the same year, he wrote The Pretenders that was staged successfully in 1864.

When the Prussian - Danish war broke out in 1864, Ibsen left Norway for Italy. Except for short visits to Norway, he lived in Italy and Germany until 1891. In the first years after his emigration to Rome, Ibsen wrote two poetic plays, Brand (1866) and Peer Gynt (1867); the first was about a priest who sacrifices his family for his sense of duty, and the latter is about a young man who lives only for pleasure. These plays established Ibsen's reputation as an international dramatist, and the Norwegian government offered him a poet's pension. Ibsen was bitter because the pension was not offered earlier, when he was in need of money to make ends meet. Ibsen's friends had often extended financial help to enable him to live and work as a playwright.

In 1869, Ibsen abandoned writing in dramatic verse, preferring a more realistic prose form. In the same year, he wrote The League of Youth, a prose play that was a satire on small-town politics; it was a precursor to the more well known An Enemy of the People. The Pillars of Society (1877), which examines social pretensions and pride based on hypocrisy, is the first of his twelve great modern plays. It made him famous in Germany; it was also translated into English and became his first drama to be staged in London, where Ibsen stayed for a period of time. Ibsen returned to Rome in 1878 and completed A Doll's House in 1879. This play showed, for the first time on the stage, an intelligent woman leaving her husband to seek a more fulfilling life on her own; it firmly established Ibsen's international reputation and was staged in London in 1889. Ghosts, written in 1881, described the tragedy of a woman who chose to remain married to an unworthy man; the play created considerable difficulties and controversies. The booksellers returned the copies of the play to the publishers, and the theater-owners rejected producing it. The first performance of the play was in Chicago; later, it was staged in different parts of Europe. An Enemy of the People (1882) dealt with the evils of political hypocrisy and ignorant majority rule. The Wild Duck (1884) was an ironic drama about the conflict between idealism and the practical demands of everyday life. Rosmersholm (1886) was a tragedy of two lovers who unsuccessfully tried to combine moral tradition and progressive thought.

In 1889, Ibsen, sixty-one years old at the time, fell in love with an eighteen-year-old girl. After 1889, he never saw her again, but they carried on correspondence for a year. His infatuation left an indelible mark on Ibsen's later plays: Hedda Gabler (1890), The Master Builder (1892), Little Eyolf (1894), John Gabriel Borkman (1896), and When We Dead Awaken (1899). The last four plays were written in Norway, where Ibsen had resettled in 1891.

Ibsen's seventieth birthday was celebrated in 1898. A year later the National Norwegian Theater was dedicated in his honor. Ibsen then suffered a paralytic stroke in 1901. He died on May 23, 1906, at the age of seventy-eight, but his plays remained popular throughout the twentieth century.

LITERARY

/HISTORICAL INFORMATION

In 1881, Ibsen wrote Ghosts, a play that gave rise to considerable controversy, for the public found the drama to be indecent and unpalatable. An Enemy of the People, written in 1882, is often viewed as a reaction to the response to Ghosts; it is a kind of rejoinder to public (or mob) opinion. Ibsen was convinced that the mob could be influenced very easily by demagogues. In An Enemy of the People, characters like the Burgomaster, Hovstad, and Aslaksen exploit mass psychology to the hilt and succeed in having the public judge a good citizen as an enemy of the people.

In several of his plays, Ibsen portrays the politics of small Norwegian towns. In them, he clearly develops his belief that majority rule is seldom honest or correct; additionally, he reveals that the majority can never bring about any radical change in a prevalent social order. In essence, Ibsen shows that politics are demoralizing, in spite of their influence.

Some critics view An Enemy of the People as an attack on democracy; but it must be remembered that Ibsen was not an anarchist, but a law-abiding citizen. He simply believed that representatives of the 'compact majority' are fallible and seldom interested in or capable of make sweeping changes. Ibsen points out in the play that only persons who have the courage to stand alone and adhere to their principles can bring about significant reforms. That message is as relevant today as it was a century ago.

ACT SUMMARIES WITH NOTES

Act I

Summary

The play opens in the evening in Dr. Stockmann's sitting room. The doctor is seated at the dining table, and his wife is serving him. Peter Stockmann, the Burgomaster (mayor) and Dr. Stockmann's brother, enters wearing an overcoat and an official gold-laced cap. When Mrs. Stockmann invites him to stay for dinner, he politely declines, saying he prefers economical tea, bread, and butter to roast beef. Mrs. Stockmann responds by saying they are not spendthrifts.

Hovstad, the editor of the local newspaper, enters and greets the Burgomaster. He tells him that he has come to collect an article from Dr. Stockmann for the People's Messenger. The Burgomaster, in an expansive mood, talks with Hovstad about the baths, around which the whole life of the town centers; the mayor feels that the baths have brought about an economic transformation for the citizens. Visitors, especially invalids, come to the baths in large numbers. The Burgomaster declares that with the visitors "money has come into circulation and has brought life and momentum with it."

Hovstad points out that Dr. Stockmann is really the creator of the baths. The Burgomaster, who is the Chairman of the Baths Committee, resents this remark. He wants the editor of the paper to know that he has also played an active role in constructing the baths. Mrs. Stockmann, the diplomat, wisely suggests that Peter and Thomas Stockmann can share the honors, like brothers.

Dr. Stockmann, who has gone out for a walk with his sons, returns; he brings with him another visitor, Captain Horster. The doctor invites his brother Peter to have a drink with them. The Burgomaster says haughtily, "I never join in drinking parties." It is apparent that Peter does not particularly like Dr. Stockmann, especially not his jovial nature. He also resents the doctor's "extravagant" life style. The Stockmann brothers had led a hard life and had lived for a long while on starvation wages. Now Dr. Stockmann wants to live in style, surrounded by "bright, cheerful, freedom-loving, hard-working young fellows like Hovstad, Horster and others."

The Burgomaster asks his brother about the article he has written on the baths for the newspaper, but Dr. Stockmann does not give any details. His refusal to discuss the article upsets the Burgomaster, who insists that in "a well-ordered community the individual must subordinate himself to the society, or, more precisely to the authorities whose business it is to watch over the welfare of the society." With these words, the Burgomaster walks out in an angry mood.

After Peter's departure, the others sit round sipping cocktails and chatting. Captain Horster says that he intends to sail to America soon and will miss the election of the Town Council. Horster candidly admits that he does not care or understand anything about politics; he does, however, take an interest in news that has public interest. Hovstad feels that Dr. Stockmann's article will be of interest to the public and is eager to receive it from the doctor; however, Stockmann asks him to defer the publication of the article, for he is awaiting an important report pertaining to the baths.

Petra

, Stockmann's daughter, returns from the school where she teaches and hands over the eagerly awaited letter to her father. Dr. Stockmann reads the letter in his study and then rejoins the others in a triumphant mood. He declares that the baths are not healthy

places, but a poisonous and "pestiferous hole." He claims that the water in the baths is contaminated by the filth from the mill. The letter he has just received has confirmed his suspicions. During the last year, the doctor

had noticed that many of his patients had fallen ill after visiting the baths, suffering both from typhoid and gastric attacks. His tests of the water showed them to be contaminated; as a result, he sent samples to the University for analysis. Their analysis confirmed the presence of "putrefying organic matter in the water - millions of infusoria." The water is dangerous to one's health whether used internally or externally. Hovstad seeks Dr. Stockmann's permission to put a short announcement about the discovery in the Messenger. Billing suggests that there should be a torchlight procession in honor of the doctor for his discovery.

Dr. Stockmann wants to get rid of the contamination by re-laying all the water pipes. It was his brother, the Burgomaster, who had played an active role in laying the incorrect pipes. The doctor seems happy to have caught his brother in a mistake. The act ends on a light note when Dr. Stockmann puts both his arms round his wife's neck and whirls her around with him.

Notes

Act I is largely introductory in nature. The two main characters, Dr. Stockmann and his brother, Peter the Burgomaster, are presented on stage and developed. The Burgomaster, a restless bachelor, obviously resents his brother's success; he comments that he would rather dine economically on bread and butter than on extravagant roast beef. It is further learned that the Burgomaster is a representative of the Old World order and fears a person who asserts his individuality. Additionally, he believes it is the duty of the authorities to watch over the welfare of society. Proud and power-hungry, Peter Stockmann does not want to give up any of his authority as Burgomaster.

Dr. Stockman is a real contrast to his brother. Although he has suffered a hard life like Peter, the doctor refuses to let his past haunt him. He has become a successful and jovial doctor who likes to live in style and be surrounded by young, bright people with liberal views. He particularly enjoys the company of Hovstad, the editor of a daily newspaper, and Horster, captain of a ship.

Politically, he is conscientious and believes in protecting the welfare of society, no matter the cost.

The seeds of the conflict are also introduced in this act, as it becomes apparent that there are problems between the two Stockmann brothers. First, Dr. Stockmann does not confide in his brother, a fact that the Burgomaster resents. Secondly, although the idea of the baths was conceived by Dr. Stockmann, his brother wants credit for implementing the scheme, for he is Chairman of the Baths Committee. When the Burgomaster learns that his brother has written an article about the baths for the newspaper, he wants to know the contents. When Dr. Stockmann refuses to let him see the article or even be told what it is about, Peter is quite irritated. The Burg-master then becomes furious at his brother's refusal to consult him on a matter of public importance.

Dr. Stockmann is displeased that his earlier suggestions about the proper laying of the water pipes leading to the baths were not taken seriously. Since the pipes were incorrectly constructed, the water of the baths has become contaminated. Dr. Stockmann had suspected the contamination after he had seen so many patients who had fallen ill after using the baths; now the university has verified his suspicions. Their report confirms the presence of poisonous matters in the water. Dr. Stockmann almost seems happy at the news, for he delights in proving his brother wrong. It is almost with pleasure that he says, "I tell you the whole place is a poisonous whited-sepulcher, noxious in the highest degree." This discovery proves the Burgomaster has been wrong, while the doctor has been conscientious.

It is important to notice the reactions of Hovstad and Billing to Dr. Stockmann's discovery. They are full of praise for him and even suggest that he is a hero, worthy of a torchlight procession in his honor. This is a sharp contrast to the doctor's image at the end of the play, when he is judged by the majority of citizens to be "an enemy of the people." Additionally, his light and happy mood at the end of the first act will be in sharp contrast to his tenseness and depression at the end of the play.

Act II

Summary

Act II opens with Dr. Stockmann in his sitting room. Mrs. Stockmann hands over a sealed letter from the Burgomaster, which contains the manuscript sent by Dr. Stockmann and a message about the Burgomaster's visit at noon. Mrs. Stockmann urges her husband to be at home at that time. Morten Kiil enters. He has heard about the doctor's report from Petra and is happy that Dr. Stockmann is not playing "monkey-tricks with his own brother." Morten Kiil is displeased because he was driven off the Town Council by the present members, who were led by the Burgomaster. He wants the doctor to "make the Burgomaster and his gang eat humble pie."

Hovstad enters, and Morten Kiil leaves. Hovstad tries to impress upon Dr. Stockmann that the business of the baths is not an isolated affair, but tied to many other things. He points out that the whole town is rotting as a result of a few wealthy and corrupt bureaucrats; he hopes to "explode the tradition of (their) officious infallibility." Even if he is labeled an agitator, Hovstad would risk denunciation to emancipate the masses.

Aslaksen next calls on Dr. Stockmann to extend his support. He is the Chairman of the Homeowners' Association and represents the middle-class people who constitute the "compact majority" in the town. He wants to honor Dr. Stockmann for his action in the matter of the baths, but he wants the demonstration to be one that will not offend the authorities and parties in power. He harps on the virtues of temperance and moderation, for he is a "yes" man that tries to please everyone. Dr. Stockmann thanks him for his support.

Hovstad, on the other hand, wants to excite the half-hearted cowards like Aslaksen. Though their intentions are good, they lack strong self-assurance. He wants to "put a little grip into their good intentions" by making every voter realize the "inexcusable blunder of the waterworks." Dr. Stockmann, however, requests that Hovstad not publish his article until he discusses the matter with his brother, the Burgomaster. If he refuses to take any step in rectifying the error, the doctor will then allow Hovstad to print the article, which he hands over to Hovstad.

Dr. Stockmann joins his wife and daughter in the drawing room. He tells them about the support extended by Hovstad and Aslaksen. He is elated at "such brotherly unison with one's fellow residents." The Burgomaster enters, and Mrs. Stockmann and Petra thoughtfully leave the room. The two brothers have a confrontation on the baths. The Burgomaster wants to hush up the matter of the contamination. He knows that the cost of relaying the water pipes would be exorbitant and the Town Council cannot afford to spend several hundred thousand crowns on the repairs. In addition, the baths would have to be closed for nearly two years for the repairs; their closing would cause considerable economic hardship to the people of the town.

Dr. Stockmann knows that the present situation with the baths is the result of the blunder committed by the Burgomaster in their construction. The doctor absolutely refuses to be a party to any cover-up or dishonesty about the baths. His brother begs him not to tell anyone about the contamination, but the doctor reveals that many people already know about his report. The Burgomaster calls his brother reckless for leaking the information and tells him not to publish the story in the newspaper. He reminds Dr. Stockmann that he owes his position as Medical Officer of the Baths to him. The Burgomaster demands that Dr. Stockmann recant his story and declare publicly that the affair is not as serious as he had at first imagined; moreover, he must express his full confidence in the Board of Directors of the baths Dr. Stockmann adamantly refuses to obey his brother's orders. As a result, the Burgomaster threatens him with dismissal.

When the Burgomaster departs, Dr. Stockmann is beside himself with fury and righteous indignation. His wife and daughter try to pacify him, but he will not be calmed. He vows to fight his battle to the end and discharge his duties towards the public regardless of how it affects him or his family. Mrs. Stockmann is in tears, but Petra is proud that her father is true to the core.

Notes

When Dr. Stockmann discovers the contamination of the baths, he wants the authorities to have the water pipes re-laid. His only interest is in the welfare of society. In this act, Ibsen reveals that other people in the town do not have such noble intentions. Each person who calls on Dr. Stockmann is interested in the matter of the baths for his own sake. Morten Kiil is the first to

visit. He wants to expose the Burgomaster and "his gang" in the matter of the contamination, for he wants vengeance on the persons who have expelled him from the Town Council.

Hovstad, the editor of the local newspaper, is very interested in the contamination of the baths. He is eager to publish a number of articles to expose the sordid deeds of the bureaucrats, as related to the contamination. He hopes to inflame the "cowards" of the town to an attitude of strong self-reliance and, thereby, increase the sale of the People's Messenger. Aslaksen, the Chairman of the Homeowners' Association represents the compact majority in the town. Although he supports Dr. Stockmann and wants to honor him, he insists that any approach must be done with great moderation. He is a fence sitter who never wants to offend anyone, especially not the authorities.

The Burgomaster has his own reasons for suppressing Dr. Stockmann's discovery. Outwardly, he seems to be concerned with the welfare of the town and its people who depend on the baths for their livelihood. He states that the cost of the repairs and the two- year closing of the baths will cause hardship to the people of the town. In truth, the Burgomaster wants to cover up his own blunder. It was he who insisted that both the bath buildings and the waterworks be placed where they are presently situated. Not wanting to accept the responsibility for the contamination, he wants to hush up the matter at all costs so that his image remains untainted. He demands that his brother, Dr. Stockmann, recants his allegations and supports the decisions of the Board of Directors. When the doctor refuses, the Burgomaster relieves him of his duties as the Medical Officer of the Baths.

Dr. Stockmann is indignant over this treatment at the hands of his brother. His wife and daughter try to calm him, but the doctor vows to fight the Burgomaster to the end. His wife is tearful, fearing what will happen to the family during the fight. Petra, however, is proud of her father's determination.

In this act, Ibsen begins to focus on the basic conflicts of the play - the triumph of truth over falsehood and the willingness of an individual to stand up against corrupt bureaucrats. Dr. Stockmann bravely decides to fight the authorities, including his own brother, and uphold the truth at any cost to himself or his family

Act III

Summary

Act III opens in the editor's room of the People's Messenger. Billing is excited, for he has just read Dr. Stockmann's article and hears the "revolution thundering afar." He knows that the publication of the article will put the Burgomaster in a real fix. If he agrees to the doctor's demands to repair the baths and eliminate the contamination, the shareholders in the baths surely not support him. If he does not agree to the repairs, the Burgomaster will surely alienate the middle-class majority. Hovstad hopes that conflict over the doctor's article will cause the current town bureaucrats to be replaced with more liberal-minded individuals.

Dr. Stockmann comes to the press to find out when his first article will be printed and urges Aslaksen to take personal charge of its publication. The doctor also informs the newsmen that his

next four or five articles will soon be completed. He tells them how he was humiliated in his own house by his brother. He now wants revenge on the Burgomaster and his followers; he wants to "smite them to the earth." As expected, Aslaksen advises him to be moderate. Dr. Stockmann, however, wants to purge the town of all the old bunglers. Billing calls Dr. Stockmann "a friend of the people," and Aslaksen joins in by saying he is "a true friend of the town."

After Dr. Stockmann's departure, Aslaksen cautions Hovstad and Billing about being moderate. He says that it would not be advisable to follow the doctor's recommendations in all matters of public interest. Hovstad and Billing do not like Aslaksen's inconsistent stand, and Billing calls him a timid person. Unfortunately, they must deal with Aslaksen, for he finances the paper. When Aslaksen departs, Billing suggests that they should try and find another financier. He suggests Morten Kiil, who would allow them to take a firm stand on all matters of public interest.

Petra calls on Hovstad to return the book that she has translated for publication in the Messenger. Hovstad agrees to publish it even though the book is not in keeping with his liberal outlook; it talks about a supernatural power that looks after good people and punishes bad people. He states that he will publish the book in order to humor the readers' fancies. Petra does not like his hypocrisy. She is also perturbed to learn that Hovstad has not been honest in his dealings with her father. Although he pretended to be on the side of truth and the good of the community, he really only wants to publish the doctor's articles to bring attention to the newspaper. She senses that Hovstad and his newsmen will have no scruples about withdrawing their support of Dr. Stockmann if his views become unpopular.

The Burgomaster comes to the newspaper office to have a private talk with Hovstad and Aslaksen. He praises Aslaksen for his moderation and compliments him for being a wise and prudent leader of the middle-class. He then implores Aslaksen not to print the doctor's article. He points out that the alterations suggested by Dr. Stockmann will cost two or three thousand crowns, and the burden will fall on the middle-class taxpayers. The middle-class will also be hurt when the baths are closed for two years for the repairs. Aslaksen has not previously considered these burdens; since he represents the middle-class homeowners

, he must think about their welfare first.

The Burgomaster expresses his surprise at the support extended by Aslaksen and Hovstad to Dr. Stockmann. He then hands over a short statement of the facts, as they appear from a "sober minded standpoint." He also expresses his desire to make any needed minor repairs that are not financially damaging. As Dr. Stockmann arrives to read the proofs of his article, the Burgomaster hides in Billing's room, not wanting to be seen by his brother. Aslaksen pretends to be busy as the doctor enters the composing room.

Aslaksen will not even look at Dr. Stockmann as he tells him the proofs are not yet ready. Hovstad adds that it may be awhile before they choose to publish the doctor's article. After listening to the Burgomaster, they now have no time for Dr. Stockmann, who is still under the impression that his article will be immediately published and that the people will make a procession in his honor. Hovstad is about to tell the doctor the truth when Mrs. Stockmann

appears. Dr. Stockmann is indignant over his wife's presence and her claims that Hovstad is enticing her husband away from his family. She warns that the doctor will surely lose his job if the article is published.

The doctor notices the Burgomaster's official hat and staff in the office and realizes that his brother must have concealed himself in some corner of the office upon his approach. He bursts out laughing as he puts on the Burgomaster's cap and throws open the door where his brother is hiding. The Burgomaster is red with anger. In a comic scene, the Doctor struts up and down in the official hat as he 'dismisses' his bother from all offices of trust. He informs the Burgomaster that Aslaksen and Hovstad will help him to bring about a revolution in the town. The newsmen, however, state that they refuse to support Dr. Stockmann any longer. Hovstad accuses the Doctor of presenting the contamination case in a false light. Aslaksen refers to the movement ushered in by Dr. Stockmann as a delusion. They bluntly tell the doctor that his article will not be published; instead, they will publish the Burgomaster's statement.

Realizing that everything is now against him, Dr. Stockmann composes himself. He decides to publish his article as a pamphlet at his own cost. Aslaksen, however, refuses to print the pamphlet, fearing to go against public opinion. Dr. Stockmann takes his article and tells them that he will call a meeting of the people and read it aloud. The Burgomaster rudely tells him that no one in the town will let him use their hall for such a purpose. When Mrs. Stockmann declares that she will stand by her husband, Dr. Stockmann is encouraged and announces that he will read his article on every street corner. The Burgomaster is distraught over his brother's claim. He is still determined that the citizens will not hear about the contamination.

Notes

Act III again emphasizes that most individuals are governed by their own selfish motives, ignoring what is good for society. At first Billing is thrilled about Dr. Stockmann's article and envisions a revolution in the town. He sees the Town Council being ousted and dreams of becoming the Secretary of the Council himself.

Hovstad still pretends to espouse Dr. Stockmann's cause so that he can increase the circulation of his newspaper. It is obvious that he is a hypocrite who only cares about the Messenger making money. He is going to print the book that Petra has translated, even though he finds its contents unacceptable; he just wants to please his readers, rather that standing up to what he believes. All his talk of emancipation of the downtrodden and liberal democracy is a convenient ploy to serve his self-interest.

Always trying to please others, Aslaksen deliberately keeps a low and moderate profile. He wants to make sure that he pleases everyone so he can protect his own vested interest as the Chairman of the Homeowners' Association. When the Burgomaster tells him that the repair of the baths will be costly to the middle-class homeowners, Aslaksen quickly abandons his support of the doctor. Thinking it will make him more popular, he openly takes the side of the Burgomaster and refuses to print the doctor's article in the newspaper or as a pamphlet.

During the act, the Burgomaster proves that he is a clever and cunning politician, knowing how to swing public opinion by referencing their pocketbooks. He succeeds in weaning away Hovstad and Aslaksen from support of Dr. Stockmann, convincing them that the repair and two-year closure of the baths will bring financial ruin to the town. Like Billing, Hovstad, and Aslaksen, the Burgomaster is a hypocrite; his real concern is to save his face and his positions of Burgomaster and Chairman of the Baths Committee.

Dr. Stockmann again proves that he is not afraid to stand up for what he believes or to mock his brother. When he realizes the Burgomaster is hiding in the newspaper office, he mockingly puts on the official hat and throws open the door behind which his brother is hiding. Wearing his brother's hat, he paces back and forth in front of the Burgomaster, opposing his dishonesty. When Dr. Stockmann learns that his article is not going to be printed in the newspaper, he decides to publish it as a pamphlet at his own cost. When Aslaksen refuses to print

a pamphlet for him, he determines that he will read his article aloud at a mass meeting of the public. When the Burgomaster says he will not permit anyone in town to allow the doctor to use their hall, he says he will read his article to the people on every street corner. Even his wife, who has come to beg Hovstad not to print the article, is impressed by her husband's determination and promises to support him.

Unfortunately, Dr. Stockmann has no awareness or understanding of the fickleness of the public. He cannot imagine that the compact majority will not see his side and support him. Even though he has just seen how quickly Billing, Hovstad, and Aslaksen desert his cause, he vows to fight his battle alone and to the end.

Act IV

Summary

Dr. Stockmann is scheduled to make a speech on the present condition of the baths at Captain Horster's house. Citizens are arriving to hear him in large numbers, some of them carrying whistles and horns. Most of the citizens are somewhat confused. According to the People's Messenger, the doctor is wrong about the baths. They are eager to hear what the doctor has to say. Mrs. Stockmann urges her husband not to lose his temper.

Dr. Stockmann rises to address the gathering. Aslaksen insists that a chairman of the meeting must be elected first. The Burgomaster seconds the proposal, which is approved. The Doctor yields to the general demand. The Burgomaster declines to chair the meeting for obvious reasons; instead, he proposes the name of Mr. Aslaksen, who is elected. Aslaksen describes himself as a quiet, peace-loving person who always supports moderation.

When the Burgomaster is invited by Aslaksen to address the citizens, he cautions the people against false statements as to the sanitary conditions of the baths and makes a motion that will not allow the doctor to give his lecture. He points out that Dr. Stockmann's proposal amounts to a vote of censure upon the leading persons of the town; furthermore, the doctor's suggestions for improving the baths would involve an unnecessary expenditure of a hundred thousand crowns. Aslaksen urges the citizens to support the Burgomaster's motion and accuses Dr. Stockmann of

desiring a revolution. Hovstad next speaks and explains how he was misled by Dr. Stockmann's false statements and now rejects his suggestions about the baths.

When Aslaksen wants to put the Burgomaster's motion to vote, Dr. Stockmann tells him that he wants to speak on a subject other than the filthy condition of the baths. When Aslaksen gives his consent, the doctor states, "All our sources of spiritual life are poisoned and our whole society rests upon a pestilential basis of falsehood." It says that he had conceived the plan of the baths, but the authorities had bungled the project. He compares the leaders to goats in a plantation who do lots of harm.Dr. Stockman claims that they should be exterminated like "noxious animals." He alludes to his brother, the Burgomaster, and hints that he is "slow of understanding and tenacious in prejudice." The doctor claims that such persons "are the most dangerous enemies of truth and freedom in our society."

Dr. Stockmann next turns his criticism against the compact majority. Aslaksen requests the speaker to be moderate, and Hovstad points out that the majority always has right on its side. Dr. Stockmann vehemently disagrees and says that fools make up the majority all over the world; he states that it is the masses that are poisoning the sources of spiritual life as they adhere to truths that are "old and marrowless." He begs the citizens that even if they do not agree with him, they should not suppress the voice of truth. Aslaksen tries to stop Dr. Stockmann and claims he is leveling gross insults against the whole community. Hovstad thinks that Dr. Stockmann is bent on ruining the town and declares him an enemy of the people. The whole assembly begins to shout, "He's an enemy of the people!"

Aslaksen solidifies the public opinion into a resolution that officially declares the doctor to be an enemy. When the motion is put to a written vote, it passes almost unanimously. The crowd starts yelling at Dr. Stockmann as he leaves the hall with his family. On the way out, the doctor asks Captain Horster whether he can provide room on his ship for some passengers who want to go to the New World.

Notes

At the beginning of this act, Dr. Stockmann is eager to enlighten the people about the present condition of the baths and is hopeful that they will understand and support him. Since the Burgomaster has blocked the doctor from holding his meeting in any hall in town, Captain Horster has offered his house for the citizens' meeting. The Burgomaster, Hovstad, and Aslaksen have secretly planned to interfere with Dr. Stockmann's campaign. When the Doctor rises to speak, it is suggested that the meeting have a chairman. Since it would be improper for the Burgomaster to serve as the head of the meeting, Aslaksen is elected. Before long, it is suggested that the meeting should refuse to hear the doctor's lecture on the subject of the baths, for Dr. Stockmann is sure to give a false view; they also claim he is trying to start a revolution in town. It is obvious that the citizens listen to Aslaksen and the Burgomaster and are swayed against the doctor and his findings.

Ibsen is clearly criticizing the power of the bureaucrats, who can easily sway the masses and swing public opinion in their favor. Although the authorities distort the facts and present a biased view, the public accepts them as leaders and listens to what they have to say.

Realizing that he will be unable to give a talk on the horrid conditions of the baths, Dr. Stockmann decides to give a talk on an entirely different subject. He alludes to the "colossal stupidity of the authorities," saying that they are all relics of a decaying order. Dr. Stockmann then embarks on debunking the myths surrounding the concept of democracy. He states that right is never on the side of the majority, which is made up of fools all over the world. He claims that the majority of citizens cannot see the truth, which must survive. The majority is also guilty of destroying spiritual life and should be "exterminated like vermin." "What does it matter," he says, "if a lying community is ruined!"

Dr. Stockmann's outburst is a reaction to the manipulative tactics adopted by persons like Hovstad, Aslaksen, and his brother. Even though it is replete with sarcastic remarks, his tirade is not unwarranted, and his motives are noble. He will not budge an inch on his stance to protect the general public. As a medical doctor, the health and lives of others are his primary concern. However, he is so disillusioned about his treatment that he indicates to the Captain that he may be interested in sailing with him to the New World with his family

.

Act V

Summary

This act opens with Dr. Stockmann in his study, which is in disarray. In a despondent mood, the doctor is piling up stones on the table as 'relics.' The stones are the ones pelted at him by the citizens; he plans to save them as "heirlooms," reminders for his children. Except for his family, the doctor is isolated in the town. All the persons who were previously associated with him have rejected him; they are influenced by public opinion and afraid of standing up to the masses. The landlord has given Dr. Stockmann notice to move out, and his daughter, Petra, has lost her job in the school.

Mrs. Stockmann enters and asks him whether the idea of going abroad is a wise one. Although Dr. Stockmann is not sure about the decision, he is certain that the conditions abroad will be more liberal than the ones in the town. He is determined that his children will not grow up in a society where "half of the population is stark- mad and the other half hasn't any wits to lose."

Horster barges in to inform the doctor that he has been dismissed for his association with him. However, he is hopeful of finding a berth with some other shipping company. Next the Burgomaster calls on Dr. Stockmann to hand over the dismissal order issued by the Director of the Baths. He refers to the circular sent by the Homeowners' Association, calling upon the citizens not to employ Dr. Stockmann. He suggests that his brother admit his error, express his regrets, and then leave town for a couple of months. If he issues a written apology, the Board may consider his reinstatement as Medical Officer after his return.

Dr. Stockmann refuses to listen to his brother. He wants to remain a free person and will not wallow in filth "like a cur." The Burgomaster reminds him that Morten Kiil, who has bequeathed his wealth to Dr. Stockmann's family, can revoke his will at any time. Dr. Stockmann points out

that Morten would never do that, for he is delighted to see him "fall foul of" the Burgomaster and his gang. The Burgomaster suspects that the whole affair pertaining to the baths is an intrigue concocted by Morten Kiil to gain vengeance on the leading persons of the Town Council. Dr. Stockmann is stunned at the accusation and calls his brother "the most abominable plebeian" he has ever known. The rift between the two brothers is complete.

Morten Kiil comes to talk to Dr. Stockmann. He shows him the shares in the bath he has bought with the money that would have gone to Katrina, Petra, and the boys after his death. He is upset that the doctor has stated that the filth from Kiil's tannery has contaminated the baths. Morten wants Dr. Stockmann to withdraw his allegation against him by two o'clock; if he fails to do so, all the shares of stock will be given to the hospital that.

Hovstad and Aslaksen enter as Morten Kiil leaves. They suspect that Dr. Stockmann and Morten Kiil have hatched a conspiracy to buy all shares of the baths at a low price. They suggest that the doctor should have done such a thing through someone "not so closely connected with him." They also state that they want to place the People's Messenger at the doctor's disposal, regardless of the public opinion. Again, they are thinking that the controversy will bring them readers. Dr. Stockmann flares up at the newsmen and brandishing his umbrella, he drives them out of his house.

Dr. Stockmann decides not to go abroad. He will stay in the town and carry on the fight until the end. He will not let himself be "beaten off the field by public opinion and the compact majority." He plans to start a school and teach the children how to grow into "free, high-minded persons." Petra agrees to help him with his effort. He tells his sons to bring in some street urchins so that he can experiment on them in his school. When the children grow into free and liberal thinkers, they can drive all the wolves from public life. At this thought, Dr. Stockmann experiences a strange sense of elation and is filled with strength. He now knows that "the strongest person in the world is he who stands most alone."

Notes

Dr. Stockmann finds himself isolated from society. The landlord wants to evict him and his family. Petra is dismissed from her school. His sons have a scuffle with their classmates. Even his friend Captain Horster is fired for supporting Dr. Stockmann.

The Burgomaster comes to call on his brother. He delivers an official letter from the Directors of the Baths dismissing Dr. Stockmann as the Medical Officer. He further informs his brother that directions have been given to the citizens warning them against using him as a physician. He suggests that his brother acknowledge his errors, express his regrets, and go away for about six months. The Burgomaster hints he may be reinstated if he follows this procedure. The brave doctor refuses to succumb to such threats and pressure tactics.

Dr. Stockmann is disgusted at his brother's "plebeian attitude;" he cannot believe that the Burgomaster tries to bargain with him about rescinding his charges against the baths and apologizing to the Board of Directors. The doctor knows that the Burgomaster is trying to make sure he can retain his position of power in the town. Similarly, the doctor is filled with revulsion at Morten Kiil's suggestion that he

exonerate him and his tannery from polluting the baths; he is further shocked that Kiil threatens him with giving his shares in the baths to the hospital if the doctor does not comply. His final shock comes when Hovstad and Aslaksen accuse him and Kiil of concocting the whole matter in order to corner all the shares in the baths. The doctor is so outraged at such a suggestion that he drives them out of his house with an umbrella. It is apparent that no one, except the noble doctor, is really interested in the welfare of society; they could care less if people get sick or die from visiting the baths.

This act presents the critical test of Dr. Stockmann's integrity, and he comes out on top. He gives up the idea of going away, stating that "the field of battle is here; the fight must be fought; here; I will conquer!" Horster stands by him and offers him his house to live in. The doctor decides to set up a school there in the very room where he was branded an enemy of the people. The school will be attended by his children and "street-curs," who will be taught how to become freethinking and liberal people. He hopes that some day these children will grow up and drive away the true enemies of the people - the corrupt bureaucrats. As Dr. Stockmann makes these plans, he feels he is the strongest person in the whole world; he loneliness and isolation have given him strength.

In this final act, Ibsen is again highlighting how persons in power can manipulate public opinion and the democratic process to serve their own self-interests. At one time, the whole town considered Dr. Stockmann a hero. Now, because of the corrupt and manipulative bureaucrats who want to protect their own reputations, no one will have anything to do with the doctor. Ibsen is full of praise for Stockmann, who dares to stand up against the Burgomaster's wicked tactics. He pictures him as a solitary fighter who is the strongest man in the town, if not the world.

OVERALL ANALYSES

CHARACTERS

Dr. Thomas Stockmann

Dr. Thomas Stockmann is the Medical Officer of the Baths and the brother of the Burgomaster (mayor) of the town. Jovial by nature, the doctor enjoys the company of "bright, cheerful, freedom loving young fellows" who share his idealism and ability to think freely. Stockmann also enjoys his comfortable life style, for in his younger days, he had done without, living on "starvation wages." Throughout the play, Stockman shows himself to be a conscientious person and a caring father.

Dr. Stockmann originally came up with the plans for the baths. When the Burgomaster and the Town Council became involved, the doctor's plans were not followed and short cuts were taken. In fact, the Burgomaster insisted that the baths and the pipes be placed exactly in their present location. The doctor grew suspicious about problems with the baths when he saw several sick patients. Through his own initiative, he tests the water and discovers that the baths, which supply much of the town's livelihood, are contaminated because of the faulty lying of the water pipes. He approaches the Burgomaster, who is also the Chairman of the Baths Committee, and reports the contamination and insists that the pipes be re-laid properly. He threatens to have his article about the baths printed in the local newspaper if corrective again is not immediately begun.

The Burgomaster insists that re-laying the pipes is out of the question because of the expense and the necessity of closing the baths for a period of approximately two years. As a result, Stockmann goes to the press and convinces Hovstad and Aslaksen to publish his charges against the baths. Aslaksen urges the doctor to proceed with moderation; that, however, is not Dr. Stockmann's style. When he believes in a cause, he charges forward with full force, especially when the public's health is at risk. He naively believes that all of the citizens will support him against the Burgomaster and Town Council. His enthusiasm is not even diminished when Hovstad and Aslaksen withdraw their support and refuse to publish his article or when the Burgomaster will not allow him to hold a citizens' meeting in any town hall. He merely states he will deliver his message to the citizens on every town corner.

It is not surprising that Dr. Stockmann, the idealist, is shocked when all of his supporters turn against him, swayed by the false statements of the Burgomaster who claims that re-laying the pipes will destroy the town economically. With fierce independence, the doctor speaks out against the authorities, who he claims are poisoning the sources of spiritual life, and accuses the citizen majority of being fools for following them. In return, the corrupt bureaucrats inflame the citizens against the doctor and have him declared an enemy of the people. He is so disgusted with the public's lack of concern over a health issue that he decides he will take his family and move to the New World, hoping to find a more liberal attitude there.

When the Burgomaster, Kiil, Hovstad, and Aslaksen try to manipulate him further, Dr. Stockmann decides to carry on the fight until the end, refusing to flee the town. Even though he and Petra lose their jobs, the landlord threatens to kick him and his family out of his house, and Kiil changes his will, he will not let the truth be killed by a 'conspiracy of silence.' Instead, he will open a school of his own, in the very spot where he was branded as an enemy of the people; there he will teach the children to think for themselves so they can know the truth and fight corrupt politicians. At the end of the play, Dr. Stockmann feels like the strongest man in the world, for he is brave enough to fight the dishonest and self- serving bureaucrats by himself.

Peter Stockmann (The Burgomaster)

Peter Stockmann, a bachelor, is Dr. Stockmann's elder brother. He has a sense of self-importance because he is the Burgomaster of the town and the Chairman of the Baths Committee. Proud and haughty, he brags about his accomplishments, especially his part in the construction of the baths, which have revitalized the economy of the town. He refuses to admit that his brother, Dr. Stockmann, is the one really responsible for the idea of the baths.

The Burgomaster is a conservative representative of the Old World order, who does not like change. Neither does he like his power to be challenged. He is furious to learn that his brother has tested the waters of the baths without consulting him; he is even angrier to learn that the negative report about the baths has been shared with others. The Burgomaster claims that leaking the news of the contamination to the public will economically destroy the town. He tries every tactic imaginable to silence Dr. Stockman, whom he believes to be "turbulent unruly and rebellious."

The Burgomaster proves himself to be a shrewd politician and a crafty manipulator. He is determined to prove the doctor's report false, for he does not want his power challenged or his own reputation tarnished. He smartly convinces Hovstad and Aslaksen, the newsmen, that the doctor's reports are false. He then hatches a secret plan to subvert Dr. Stockmann's plan in exposing the condition of the Baths and finally succeeds in having Dr. Stockmann declared as "an enemy of the people" by the citizens of the town.

The Burgomaster pretends to be concerned about the welfare of the townspeople; he says that the cost of the repairs and the closure of the baths for two years will financially destroy the majority of citizens. His approach is practical, revealing that he is shrewd enough to understand that people want to protect their own financial security. Unfortunately, his motives are evil. The Burgomaster knows that he is responsible for the faulty manner in which the water pipes were laid. He wants to save his own honor by suppressing the discovery made by Dr. Stockmann and turning the people against his brother. Even though he succeeds in his scheme, he cannot silence the independent doctor, who vows to fight the battle of the baths to then end. Although the Burgomaster has won the first battle, there is no indication he will win the bigger war.

Hovstad

Hovstad is the hypocritical editor of the People's Messenger, who claims that he wants to help "emancipate the downtrodden." In truth, his only concern is in capturing a story that will help to sell newspapers. He at first agrees to print the doctor's article about the contamination of the baths, for he feels the story will sell papers. When he is confronted by the Burgomaster, who tries to disprove the doctor's claims, Hovstad quickly abandons Dr. Stockmann and decides to print the Bugomaster's side in the paper, realizing it is the more popular view. Hovstad never wants to go against public opinion, for it could cost him readers.

Despite his words, Hovstad proves by his actions that he lacks a sense of independence. He is afraid to stand up to the Burgomaster; instead, he becomes his follower in accusing the doctor and helping to convince the citizens that Dr. Stockmann is indeed an enemy of the people. Hovstad also proves that he is an opportunist. He suspects that Morten Kiil is buying all the shares of the baths in collusion with Dr. Stockmann; he fears that the two men could someday control the town as a result. Therefore, he wants to appease the doctor and place the Messenger at his disposal. Dr. Stockmann is so appalled at his allegations and suggestions that he literally drives Hovstad out of his house with an umbrella. It is the proper treatment for such a hypocritical and manipulative man.

Aslaksen

Aslaksen is a wealthy man who has considerable clout in the town; since he finances the People's Messenger, he has ultimate control of what will be printed in the town. He is also the representative of the citizen majority, serving as the leader of the Homeowners' Association and the Temperance Society. His basic philosophy of life is to take a moderate approach to everything and to strive not to upset anyone. In fact, Aslaksen seeks to please all of the people all of the time.

At first Aslaksen supports Dr. Stockmann in the matter of baths, believing that the public will be harmed if the contamination is not corrected; but he cautions the doctor to proceed with caution and moderation in his approach to correcting the problem. Aslaksen does not want him to hurt the authorities or the citizens. In truth, Aslaksen is a "weak-kneed, half-hearted coward." When the Burgomaster claims that the doctor's article is false, Aslaksen, like Hovstad, quickly abandons the doctor to throw his support to the more popular viewpoint.

At the citizens' meeting, Aslaksen is elected Chairman and denies Dr. Stockmann the privilege of speaking about the contamination of the baths. He fails, however, to control Dr. Stockmann from lashing out at the corrupt bureaucrats who are led by the Burgomaster. He calls Aslaksen and the other leaders "social pests" and claims they are corrupting the moral values of society. Aslaksen then becomes instrumental in having the doctor declared an enemy of the people. At the end of the play, he fears that the doctor may regain power by buying all the shares of the bath stock with Kiil. As a result, he comes, with Hovstad, to try and placate Dr. Stockman. The doctor is furious at Aslaksen and drives him out of his home

.

Mrs. Stockmann

Mrs. Stockmann is depicted as a caring mother, a typical housewife, a good hostess, and a peacemaker. She diligently attends to all the guests who come to their home, including the Burgomaster, her brother-in-law. She is aware of the temperamental and philosophical differences between her husband and the Burgomaster, but she tries to get the two brothers to work together. She does not want her children to see the two men fighting or for them to be drawn into the politics of the town.

When the Burgomaster and Dr. Stockmann are at loggerheads on the issue of the baths, Mrs. Stockmann advises her husband not to antagonize the Burgomaster, whom she recognizes as a powerful person. When she points out that might is on the Burgomaster's side, her husband points out that right is on his side. Mrs. Stockmann replies rather knowingly and sarcastically, "Ah yes, right, right! What good does it do to have the right if you haven't any might?" She obviously is not as naïve as her husband.

Mrs. Stockmann constantly signals to her husband not to be carried away by his emotions, fearing that harm will come to her family. She takes it upon herself to go the newspaper office to plead with Hovstad not to print the doctor's article. Ironically, when she arrive, her husband is there and has just learned that his article will not be printed. She is saved the trouble of fighting with the editor.

Later in the play, when she sees how shabbily both the authorities and the citizens are treating her husband, she promises to support him whole heartedly in the issue of the baths. She knows that Dr. Stockmann is motivated by a concern for the health and welfare of the public while the Burgomaster and the Town Council are motivated by self-interests. As a result, she stands behind her husband and revives his flagging spirit, enabling him to carry on his struggle with renewed vigor.

PLOT (Structure)

The plot of An Enemy of the People is unified by time, place, and character. The entire play takes place in a small Norwegian town, largely in the home of the protagonist, Dr. Stockmann. All of the action takes place over the period of a few days, from the time the doctor confirms his suspicions about the contamination of the baths, through the time he is declared an enemy of the people, to the time he finally decides to stay in the town and fight the battle of the baths to its conclusion. The play centers around Dr. Stockmann, the central character and protagonist of the plot; except for the citizens, who are viewed as a whole (almost like a single character), there are few other characters introduced: the Burgomaster, Aslaksen, Hovstad, Billing, the Captain, Mrs. Stockmann, and Petra.

The plot of the play also develops along traditional lines. Act I serves largely as an introduction, where Ibsen presents the protagonist, Dr. Stockmann, and his problem, the battle with his brother over the baths. The rising action begins when the doctor insists that the Burgomaster re-lay the pipes to the baths in order to prevent the contamination; the Burgomaster flatly refuses, saying it is too costly to make the repairs and close the baths for two years. He also insists that the doctor remain silent about the problem, for the Burgomaster wants to protect his own reputation and interests. The rising action continues as the battle between the brothers heats up. At every step, Dr. Stockmann meets with frustration, for his brother prevents his article from being published, blocks him from holding a town meeting in any hall, and turns the citizens against him. The climax of the plot occurs when the Burgomaster succeeds in having the doctor officially declared an enemy of the people. The falling action shows the doctor contemplating fleeing the town, going to the new world to seek a more liberal and honest atmosphere. In the end, however, he decides to stay and fight the battle of the baths to its conclusion. The conclusion comes when Dr. Stockmann decides to open a school so that he can teach future generations to think freely for themselves and fight corruption in politics. It is the only element of hope in a tragic play, where Dr. Stockmann, the protagonist, is defeated by the Burgomaster, his antagonist.

THEMES

In An Enemy of the People, Ibsen vividly portrays the negative aspects of small-town politics where the majority of citizens are easily swayed by the controlling bureaucrats, who are often corrupt and self-serving. In contrast, he unifies the play by praising the responsibility and courage of Dr. Stockmann.

In the play Ibsen clearly criticizes the "compact majority," who often act foolishly in refusing to accept the truth and in blindly following their elected leaders. In contrast to the ordinary citizen, the doctor has the courage to stand up to the authorities. As a result, Ibsen uses Dr. Stockmann to voice many of his own opinions in the play. He portrays the doctor as a noble reformer who dares to fight rather than compromise his principles. In fact, Ibsen calls Stockmann the strongest man in the world for he stands alone to fight his battle with the authorities, never budging in his beliefs, his correctness of purpose, or his self-assurance.

Although An Enemy of the People is replete with sarcastic remarks about the compact majority, Ibsen is not attacking the concept of democracy. Instead, he levels his criticism upon the

unscrupulous leaders and their naïve followers. Because they have vested interests and secret agendas, the bureaucrats mislead and misguide the public in order to get what they want and to stay in power. Ibsen shows how such leaders make a mockery of democracy. Stockmann appropriately refers to them as a social pestilence.

Ibsen also regards people who advocate moderation as a way of life as social pests. He knows that moderation is meaningless when drastic measures are required to root out the evil that is corroding the society. Aslaksen is the symbol of moderation; he wants to please all the people all the time. As a result, he is fearful to take any stand, living on hypocrisy and lies. As Dr. Stockmann bluntly states, "I would rather ruin my native town than see it flourishing upon a lie." He even suggests that all persons who live upon a lie ought to be exterminated like vermin.

In the play and in life, Ibsen values the truth above everything. Dr. Stockmann is determined that the truth about the baths prevail in order to preserve the health and honor of the community. He states that suppression of truth is a "fraud, a lie, an absolute crime against the public, against society as a whole!" This is the key theme of Ibsen's An Enemy of the People.

IRONY IN THE PLAY

An Enemy of the people is a drama filled with irony that is largely built upon the contrasts between the Stockmann brothers. The Doctor is jovial by nature and likes to be surrounded by intelligent, cheerful, hard-working people. The Burgomaster is solemn and conservative, uncomfortable in the company of liberal minded people. The Burgomaster represents conventional world-order. Dr. Stockmann strives to bring about reforms that benefit society. The Burgomaster is highly conscious of his power and status. Dr. Stockmann is conscious of his duty as a citizen. The Doctor is a brave and noble person who can defy a mob consisting of moral cowards. The Burgomaster is a shred manipulator who can sway the mob to his side.

The irony of the play is that the good person, Dr. Stockmann, is the one branded as the enemy of the people. The doctor strives diligently throughout the play to expose the sordid condition of the baths so that people do not fall ill. For his efforts he is labeled as the enemy of the people, while his brother, the Burgomaster, is considered a hero for suppressing the truth.