An Australian Discussion MARITIME, DISCOVERY AND...
Transcript of An Australian Discussion MARITIME, DISCOVERY AND...
MARITIME, DISCOVERYAND PORTS
An Australian Discussion
Cassie Madden
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MARITIME, DISCOVERY AND PORTS: AN AUSTRALIAN
DISCUSSION
Author: Cassie Madden
EBook first distributed in 2017
Designed for Educational Use
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Acknowledgements
Thank you to all friends, family, and colleagues for your support, help and encouragement with
writing this mini book over the time I have been working on it.
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Sources
All the written sources used to gather information for this book are listed in the reference material
and further readings section. There are a lot of talented historians, researchers and writers out there
providing the world with interesting books about the maritime world and Australian history. If you are
interested in certain topics or areas of this eBook I highly recommend that you take a look at this
reference list of books and websites and go exploring.
In addition, a lot of the information is known to the author from traveling and visiting museums and
places to learn about the history over the last 4 years.
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CONTENTS
Acknowledgements................................................................................................................... ii
Sources ................................................................................................................................... iii
Chapter 1: An introduction ............................................................................................................ 1
Chapter 2: Indigenous Maritime .................................................................................................... 4
Chapter 3: European discovery ...................................................................................................... 9
Chapter 4: Australia’s maritime world from 1788 ......................................................................... 17
Chapter 5: Ports ......................................................................................................................... 23
New South Wales.................................................................................................................... 23
Tasmania ................................................................................................................................ 28
Queensland ............................................................................................................................ 30
Western Australia ................................................................................................................... 38
Victoria .................................................................................................................................. 41
South Australia ....................................................................................................................... 44
Northern Territory .................................................................................................................. 46
Chapter 6: The Future and Conclusions ........................................................................................ 49
References and Further Readings ................................................................................................ 51
Books and Articles................................................................................................................... 51
Websites ................................................................................................................................ 52
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TABLE OF IMAGES
IMAGE 2.A – RAFT 6
IMAGE 2.B – BARK CANOE 7
IMAGE 3.A MAP OF NEW HOLLAND – DUTCH DISCOVERIES 12
IMAGE 3.B MAP SHOWING THE EAST COAST 14
IMAGE 4. A ARRIVAL OF THE FIRST FLEET 18
IMAGE 5.A THE GAS WORKS AND INDUSTRY AT DARLING HARBOUR 25
IMAGE 5.B SYDNEY IN 1888 SHOWING DARLING HARBOUR 25
IMAGE 5.C PHOTO OF PORT KEMBLA FROM AFAR 27
IMAGE 5.D PHOTOGRAPH OF A PAINTING OF HOBART TOWN IN 1829 28
IMAGE 5.E IMAGE OF THE BRISBANE RIVER IN 1880 31
IMAGE 5.F AN EARLY PHOTO OF ABBOT POINT 33
IMAGE 5.G EARLY PHOTO OF THE BOWEN WHARFS 35
IMAGE 5. H EARLY PHOTOS OF FREEMANTLE HARBOUR 39
IMAGE 5.I EARLY SHIPPING AT PORT OF MELBOURNE 42
IMAGE 5.J PORTLAND HARBOUR IN THE 1900S 43
IMAGE 5.K HISTORICAL PORT ADELAIDE 44
IMAGE 5.L EARLY DARWIN JETTY AROUND 1900 47
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CHAPTER 1: AN INTRODUCTION
“The sea, once it casts its spell, holds one in its net of wonder forever”
Jacques Y Cousteau
The sea is a vast and wondrous place and part of Australia’s Island culture. Australia being an island
relies heavily on the sea to transport goods and services around the world. In addition, Australia is
responsible for looking after the sea, its reefs, fishing to provide food and sharing the sea with the
world. Australian’s love the beaches and live predominately around the coast in cities where ports are
constructed to provide for the people.
Even before European settlement the Indigenous Australian’s who lived along the coast relied on the
sea for fishing and trade with their northern neighbours. As an example, the Indigenous Australian’s
in the north traded with their Macassan and Papua New Guinea neighbours and had a complex trade
network across time and space. Indigenous Australians used the harbours to explore coastal
waterways and the sea to go fishing for a variety of marine life that provided them with an abundance
of food. Australia was an exciting place back then, just as today and we have a lot to learn from the
Indigenous Australians and their culture and understanding of the sea.
One question often asked by highly experienced researchers is just how the early Australian
inhabitants reach Australia in the first place? And although there has been a lot of debate about this
and what type of craft they used, the consensus is that they had ocean going rafts that enabled them
to paddle their way from Sulawesi and other island chains to northern Australia as far back as 60,000
to 40,000BP (Before Present). It can be proposed that people in prehistory had the skills to navigate
across bodies of open Ocean to get to their new and exciting destinations. This is certainly the case
with the Indigenous Australians.
Moving closer to the present day, it wasn’t until much later in the piece that explorers from distant
shores started traveling towards Australia. It has even been discussed that that the Chinese, Spanish
and Portuguese could have ‘discovered’ Australia before the Dutch and British. Seafarers in these
cultures were very advanced navigators during the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, so nothing is off limits.
Researchers have suggested that Portuguese and Spanish shipwrecks of galleons have been found
along the east coast and even the southern coast in Victoria. The Chinese also are said to have
discovered the coastal land of Australia in the 15th century, in fact some researchers have said even
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earlier than these timeframes. The Chinese were great star navigators and their ships called Junk’s
were known for their ocean going abilities. This is a very interesting supposition.
The Dutch discovered northern and western Australia in the 1600’s. In 1606 Willem Janszoon, a
captain working for the Dutch East India Company (VOC) sailed a ship named Duyfken from Banda,
Indonesia to find any trade opportunities south, and whilst exploring for this trade he discovered
Australia. Captain Janszoon set down near the town of Weipa and mapped the Gulf of Carpentaria,
Australia. And in 1616 his Dutch colleague, Dirk Hartog had discovered parts of the western coast of
Australia. Hartog mapped part of the coast and today has an island named after him, Dirk Hartog
Island. The Dutch were also noted for other explorers who sailed the length of the Western Australia
coast and beyond, including Frederick de Houtman, Abel Tasman and Willem De Vlamigh. Abel Tasman
had discovered the southern coast of Tasmania. The Dutch even today, are extremely talented
seafarers and navigators.
The British too had many famous explorers who set up camp in Australia and navigated along its
remarkable shores. William Dampier was one such explorer. He was able to circumnavigate the oceans
three times and during his adventures explored the western Australian coastline previously explored
by the Dutch, writing about his interesting discoveries and naming places along the way. One of the
most famous explorers is Captain James Cook who discovered parts of the east coast of Australia in
his ship the Endeavour. During his first voyage in 1770, he discovered many places along the east coast
including, Botany Bay, 1770 and Cooktown. He had contact with the Gweagal people south of Sydney
and when passing through the Great Barrier Reef he ran aground and had to make major repairs. He
was a talented navigator and explorer. These explorations by cook, gave rise to the idea of colonising
the east coast of Australia and in 1788 Captain Arthur Phillip and the first fleet, full of sailors, civil
officers and convicts, sailed to and established a penal settlement at port Jackson. This was the starting
point of the British settlement and establishment of a colony in Australia.
What these early discoveries have shown is that the Australian people are a very hardy bunch and the
coast and the sea holds a significance. If it was not for humans being brave and curious Australia might
be very different today. Seafarers, both historic peoples and more recent explorers, were very brave
risking ocean crossings not knowing what lay ahead of them or if they would even survive and that is
an amazing achievement. As in all history, not all history is good and not all bad but it is our history.
When Australia was explored by European settlers they needed harbours to dock their ships, receive
and send supplies, and make any ship repairs. This was the start of harbour development in Australia.
Without harbours and ports shipping would be impossible. In Sydney, we had the port of Darling
harbour that was a working port with wharfs and shipyards. Sea trade was extremely important to the
early European settlers as it had been to the First Australians, and the whole Sydney foreshore was
used for maritime activities, transport, fishing, and trading.
Once Australia began its expansion of new colonies across the length and breadth of the continent,
coastal areas were selected for and ports to be developed. Bays that allowed the ships to be protected
from the elements were a natural selection for decision makers. With the first penal colonies, ports
were needed for convict transport and receiving goods to start towns and receive supplies to feed
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themselves. Commerce developed around these new towns, were ship building, trade and commercial
pursuits were embraced by the talented townsmen. In regional coastal areas in states and territories
of Australia, ports were developed specifically for the export of resources gathered from the land or
sea and resources from farming. As an example, the export of meat, wool and later iron ore and coal
to name a few, became the reasons to build ports so companies on behalf of communities could share
these resources with the world for a fee.
It is interesting to look back and see just how the ports themselves evolved and how Australia
developed to become the country it is today. Ports will continue to evolve as will shipping, as new
technologies and innovations are developed the way we do shipping and trade with the world will
change. Australia being a dot on the globe and part of a large globalisation movement, will continue
to move forward and change in the maritime world. This book is a brief glimpse into Australia’s
maritime past.
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CHAPTER 2: INDIGENOUS MARITIME
“The true adventurer goes forth aimless and uncalculating to meet and greet unknown fate” O. Henry
Around 60,000BP the first people arrived in Australia. They had traversed far distances over many
generations to reach the Australian continent. The question remains, how did they arrive in Australia
as they had to successfully navigate over ocean? This question is discussed to this day. Crossing over
the sea in order to reach the island continent was a big feat for anyone. It would have taken bravery,
especially when they did not know what lay ahead. Even if they could see birds flying or could see
smoke from distant islands, or see the islands from afar, they had no knowledge of what they had to
expect when they arrived. Would they have a food supply? What would be safe to eat? Then there
was the large megafauna unique to the Australian mainland that they would encounter upon their
arrival. These and many more questions were unknown’s to the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders.
They were a very adventurous and skilled group of people.
It is believed that they came across the island chains near Sulawesi or Timor, coming originally from
the China region, as the sea levels were much lower around 60,000 years ago. Having lower sea levels
meant, there were additional islands and land and that the distance between each of these islands
and land masses was as low as 90 to 110km, and that made sea crossings easier. If coming via Sulawesi,
the first people would arrive in Papua New Guinea (PNG) and come south to Australia over land, as
PNG was connected to Australia via land at that time in history. If they had come via islands
surrounding Timor, they would arrive in northern Western Australia. Both of these routes are viable.
They could have arrived in different journeys over a prolonged timeframe.
Then the next question is what vessels did they use to reach Australia? Indigenous people were known
to use bark canoes along the coast for fishing. Did they use these bark canoes to hop across the islands
to reach Australia that far back in history? These canoes were sewn together and had ribbing to make
them stronger and for buoyancy. It was possible that the first people used these vessels to reach
Australia and then continued to use them throughout history. However, these were not designed for
sea voyages. It could also be that they used rafts to navigate to Australia. Josephine Flood in her book
‘Archaeology of the dreamtime’ mentions they may have used a light double raft made of mangrove
wood or bamboo. This raft was light and enabled the people to travel over ocean with less opportunity
for their raft to soak up too much water and sink.
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No matter how they reached Australia, they did and they were brave in doing so. They had the
knowledge to travel on small wooden craft and travel over the ocean to reach new islands and the big
continent, Australia. At a time in history when it is believed that other cultures are not venturing very
far at all the first Australian’s had discovered a continent on the other side of the world.
When they reached Australia they slowly dispersed throughout the continent. The Indigenous peoples
make up over 250 cultural groups with varying languages and culture. And they traded with each
other. The coastal people had different types of vessels they used to navigate rivers, and coastal
oceans for fishing, trading goods and navigating their way to visible islands. After the sea receded, the
land linking PNG to the Australian mainland became islands that were populated by the Torres Strait
islanders, who had connections to the Papuan’s. Living on islands gave them even more extensive
knowledge of the sea and they navigated between the islands to trade goods including those they
farmed.
The types of watercraft the different Indigenous tribes used varied depending on their location, their
need, and cultural influences. Culture’s that were living on islands needed more knowledge of ocean
navigation than Indigenous peoples relying on fishing in harbours and lakes for example. Also, the
northern Australian’s were influenced by other cultures later on in the piece, such as the Macassan
traders.
How do we know what types of watercraft the first people used? The first Australian’s kept their
culture and canoe making alive, and there are stories and rock art to help assist Archaeologists
understand prehistoric maritime culture. Indigenous groups painted images of their boats on rocks in
caves and their descendants looked after those sacred images that have helped modern day
historians, researchers, archaeologists and the first people themselves understand their maritime
past. Trees also show the Archaeologists what types of bark canoes the first Australian’s made, by the
scaring on the trees. When the people’s cut out their bark canoes from a tree it left a scar on that tree.
This is a fantastic way to see what size of craft, what materials and where they were making these
vessels.
Firstly, let us explore their rafts. Logs were tied together using bark or rope to form rafts. It was these
rafts that were used to paddle to islands, across rivers and to gather food supplies. The paddles they
used were also made of the local timbers. A raft suited its purpose. It enabled people a means of
transport across water, for fishing and trade. These rafts were made out of local light times, including
mangroves. Some were a few logs tided together, while others were double rafts, two rafts one on
top of the other and lashed together to make them stronger (see the image over the page as an
example). These double lashed rafts were mentioned as possibly being used for longer distance sea
travel and for reaching Australia.
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Image 2.A – Raft Taken by Dr Herbert Basedow in 1916, courtesy of the National Museum Australia
http://www.nma.gov.au/kspace/teachers/kimberley/learning/aboriginal
In areas along the east and west coast the Indigenous peoples used bark canoes. The outer layer, the
bark, of a tree was cut away and shaped into a canoe. In some cases, fire was used to shape the canoe
at each end. The fire made the ends easier to bend and shape and tie with bark rope. Also, to
strengthen the canoe ribbing, pieces of wood, were placed across the canoe. It has been noted that
in Northern Queensland the first people would sew the ends of their bark canoes to strengthen their
canoes and make them more seaworthy to travel to islands. These bark canoes were built for a
temporary purpose, to fish and traverse waterways to reach destinations. When they had finished
with the bark canoe they could leave it and if needed later on build another one.
These canoes were a great example of Indigenous Australian’s ability to use the environment and
natural resources around them in a very sustainable way. The only took a small portion of the tree,
leaving the remainder to live and grow. A picture of one of these bark canoes is exhibited below.
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Image 2.B – Bark Canoe Bark canoe from Victoria in 1850 using some modern materials, metal. Image courtesy of Museum
Victoria https://museumvictoria.com.au/treasures/collDetails.aspx?pid=34
In addition to the bark canoes, the communities from northern Australia had seen and had inter
relations with the traders from Makassar, Indonesia. The Macassan’s with their ships called Perahu,
their trading practices and culture, had taught the first Australian’s many things. The first Australian’s
traded with them, married them, learned from them and taught the Macassan’s about their culture
as well. It was a good two way relationship for the most part. The Macassan traders were in the
northern Australian water’s searching for pearl, fish and the sea cucumber, also known as bêche-de-
mer and trepang. The Macassan’s shared with the first Australian’s their maritime skill of fishing and
boat building. They taught the Indigenous people about the dugout canoe and turning it into an
outrigger. These boats may have also been shared with the First Australian’s from Papuan’s, either
way the sharing of boat building technology enabled for shipping developments and changes to take
place.
A dugout canoe is exactly what it sounds like, a log is shaped and carved to form a canoe. In more
detail, a tree is cut down and the log of the tree is shaped on the outside and the inside is cut away to
form a space for the mariner to sit in the boat. A dugout canoe was relatively fast to construct and
more sturdy for the Indigenous Australian’s to use at sea for fishing big terrestrial species, the dugong
is one example. They used a variety of trees that were softwood and could be shaped and the trees
they did used varied by their location and what they had available to them.
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These dugouts had outriggers added to them. An outrigger canoe has wooden floats on one or both
sides of the canoe to provide additional stability and helped in longer sea voyages from the mainland
to the islands. The wooden supports are lashed to the dugout canoe using wood and bark rope. These
were used for fishing and helped in gathering larger sea life, including turtles and dugongs. The
support helped in bad weather and to make the canoe easier to navigate.
Irrespective of the boats the first people’s used, they had ties with the sea and the lakes and rivers
and used various types of boats to travel and explore. The sea, rivers and lakes provided the people
with a valuable source of nutritious food. The freshwater lakes also provided the people with a water
supply allowing them to explore inland.
In addition to the boats the first Australian’s also interacted with the sea from the shore. There are
various shell middens scattered along the Australian coastline showing how the first people would
camp along the shore and catch oysters and eat them on the beaches and discard the shells. These
shell middens help the Archaeologists understand trade, travel, fishing and other factors. These places
hold significance to the Indigenous people and show a history of their culture and ties to the sea and
harbours. The Indigenous people also established stone fishing traps to catch and keep fish. They built
elaborate stone structures around the shore so the fish would swim into the stone structures and be
trapped. They were trapped by lower water tides or the Indigenous people would cover the entrance
of the stone traps with more stone so the fish could not get away. It was an ingenious way to catch
fish and keep the fish for later use and shows the in-depth knowledge of the sea and fishing.
Furthermore, they also used the dolphins to help round up the fish into the traps or to the shore. They
sang to the dolphins who would see schools of fish and drive them towards to shore where they would
be trapped. This arrangement was collaboration at its best, the humans and dolphins helping each
other gather food. These are a few of the wonderful examples of how the first Australian’s interacted
with the sea and had detailed knowledge developed over an extended timeframe.
What we have had a glimpse at here is the rich maritime history of the first Australian people. They
had a clear link to the sea. They interacted with the sea and it incorporated into their culture. So many
unique and exciting stories throughout Australia exist of the first people’s interactions with the sea.
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CHAPTER 3: EUROPEAN DISCOVERY
“The real voyage of discovery consists not in seeking new landscapes, but in having new eyes.” Marcel Proust
The English had in mind to go exploring to see what vast distant lands lay ahead that they could use
and colonise. Most importantly, exploration would give them knowledge about other cultures, lands
and the world. When Captain James Cook and Sir Joseph Banks came back from their adventures with
stories of a distant land to the south in the 1770’s, this started the course of history that has formed
the reality of today. The vast and different environmental surroundings that Banks had come across
in his travels made the British curious. They had overpopulation, their gaols were full and exploding
onto Prison hulks in the Thames. The British were using prisoner hulks, repurposed ships, to house the
overabundance of criminals. It has to be remembered what was considered criminal was different
back then. If you were caught stealing, today you might just be given a slap on the wrist and a small
fine, back then would get you 7 years imprisonment or more. Mixed in with the petty thieves were
the murderers. Also, the living conditions were harder in 18th Century Britain, for the working class
food was scarce and people were starving hungry and not always able to work. Jobs may not have
been available or the jobs were not paying much money and therefore it was very difficult to live. It
was a tough time and the penalties much harsher for all.
But let’s go back even further in history before we delve into the exciting history of British exploration
to Australia. Other maritime cultures were also exploring the worlds vast and distance oceans, and
mapping lands as they saw them for the first time. People were, as they are today, curious and wanted
to know what lay around the corner and they also wanted land to claim to expand their empires and
have trading partners. When you have talented mariners coming back telling stories of what they have
seen and experienced it must of sounded exciting and like something out of a story book, a curiosity
for the people of the day.
The Chinese in the 1400’s were great traders and navigators. They had large sailing ships called Junk’s.
These ships were often built of soft pliable wood, such as pine, they were extremely sturdy, and had
rotatable sails that allowed the ships to effectively sail into the wind. Junk’s also had watertight bulk
heads that added an element of safety to their ships that helped their many successful sea voyages.
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Did the Chinese reach Australia? Did they explore Australia? Gavin Menzies is his book ‘1421, the year
China discovered the world’ indicates that the Chinese discovered and explored the east coast of
Australia under the emperor Zhu Di. Here, Menzies believes that historic maps such as the Dieppe
map provide evidence the Eastern coast of Australia was mapped before Cook, and that it was the
Chinese who mapped it. The Dieppe Map shows an unknown southern land mass to the south under
Java called Jave La Grande, that Menzies believes proves the Chinese discovery and that Jave La
Grande was a representation of Australia.
A lot of the evidence of what we know about the rediscovery of Australia by various cultural groups,
comes down to us via oral traditions, artefacts, genetics and drawings, which include maps. If we do
not have any written documented evidence then we are left to rely on other evidence that can be
hard to know the context or prove its reliability. Oral traditions are a fantastic way to delve into the
history of a culture and give us a fantastic starting point in any research project. If artefacts are out of
situ then that can bring with it challenges with proving its authenticity.
The Dieppe Maps for example were written in French and Portuguese. Where did the French get the
idea of a vast continent to the south called Jave La Grande? Research varies, some indicating it was a
fictitious island, others indicate its mapping from French discoveries of exploration as they were keen
explorers too, and some say it was from Portuguese explorers who gave that information to the
French. Not to mention Gavin Menzies’ idea that the map was developed from Chinese maps and their
discoveries and information. The maps and the large vast continent that the Europeans were
envisioning in the south was an interesting concept indeed.
The Portuguese and Spanish were also believed to have reached Australia pre Cook. They were
extremely talented seafarers during the 15th and 16th century and beyond and were out trading and
exploring the unknown oceans and lands. There are reported sightings of shipwrecked galleons, along
the eastern and southern coast of Australia that could be either Spanish or Portuguese. One example,
is the Stradbroke Island galleon researched by Greg Jefferies. The wreck of a galleon is believed to be
located in a swamp that is very difficult to access on Stradbroke Island near Brisbane in Australia. With
this wreck, artefacts have been found including a coin and a mast head that show evidence of a
shipwreck being in that location. In addition, it was suggested that the survivors of that wreck stayed
and intermixed with the local Indigenous population. Other similar wrecks have been reported
including one at Warrnambool. It is extremely challenging to prove these wrecks are galleons and their
full authenticity, when they are difficult to access and have been wrecked for a very long time
undergoing natural deterioration. What we can see here is the Spanish and Portuguese were talented
seafarers and could have been to Australia prior to Cook.
Many Melanesians and pacific Islanders had been exploring the vast oceans of the pacific and it is not
impossible that other cultures from all around the world were not exploring as well. Our
understanding of our ancestor’s seafaring is that they had boats that were not seaworthy, or that they
did not explore the oceans of the world. There were waves of exploration and population in different
areas of the world. It is certainly an interesting area of study. What we do know is that the Spanish
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and Portuguese were present in the northern waters of Australia in the 16th century and there is every
possibility they explored beyond in the south.
Now we move to the Dutch and their explorations around the Australian coast. The Dutch had set up
the Dutch East India Company (VOC) for the trading of spices. VOC had set up a company trading
centre in Java and from their Java trading centre they sent their seafarers south to discover trade
opportunities and to explore a land that was titled Nova Guinea. That is when in 1606, Willem
Janszoon, the captain of the Duyfken, meaning little dove, sailed south and discovered the north of
Australia in the Gulf of Carpentaria. The Duyfken anchored at the Pennefather River along the coast
north of modern day Weipa. From there Janszoon sailed south to a place called Cape Keerweer,
anchored and met some Indigenous Wik people in order to make contact and trade. There he came
into conflict with them as his men tried to take a Wik women. Janszoon lost nine of his crew, turned
around and sailed back to Bantam, Java. Janszoon had discovered northern Australia and did not
realise it. He did not know that Australia was a separate continent from PNG at this point in time as
he did not sail through the Torres Strait.
Following on from this 1606 discovery the Dutch had many more to come. They had a talented bunch
of navigators and seafarers who were able to explore even more parts of the Northern and Western
Australia coastlines. In 1616 Dirk Hartog a Dutch explorer working for VOC was on his way to Java in a
ship called the Eendracht and was blown off course and as a result he and his crew discovered the
western coast of Australia, Dirk Hartog Island and the Shark Bay area. Hartog and crew set anchor for
two days and then sailed north, and in the process mapped the west coast of Australia. Dirk Hartog
left a plate on the Dirk Hartog Island marking his visit. The Eendracht was built in 1615, was a 700
tonne vessel and could hold under 200 men on board. Being blown off course resulted in the
exploration and charting of a large section of the Australian Continent and it has brought many
benefits for latter sailors and explorers who were now aware of the western Australia coast line.
The Dutch mariners working for VOC continued to travel and discover. In 1619 the Dutch explorer
Fredrick De Houtman and his companions including, Jacob D’Edel discovered the coast near Perth on
the western coast of Australia. Houtman was travelling for VOC in the ship called Dordrecht. This area
around Perth and Swan River was named d’Edelsland. Houtman continued to travel north and mapped
areas of the coast of Western Australia on his Journey. Here we can see segments of the Western
Australian coastline being mapped by Dutch mariners as they went along their shipping journeys. Each
mariner contributed to the larger body of knowledge about the new land coming into view.
The mapping of Australia continued under Abel Tasman who discovered the south of Tasmania and
the northern coast of Australia from the west all the way to the Gulf of Carpentaria. In 1642 Tasman
set sail in charge of two ships to explore the oceans and it is in his first voyage that he discovered the
southern coast of Tasmania. Then in his second voyage in 1644 he sailed along the northern coast of
Australia, including the top end of Western Australia, the Northern Territory and The Gulf of
Carpentaria that had been earlier charted by Willem Janszoon. Abel Tasman had called this new land
that the Dutch had mapped, New Holland and it was appearing on maps in the mid 1600’s. Even if
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parts of Australia had been mapped by even earlier explorers the Dutch had left plaques noting their
discoveries.
Here there were many Dutch mariners who each contributed to the charting and exploration of
Australian waters. This book is doing a disservice only mentioning the better known explorers.
However, let it be known that the Dutch VOC explorer’s contributed knowledge about the Australian
coastline and its environment that would not necessarily have been known otherwise. They were
extremely skilled navigators, explorers and were willing to chart their course into the unknown for the
company VOC. A map of their discoveries of New Holland is included (see 3.A).
Image 3.A Map of New Holland – Dutch Discoveries Map created in 1744 for VOC by Emanuel Bowen, curtesy of the National Library
http://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-163902730/view
With the west coast of Australia mapped, the British were aware of a large land mass to the south.
The Dutch had provided them with details about the West and northern coast of Australia, and the
Spanish about the Torres Strait. Next it was William Dampier a British mariner who went on to explore
the oceans around Australia.
William Dampier was born in 1651 in East Coker, Somerset. His main achievements were that he
circumnavigated around the world three times and learned about the currents and wind patterns as
well as describing the plants and animals he passed. He was a buccaneer and was rather harsh on his
crew. Dampier had reached Australia in 1688 as a buccaneer on the Cygnet. In relation to his
exploration of New Holland, in 1699 he was put in charge of a ship the Roebuck to explore New Holland
where he reached Shark’s Bay and described it as:
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“The land everywhere appeared pretty low, flat and even: but with steep cliffs to the sea; and when
we came near it there were no trees, shrubs or grass to be seen.” William Dampier – Voyage of New
Holland (Australia).
Then further in his book indicating:
“When I saw there was no harbour here, nor good anchoring, I stood off to sea again, in the evening
of the second of August fearing a stop on a lee shore, in a place where there was no shelter, and
desiring at least to have sea-room: for the clouds began to grow thick in the western board, and
the wind was already there, and began to blow fresh almost upon the shore; which at this places
lies north-north-west and south-south-east”. William Dampier – Voyage of New Holland
During William Dampier’s time at Shark Bay and exploring the coast of New Holland, he noted that it
was rather flat and sandy. Also, he took note and wrote about the animals and plant life that existed
in the area. Seeing birds and animals you have never seen before must have been an interesting event
for mariners where they described them in relation to animals and plants they were familiar with and
had seen at home or along their oceanic voyages.
In addition to William Dampier’s observations about the animal and plant life, he also came into
contact with the Indigenous Australians on his 1688 voyage and on his 1699 voyage. On the 30th of
August 1699, Dampier and his crew could see smoke upon the shore indicating people were there
camping. So when Dampier and crew went to the shore on the 31st of August to look for water they
took their cutlasses and muskets with them and there was some fighting. One of Dampier’s
descriptions of the first people is:
“Among the New Hollanders whom we were thus engaged with, there was one who by his
appearance and carriage, as well in the morning as this afternoon, seemed to be the chief of
them, and a kind of prince or captain among them. He was a young brisk man, not very tall, nor
so personable as some of the rest, though more active and courageous: he was painted (which
not of the rest were at all) with a circle of white paste or pigment about his eyes, and a white
streak down his nose from his forehead to the tip of it. And his breast and some part of his arms
were also made white with same paint; not for beauty or ornament, one would think, but as
some wild Indian warriors are said to do, he seemed thereby to design the looking more terrible;
this his painting adding very much to his natural deformity; for they all had the most unpleasant
looks and the worst features of any people that ever I saw, thought I have seen great variety of
savages”. William Dampier – Voyage of New Holland.
This description of the first people was not of very nice character and could have impacted on the
European’s and British impressions of the people and what they imagined. Dampier was making
judgements on the people based on his own world view and what he had seen and experienced in his
travels. To him, he was used to the European way of life and meeting people’s living differently was
something out of his understanding. He was making judgements about a culture he did not know or
understand.
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The information provided by Dampier about the winds, New Holland, the birds, and fish gave
information to the British for their further explorations leading to the eventual settlement of a penal
colony in New South Wales in 1788.
Captain James Cook was an English explorer and talented navigator born in Yorkshire in I728. He
started his career as a sea cadet in Whitby. But it was later on in his career that he was commissioned
by the royal British navy to find the unknown southern continent and as a result of trying to find this
continent, he travelled to the pacific and found and then charted the East coast of Australia. On the
south side of the continent, there were earlier maps called the Dieppe Maps, that showed a land mass
called Jave La Grande. This landmass on the maps supported the claim for earlier discoveries of
Australia. In addition, the Dutch had mapped the west coast of Australia and southern Tasmania. The
British knew there was land to the south and were interested in exploring this area further and to lay
claim to the land.
In 1770, Captain Cook on board the Endeavour, discovered the southern end of the east coast of
Australia. He was joined by the botanist Joseph Banks who had paid 10,000 pounds to be on the
journey. Captain Cook, sailed the Endeavour north along the east coast, mapping it, until he reached
a place to anchor. This place to anchor was in a harbour and was named Botany Bay. The crew on
board the Endeavour disembarked at Botany Bay for eight days, where Banks and the crew discovered
over 130 new species of plants. Captain Cook, had mapped a coast line that was believed to not have
been mapped previously. It helped complete the map the Dutch had created. Cook claimed land for
the British.
Image 3.B Map Showing the East Coast A 1818 map showing New Holland with the East Coast of Australia, http://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-
232568848/view
15
In addition to mapping the east coast, Cook and Banks were able to return to England and report their
many findings. These findings informed the English of a land to the south that many years later they
were to colonise with convicts. The British were overcrowded and had resulted to housing their
convicts on prison hulks and were looking for new lands to expand and send their convicts. These
Prison Hulks were old ships no longer fit for purpose to provide transportation and gun power at war,
so they were repurposed to house the over and abundance of convicts. These hulks were not nice
places to be housed. They would have been crowed, cold and a place full of disease. The convicts in
these hulks were to be transported, some for 7 years and others for life. Therefore, the British needed
somewhere to send these convicts. Why did they choose the land discovered to the south?
The British were considering were to send their abundance of convicts and Banks recommended,
Botany Bay. Convicts were being sent to the America’s but after the United States’ independence the
British had to find an alternative location to send them. The British did not rule America anymore. Sir
Joseph Banks had spent time exploring the land around Botany Bay, taking note of the plant life, the
inhabitants and state of the land and had presented a case to the British government. Therefore, the
British having explored other options for settlement decided on sending their convicts to Australia,
Botany Bay. The prime minister, William Pitt agreed and they selected Captain Arthur Philip to lead
the voyage. Could the reason for the decision to move their convicts to Botany Bay also be because of
Trade and economics? Having a colony closer to other trading countries, such as China, would, given
the chance, increase economic prosperity.
On the 13 May 1787 the first fleet, led by Captain Arthur Philip, set sail from Portsmouth with a fleet
of 11 ships bound for Botany Bay. Of the 11 ships, 6 were to transport the convicts, 3 for supplies, and
2 navy ships. The 6 convict ships were called, Alexander, Friendship, Charlotte, Lady Penhryn, Prince
of Wales and Scarborough. The number on board all ships in total was around 1,485 with babies born
on the voyage. This number consisted of naval officers, wives, officials, passengers, convicts and
children born. It was a big feat as they had limited knowledge of what lay ahead of them when they
arrived in Botany Bay. The ships were cramped, the convicts stowed in cells beneath with the rotting
smells wafting around the ships and they were susceptible to disease. The convicts were allowed walks
on deck for fresh air. Setting up a penal settlement was an experiment and colonisation of great
proportions. Imagine sending over a thousand people cramped in ships to the unknown. During the
long voyage, the fleet stopped off at Rio de Janeiro and Cape Town. The fleet arrived at Botany Bay in
January 1788, but found it not suited for purpose and set anchor at Sydney Cove, Port Jackson instead.
They had enough supplies for 2 years.
If we take a look at one of the 11 ships, Charlotte, a convict transport ship, it was 335 Tons, 105ft feet
long and 28 ft. wide and housed 84 male convicts and 24 female convicts as well as the crew. The ship
had 2 decks and 3 masts and was led by Captain Thomas Gilbert. It was a long journey, with the ship
travelling over 20,000 kilometres.
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For the convicts on board the vessels it would have been a relatively uncomfortable voyage. They were
cramped, being sent miles from their homeland, they had to be tough as nails to survive. The women
especially would have had it tough, with debauchery, and living in such harsh conditions, firstly on
board the ship and then when they arrived in the new colony. A new life for them, but was it better
or worse than back in their homeland? The conditions in England were miserable but to them being
sent to the other side of the world was not a good choice either.
The arrival of the first fleet was the beginnings of the British colony in Australia. They had a harbour,
supplies, and convicts. They had to make the most of their new settlement. What would have
happened if the first fleet never arrived in Australia? We will never know, but the rich and dynamic
maritime culture that developed will now be explored.
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CHAPTER 4: AUSTRALIA’S MARITIME WORLD FROM
1788
“Life is about courage and going into the Unknown” The secret life of Walter Mitty
The English first fleet after a long voyage had arrived in Port Jackson. Port Jackson is a harbour just
north of Botany Bay, the original site proposed by Sir Joseph Banks. Within, the harbour of Port
Jackson lies Sydney Cove where Captain Arthur Phillip walked ashore and planted the flag for England
on the 26th January 1788. Sydney Cove is named after the British Politician and Viscount Sydney,
Thomas Townshend, and is the present day site of Circular Quay and on its left is the city of the Rocks
that contains some of Sydney’s oldest European history, such as Cadman’s cottage. Port Jackson was
chosen for the founding settlement as it provided a sheltered cove for ships and it provided a fresh
water stream, Tank Stream that today flows under Sydney.
In 1788 when Captain Arthur Philip arrived, the cove was home to the first Australians. The tribes of
Eora people had clans that each lived and owned a unique area of the harbour and tributaries, with
land and water boundaries. These clans used the harbour to fish and trade with their neighbours and
relied on it for sustenance. The harbour provided the Indigenous people with a supply of different
species of fish, including snapper and Brim, and shellfish.
These Indigenous people were impacted deeply by the arrival of the first fleet. They had people arrive
who they did not know and they contracted diseases that they held no immunity. It must have been
terrifying for the First Australians to lose their land, get sick and meet a people from a distant shore
who they, at first, could not communicate with.
When the British arrived they set up their new town in Sydney Cove and they were completely
unfamiliar with their new surroundings. The newcomers had to rely on trade coming by ship from
distant shores to provide a lot of their supplies. Trade and shipping were extremely vital for their
survival. Sydney cove was a prominent feature of this trading, allowing for the safe harbour for ships
importing foods, and later on exporting local products including wool. Below is a painting of the arrival
of Captain Arthur Philip.
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Image 4. A Arrival of the First Fleet Algernon Talmadge 1937 Oil Sketch Copy curtesy of State Library of New South Wales
http://www2.sl.nsw.gov.au/archive/discover_collections/history_nation/terra_australis/firstfleet.ht
ml
The convicts were set to work when they arrived in Sydney Cove putting up tents for their new town
and exploring their new surroundings. The rocks, a place for the convicts to live in the first instance,
was built on the western side of Sydney Cove. Having the shore provided a natural barrier for any
convicts who wanted to escape.
The fleet after two years of trying to make the colony work, were deemed a success and joined by the
second fleet that consisted of both convicts and free settlers who went on to farm the surrounding
lands that provided food for the colony and also opportunities to trade those goods. The expansion
continued until cities were formed in other parts of Australia, Hobart being the next city after Sydney.
The British did not want other countries to claim their newly declared territory.
It has to be remembered that shipping was the main form of transportation for the colonies. There
were no trains, buses or other means of transport. Australia is such a vast country that traversing
across its centre takes courage and as the colonies expanded explorers started doing just that,
traversing across the middle of the land. But shipping was still a mainstay for Australia and its trade
with the world just as today.
Even in Port Jackson, known today as Sydney Harbour, ferries and water transport was the quickest
and sometimes the only way to get around. As the colony expanded they used boats to settle other
areas of Sydney harbour and travel up the Parramatta River and Hawksbury River.
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If we look at Cadman’s cottage in Sydney Harbour, which used to be on the shoreline, we get a glimpse
at the importance of the maritime culture for Sydney. The cottage was built in 1816 and is the oldest
building remaining in Sydney. Its purpose was to house the superintendent for Government Boats.
This honour was held by a pardoned convict, John Cadman. After his death the building was used by
the Sydney water police and later on for visiting mariners.
Fort Denison, previously called pinchgut island, was another maritime installation. It was used as an
even further means of isolation for misbehaving convicts who were sent to the island and had nothing
but surrounding harbour. Then later on a military installation was constructed on the island for
defences of the harbour in war.
The colony expanded beyond Sydney cove to Darling Harbour, then called Cockle bay due to the large
quantity of cockles in the area. Johnson and Parris in ‘a History of Darling Harbour’, mention that
shipbuilding was a major industry around the area. Of interest is a female convict named Ann Mash,
who was the local ferry operator and many of her family also went into maritime pursuits, including
shipbuilding. In the 1870’s shipping and trade had moved from Sydney cove to Darling Harbour. Even
prior to this, the area’s surrounding Darling Harbour, Ultimo for example, had become centres of the
industrial power and were expanding.
Over a short period of time, the city of Sydney had changed from a small convict settlement to a
thriving metropolis continuously expanding. Looking at Sydney today, it is impossible to see the very
first settlement that the first fleet would have experienced, but we get glimpses at their past through
buildings, places, stories, written records, artefacts and art.
The city of Sydney was expanding and the British were continuing to send their convicts to provide
additional labour to the expanding colony. The British had started expanding the newly claimed colony
and sent sea transport to explore other coastal areas for settlement.
In 1803, the British fearing the French would lay claim to their newly acquired New South Wales, set
up a penal settlement along the Derwent River on an island south of the Australian mainland . The
town is named Hobart after Lord Hobart, a politician and secretary of state for the colonies. The town
of Hobart was founded on the Derwent River, a deep water river that allowed for easy anchorage of
ships. John Bach in his book titled ‘A Maritime History of Australia’ states:
“Hobart at the mouth of the Derwent River, was founded when David Collins transferred his
charges from the uncompromising site at the entrance of Port Philip to Sullivan’s Cove, which
seemed to him in 1804 to be destined to become a general rendezvous for all shipping in the
adjacent seas” (p. 39)
The city had a prime location for traders and for those exploring the great south land. Hobart’s port
was successful and preferred by seafarers. Both the establishment of Hobart and Launceston was seen
as a prime advantage for trade for the country because if goods were being traded anywhere
eastwards they could save time disembarking and sharing their commodities at either location, or cut
through the Bass Strait and save themselves sailing time. Goods were varied and the port was also a
centre for Whaling and Sealing.
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However, Hobart and the Island of Tasmania, then called Van Diemen’s Land, was still the drop off
point for many British convicts. And from 1812 convicts were transported directly to Tasmania where
they were identified, and put to work either for individuals or the government. In total there were
around 76,000 convicts shipped to Tasmania to help create the cities and towns that exist today.
While Tasmania was growing with convict labour and expanding their maritime activities , the next
major capital city to be established was Brisbane in 1824. Brisbane was established along the Brisbane
River. A year earlier John Oxley had mapped the Brisbane River and a party of early settlers settled in
the Redcliffe area near the river mouth, then moved up the Brisbane River to the current site of
Brisbane to found their new penal settlement. Here the Brisbane River became the new colonies major
centre for transportation between towns, cities and other countries and for a long time the port was
established on the river.
Brisbane, like Hobart, was designed as a convict settlement at first. Convicts were put to work
constructing the city. Examples of the convict construction in Brisbane are the commissariat store on
the north side of the river and the old windmill. By 1842 free settlers were moving to the city. At this
point in time Brisbane was still part of New South Wales only to become a separate state in the 1850s.
As the colony expanded and free settlers set up farms, ports were established for the export of the
goods they produced. Along with the establishment of farms and regional cities came the decision of
what city to choose as the new capital. The two contenders were Cleveland Point and Brisbane, the
later won out.
In other parts of Australia other cities were also being established. On the other side of the Australian
continent, Perth was established only 4 years later in 1829. The colony was established beside the
swan river by the captain John Stirling and was named Perth after the place of the same name in
Scotland. However, the area of Perth had first been cited in the 17th century by the Dutch.
Not wanting the French to make a claim to the land, British free settlers set up a colony along the swan
river. A penal colony outpost had already been established at Albany. But for all intents and purposes
the colony of Perth was very far away indeed. Miles from existing settlements in the new colony and
in an unfamiliar place. The new settlers must have had a sense of adventure about them wishing to
travel thousands of kilometres to start a new life in a distant shore. Or they knew of the richness the
land and pastoralism had to offer.
Like with other cities Perth relied heavily on sea transport. The early settlement relied heavily on the
transport of goods through trade via the sea. It wasn’t until later that a port was built at the nearby
town of Freemantle. The problem with sea trade and transport in Perth and surrounds was that it was
not an ideal environment for shipping. There were sand bars, reefs, and areas not easy to berth bigger
ships. So the early colony struggled.
However, as time progressed the situation improved for the early settlers of Perth. In the 1850s
convicts were sent there to aid the settlement and construct buildings. The city was officially
recognised in 1856 and the whole Western Australian region was making excellent progress with their
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pastoralism, meat and wool exports. It was later in the 19th century that gold was discovered and later
on in the piece Iron Ore that really set the Perth and Western Australian region in forward motion.
Meanwhile, back over on the southern east side of Australia, Melbourne was founded. In 1835, free
settlers from the colonies on Tasmania had moved to the Melbourne region and had set up camp on
the banks of the Yarra River that feeds into Philip Bay. This area was later to be named Melbourne
after the British Prime minister, the Viscount of Melbourne, William Lamb. However, it wasn’t until
the early 1850s that the new colony really took its shape with the discovery of gold. At this time the
city expanded greatly and was the centre for all the gold that was being sold and exported.
Shipping and sea transportation was very important and the southern coastal region saw its fair share
of maritime disasters. It was in 1838, that a port was established at port Philip bay for the trading of
goods. When the gold rush was on there was a great demand for shipping. Trade across the coasts of
Victoria were also important to the new colony of Melbourne with new town settlements along the
great ocean road. However, traveling across the Bass Strait was a challenge in itself, leading to the
construction of many lighthouses. John Bach in his book ‘A Maritime History of Australia’ indicates:
“One of the more important of the runs was that to the ports around the corner from Wilson’s
Promontory often a perilous affair with the fierce westerlies of Bass Strait hampering ships on
the stretch between the promontory and Melbourne, which claimed tens of victims over the
years.” (pp. 125).
With settlers coming and going across the Bass Strait, it was a treacherous and dangerous stretch of
water indeed. And as a result of the bad sailing conditions many ships and their passengers and crew
have been sucked down into the deep, leaving hundreds of ship wrecks in the seas wake. One famous
sea disaster in the Bass Strait, being that of the Lock Ard. The Lock Ard was a ship carrying passengers
and cargo from England, attempting to reach Melbourne in 1878. Here we should never forget that
until fairly recently all immigration to Australia occurred by Sea. The ship ran aground on some rocks,
and all perished but two luck survivors, Tom Peace and Eva Carmichael, who managed to swim to
shore. This site they swam to, to be rescued, is the loch Ard Gorge and it is not an easy place to swim
ashore, with a beach and then with big cliff faces that would have been extremely difficult to climb.
The shipwreck itself is located off mutton Bird Island. It is not hard to see the perilous waves, and
conditions that early mariners were faced with as they attempted to cross the Bass Strait. This prime
example, highlights the realities that mariners faced and their sheer bravery and knowledge of the
sea.
Moving further along the Bass coast we come to the city of Adelaide located on the southern shore of
Australia. Adelaide was founded in 1836 by Colonel William Light. The city was founded next to the
river Torrens that flows into the Gulf of St Vincent. The city was established as a free settlement, with
many Germans eventually moving to the area.
The free settlers had purchased and established land for themselves and it was in the 1950’s that the
growing of wheat was providing growth for the region. Seaborne trade was established. Going over
land was a difficult and long journey and at the start of the new free settlement of Adelaide the inland
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had not been thoroughly explored as yet. Therefore, sea trade was once again the lifeblood of this
new colony, for transporting people to other cities, and trading and importing their commodities that
included their pastoral pursuits and resources directly from the land, such as copper.
While Adelaide was slowly being populated with European free settlers and the surrounding lands
being explored, the North of Australia was taking shape too. Each of these cities were gradually
becoming their own independent states and territories that changed as the country of Australia began
grow and develop.
Darwin to the north was established in 1869 when it was a part of the state of South Australia. The
early settlement was formed by the Surveyor-General of South Australia, George Goyder as a small
settlement and was to become a centre for trade, with the port established. In the early settlement
the sea and shipping provided the transport between the new Settlement, Darwin and Adelaide. In
addition, the maritime fishing opportunities that had brought the Macassan traders, had encouraged
many peoples from regions afar to settle in Darwin for pearl fishing.
Therefore, the town of Darwin was very much dependant on the sea, to receive goods that enabled
the town to be established and take its shape and become the town it is today as a main centre for
trade. Darwin was closer to many Asian countries in the pacific than many of its southern counterparts
and that, it was thought, would make Darwin a strategically located Port. Up until the war the port
was used for transportation and the shipping of goods, including natural resources, around the
Australian coast and beyond.
We have seen an overview of the formation of Australia’s coastal capital cities and the impact the sea
and shipping has had on the decisions to establish them where they are and their further
development. Firstly, with the city of Sydney in 1788 by Captain Arthur Philips, right through the
settlement of the other capital cities across the length and breadth of the Australian coast. In the next
chapter we will explore Ports.
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CHAPTER 5: PORTS
“A ship in the Harbour is Safe, but that is not what ships are built for” John A. Shedd
Australia being an island nation relies heavily on ports for a safe place for ships to weigh anchor, and
load and unload their commodities for their voyage ahead. Ports are established for many reasons. In
the past, they were established for a few differing reasons. Firstly, when the colony of Australia was
first forming Ports were developed for ships to anchor and transfer convicts and settlers to shore.
Secondly, ports grow around these cities where they developed to provide trading opportunities for
the colonies. And thirdly, Ports develop specifically for the export and / or import of a commodity. As
an example, once the wool and cattle farms had developed, the Australian’s needed somewhere along
the coast as close as possible to these farms to export their products. Ports and sometimes regional
towns developed to meet these trade and resourcing needs.
Captains and Mariners, for the coastal towns, were often the founders of the towns and cities, of
which many are named after them. We can seduce that without mariners Australia would not be the
same formation as it is today. Without people taking to the sea Australia would not have been
populated at all. Both the sea and the land work hand in hand with one another and need to be cared
for well into the future.
Ports is a big area to cover, with Australia’s ports located strategically and broadly over a coastline
bigger than Europe. That is why this chapter will be divided up with a description of ports by their
states. If we look at New South Wales on its own, the history is immense with entire books written
about its vast past. The same is said for all the other states where they have that same richness. To
start this journey lets us look at the ports of New South Wales.
New South Wales
The first wharfs and docking points in New South Wales were located in Sydney Cove. Quite ironically
the current port, port Botany is located in the same bay that was first proposed by Sir Joseph Banks
as a the harbour for the first fleet to land. From the time of first settlement the harbour was a pivotal
place to all people who lived in its vicinity. As time progressed the shipping industry started to take
shape. Ian Hoskin’s in his book Sydney Harbour points out just how valued the harbour was in the
1800s as an example, stating:
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“The harbour was a remarkable active place in 1836. There were now nearly twenty thousand
people in Sydney. Relatively few lived on the foreshores but most depended in some way upon
the port” (p. 84)
The peoples who lived upon its shores were very enterprising. They started boat building, using the
land, animals and the sea to turn the small Sydney community into a trading hub, trading with the
pacific, Asia and beyond. However, this was not the case in the beginning of the settlement because
remembering it was a penal colony and the aim was to keep the prisoners from escaping and keep
them working for the colony. Also, the East India Company had monopoly over all trade routes, which
halted enterprising business minded settlers. However, as time progressed, convicts were pardoned,
free settlers started arriving, pastoralism took shape, and maritime pursuits were conducted by this
very enterprising bunch of people.
In the 1800s the whaling and sealing industries were in full swing and a special port set up in the
harbour. The sale of oil was one of the most lucrative business opportunities for the settlers, along
with wool and meat. All these commodities had to be processed somewhere, and the Sydney
foreshore was the best place for such an endeavour, where wharfs, and processing centres were set
up.
As Sydney cove had developed the expansion moved to Darling harbour. Darling Harbour was the
preferred site for the trading of goods with wharfs and centres established. Then came the industrial
power with steam boats. Darling harbour was central to the industrial change of Sydney with a big
power station constructed as well as coal terminals. One the following page is a glimpse of what
Darling Harbour and Sydney looked like in the 1800s.
All shipping was done in Sydney harbour until a port was established at port Botany in 1979. Darling
Harbour, where a large percentage of the international and bulk shipping was conducted, was going
through a redevelopment and forward planning indicated it would not cope with shipping volumes
expected. Therefore, by the 1960s a proposal was put forward to the government for a new terminal
to be built at Botany Bay. This new terminal was to handle bulk liquids and containers.
Meanwhile back in the Sydney Harbour, Sydney Cove had earlier in the 1800s been turned into circular
Quay and became a maritime transportation hub and transit centre for large ocean going vessels and
for people commuting via ferry. And Darling Harbour was shaped into a modern tourist centre as
opposed to a commercial hub for industry and shipping. The city of Sydney was reshaping their
landscape to cater for future growth.
In 1979, a bulk liquids birth was opened Port Botany. The Port has continued to expand to become the
port it is today. We have seen a change from shipping in Sydney cove to a move to a bigger and modern
facility to cater for 21st century trade. The current port of Botany is continuously expanding and is now
run on a 99 year lease.
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Image 5.A the Gas Works and Industry at Darling Harbour Image curtesy of State Library of New South Wales http://archival-
classic.sl.nsw.gov.au/item/itemDetailPaged.aspx?itemID=413012#
Image 5.B Sydney in 1888 showing darling harbour Image curtesy of City of Sydney
http://www.photosau.com.au/cos/scripts/ExtSearch.asp?SearchTerm=055713
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Other ports have also been established along the New South Wales coastline. These ports include
Newcastle, Port Kembla, Eden and Yamba. Smaller ports of historical significance also include the
harbours and towns covering the length and breadth of the New South Wales coastline, including
Wollongong, which today is home to a historic lighthouse, Gerringong, and Port Stephens. Earlier
European Settlers, made use of natural harbours that provided their ships with shelter from the coast
and that too is often where our towns and cities were established.
The first town of Newcastle was discovered in 1797 by Lieutenant John Shortland who found the
harbours rich and abundant supply of coal. This abundance of coal soon encouraged a settlement to
form in the region. Newcastle was in fact one of Australia’s earliest cities to be founded. Newcastle
was officially founded in 1804 and named after the town of the same name in England. However, all
was not grand and fun in Newcastle, convicts were sent there for crimes they had committed to help
dig out the coal. In the early 1800s the town consisted of convicts who were mining the coal for it to
be shipped to Sydney. But, the region soon developed and mines established around the surrounding
towns. Also, villages were built to house all the incoming miners, including Cardiff, Morpeth, and
Wallsend. These new formed suburbs were named after suburbs in the United Kingdom.
With the port at Newcastle, Nobby’s head, the cliff at the entrance to the harbour was cut away by
convicts and the rocks used to create a breakwater to provide some safety to ships coming to the
shore. On top of Nobby’s head was constructed a light house and homes for the lighthouse keeper.
The Newcastle harbour as we know it today has two breakwaters, a southern Breakwater and a
Northern Breakwater. These two breakwaters maintain protection to the harbour and provide the
ships with a safe docking location. Both the breakwaters were constructed over many years in the
1800s.
The original harbour was shallow and resulted in constant dredging works, land reclamation works
and as a result of the works became one of the top performing ports for coal exports in the 20th and
21st Centuries. The port today handles more than just coal. It handles dry bulk, bulk liquids, break bulk,
containers and transportation services.
Yamba port is somewhat smaller than Newcastle. Yamba is a town on the northern New South Wales
coast on the Clarence River and the town and port was constructed in the 1860s. Yamba has strong
ties to the sea. Their revenue comes from the port and trading goods, but also tourism from the
beautiful beaches that it surrounds.
Looking at the Yamba Port, it is currently overseen by the New South Wales ports and has a range of
imports and exports, including Timber. The townships surrounding the port, produce multi
commodities that are exported to islands and internationally.
Going back to bigger bulk commodities, let’s look at another New South Wales Port, Port Kembla . Port
Kembla is situated south of Sydney on the coast at the mouth of red point, south of Wollongong. Like
Newcastle, it was developed for the export of Coal in the 1890s. Coal was discovered in the region and
was exported soon after. The mount Kembla Coal and Oil Co was established for the mining of coal at
Mt Kembla, a location after which the port is named. The company built a railway from Mt Kembla to
27
the port so they could export their coal. The port only started out as a small wharf but over the years
expanded greatly to become the major industrial port it is today. The mine at Mt Kembla closed in the
1960s but the port continues to export coal from other mine sites, as well as steel and other
commodities. The picture below shows the port and its industries in the distance looking from North
Wollongong.
Image 5.C Photo of port Kembla from Afar
Moving even further south we have port of Eden. Eden is a port town situated in Twofold Bay, a deep
water bay towards the bottom of the New South Wales South Coast. When the town of Sydney was
first settled by Europeans, Whalers would come south to Eden and trap the whales in the bay. In
addition, farms in land near Eden were being established and they needed a way to transport their
cattle and goods via the sea and therefore, the port and a town were developed there in the 1840s.
The port continued to grow until the 1890s when cattle trade ceased through the port, and this was
followed by the ceasing of Whaling in the early 20th century. However, the town and its port have
other commercial activities and goods for trade, including Woodchips. The port today still plays a vital
role in international trade.
New South Wales was the first English colony in Australia and was the start of the European journey
and the development of large scale ports. This brief overview of the ports and their history give us a
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glimpse into the past and most importantly how and why they developed. Next we will look at
Tasmania and ports in that state.
Tasmania
As we have seen the town of Hobart was first established in 1804. The location was selected because
the Derwent River was deep water and great for shipping. In the early days of the settlement of
Hobart, the port became preferred over Sydney for the trading of goods for its prime location and
deep water. However its port was only at the beginning stages of its growth with John Bach in his
book a maritime history of Australia stating:
“For its first two decades the port possessed only primitive facilities. A visitor, recalling some
years later the conditions of 1820, said that although Hobart had at that time one of the safest
and most capacious harbours in the world, it was not known for its wharves or landing places.
A small rock, called Hunter’s Island, separated from the shore by shallow water and soft mud,
and upon which a store had been built, served as a landing place, passengers being carried
across the narrow channel to the town by sailors.” (pp. 39).
Over time, the port, wharfs and jetties at Hobart were developed and have been come the world
renowned facilities that are present today. Below is an image of this early years of Hobart.
Image 5.D Photograph of a painting of Hobart town in 1829 Curtesy of the National Library of Australia http://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-161476602
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In the past the Hobart harbour was used for the export of a variety of goods. One of the biggest early
exports was Whale Oil. Due to the prime location of Hobart to Antarctica, the whales were in relatively
close proximity when they were migrating north. The capturing of Whales that were in close proximity
meant that whalers could see them from the shore, not go very far to catch them, and they were
available in the Derwent River so mariners didn’t have to traverse through vast oceans. Whaling
provided a good supply of capital during the early stages of the colony of Hobart as well as providing
capital for other coastal towns in the southern reaches of Australia.
The whale industry finished up in the late 1800s and the people of Hobart had other trade initiatives
to focus on. Industrialisation was taking hold after an economic backward turn. So, in the early 1900s
the economy was living off industry, fishing, chocolate, paper, farming, and similar. The port was a
mainstay during the 1900s of the Hobart town.
Meanwhile other ports were also providing for the community. With the opening of the Bass Strait,
the British felt fearful of the French taking up land on the north of Tasmania and set up an early colony
on the Tamar River. This first settlement was at the mouth of the Tamar River but as it was not
considered ideal it was moved to the present day site of Launceston.
In John Bach’s work he indicates that by the mid 1900’s there were indeed nine Tasmanian ports that
were involved in interstate trade, indicating:
“…Hobart had 46 per cent of the total sea trade, Launceston 19 per cent, Burnie 14 per cent and
Devonport 16 per cent; the last three, all northern ports, therefore accounted for 49 per cent in
total.” (pp. 281)
While Launceston was growing along the Tamar River, Devonport was established at the mouth of the
Mersey River. At first the river was avoided for settlement because of its big sandbar that prevented
larger ships from entering the river. However, early settlement prevailed despite the Sandbar. In the
early 1850s coal was discovered increasing the settlement of the area. And the area was also rich with
timber and that too encouraged people to settle in Devonport.
Shipping was the way to transport anything in the early 1800’s and the town was in the prime location
to transport goods and people back to the mainland. However, the town was not called Devonport at
first, each side of the river was a different town, one called Torquay and the other Formby. This
changed in 1891 when Devonport acquired its name.
The port of Devonport therefore, had commodities to export and people to transport. And in the
1950s and 1960s the town of Devonport started to really expand and make itself known as a port. And
during this time the ferry service with the mainland was expanded and the ship called princess of
Tasmania came into operation. With this way of transport, tourists and locals alike could take their car
with them from the mainland to Tasmania. However, at this time Air travel was also expanding and
offering the locals alternative transportation.
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Moving back to Launceston, it was a shipping highway trading goods with other ports in Tasmania and
Sydney. As time progressed this trade expanded to include other cities and towns, trading farmed
goods such as cereal. The centre of Tasmania was a major area for farming and more recently wineries.
One of the key farming industries was the production of wool.
Another town port town is Burnie. The town was established in 1827, by a company called the Van
Diemen’s Land Company that formed in England. The port was a place for the farms and mines to
export their goods and remained a relatively small town until the mid-1900s when it expanded with
the introduction of the paper mills. In addition, the farming and trade of potatoes was also an
important commodity for the Burnie people, where it was traded to Sydney. Moving further along in
its history, in the 1960s the port itself was expanded to meet further trade and shipping needs, with
a breakwater constructed and land reclaimed. In the late 1900s the port expanded even more and
now exports a range of goods including wood products, fuel, and containers.
Therefore, we have seen a glimpse at the history of some of Tasmania’s ports. There are also ports on
the islands north of the Tasmanian mainland. All these ports are vital for the towns they service.
Without these ports, the towns would not be able to trade the supplies they need. Just like Tasmania
Queensland was also heavily reliant on their ports and now we will explore their history.
Queensland .
The town of Brisbane was first established in 1825 and its maritime history centred on the Brisbane
River, its full reaches, where south bank housed its wharfs and dry dock for ship repairs. In addition,
other sections of the river were very important for maritime activities, the naval stores at the site of
the kangaroo point cliffs as an example.
The town was extremely reliant on water transport just like the rest of the early colonies. In Brisbane
and towns of Queensland, traveling via inland routes was problematic. There were no roads and trying
to transport large quantities of goods was very challenging. And during the very early years of the
settlement, the coast routes were quicker and the safest choice for settlers and convicts.
The Brisbane River and Moreton Bay therefore, became the mantel piece of the early Brisbane colony.
The river itself was used for transport to other early settlement sites including Ipswich where coal had
been discovered and was being quarried. In addition, the river was used to transport limestone and
supplies to construct the buildings and houses that were needed by the early settlers in the Brisbane
township. However, the river was difficult to navigate and get to due to the outer islands and sandbars
at the mouth of the river in Moreton Bay. But when it was discovered that there was a safe navigation
passage north of Moreton Island the settlers transport into the river became easier.
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Image 5.E Image of the Brisbane River in 1880 Curtesy of State Library of Queensland http://hdl.handle.net/10462/deriv/122552
The town and river continued to expand and the south Bank area became a centre for maritime
commercial activities. In 1881 the newly built Dry Dock was complete to service the ships navigating
Brisbane’s waters. There was a lot of contention about the location of the dock and its suitability for
repairing and maintaining vessels. However, the dry dock was built and serviced the vessels and was
also a place where ships were built and saw many great changes in the maritime landscape during its
time in service.
But it was not only south bank that was a part of the port for Brisbane. The whole river was a part of
the vast network of shipping and commercial trade wharfs and jetties. Along the river were
established wharfs, factories, processing plants and more dry docks were constructed to service the
maritime industry for Brisbane.
However, as the town expanded it was determined that a bigger port, built for the future, was needed
to cater for the needs of the town. In 1976 the new port was tabled in parliament and a manmade
island constructed at the mouth of the Brisbane River, called Fisherman’s island. Although the
Cairncross Dockyard and some port facilities were still located on the Brisbane River, the new facilities
and loading and unloading activities was conducted at the new site on fisherman’s Island. South Bank
that had once been the major centre for the port changed in the 1970s. And in 1988 South Bank hosted
the world exhibition, expo 88. So, after this expedition South Bank continued to be a place for the
people, with museums, libraries, restaurants, parks and a beach. Today, the port of Brisbane is multi
commodity, with containerisation, wood chips, coal and a range of exports.
But Brisbane was not the only town growing and changing, other early cities were also being
established in Queensland. Maryborough had become a bustling centre for immigration from its port
in the mid-1800s. Where many settlers coming from Europe to Queensland would arrive in
Maryborough as their first port of call. In addition, it provided a port for the surrounding towns
including Gympie, giving them a place to import and export goods, including commodities from the
local farms. In the early stages the port was used to ship coal that was being mined in the area.
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Bundaberg was also being developed at this time and it was founded along the banks of the Burnett
River in 1847. It too was developed as a port town, where its first primary industry was the supply of
timber. And although timber was a main supply to the area, farming became the second mainstay with
the growing of sugar cane and processing of sugar for export. But it wasn’t until the 1950s the current
port facilities were built at the mouth of the river to cater for the large amount of sugar being
produced. Prior to the construction of this port all shipping was conducted from wharves near the city.
Further north, Rockhampton and Gladstone were developing. Gladstone had a harbour, but little else
going for it when it was first established. Its first export was wool and then secondly it commenced
trading in cattle as the surrounding land was rocky and had little going for other grazing and the trading
of cattle. Therefore in the mid-1800s many settlers arrived to start their cattle farms. There was a brief
glimpse of a gold rush in the town of Canoona but little was actually found. Meat and cattle exports
was a mainstay for the region and still is today. However the cattle are not exported via the local ports
rather sent north to be exported. As time progressed the trading of goods increased and the region
diversified. Port Curtis in Gladstone exports include, Alumina, Bauxite, Cement, Liquefied Natural Gas,
Coal, Containers of multi goods, Grain and Woodchip. While the exports going through the port of
Alma at Rockhampton are Ammonium nitrate, tallow, general cargo and explosives.
Further north just south of Townsville we have the port of Abbot Point. The Port of Abbot Point is
situated approximately 25 kilometres north of Bowen and 194 kilometres south of Townsville. It is
owned by North Queensland Bulk Ports Corporation (NQBP), a government owned corporation. And
in June 2011, terminal 1 was leased to Mundra Port Pty Ltd, a subsidiary of the Adani Group, on a 99-
year lease. This lease helped boost the Australian economy and in particular the state of Queensland.
It is the most northerly port for the export of coal in Australia and is remote but beautiful with its
environmental wetlands and its strong ties to protect and conserve the environment and be fully
sustainable.
The history of Abbot Point port is very young as it only starts in 1981 when the Queensland
government decided to open an export facility for the export of 6.5 million tonnes of coking coal from
mines in the Bowen basin, the coal deposits of Collinsville and Newlands. Sir Joh Bjelke-Petersen then
officially opened the port of Abbot Point on the 25 February 1984. Therefore, the port itself is just
over 30 years old, and in terms of world ports very young in the grand scheme of history as we know
it today. It also was built to take over the export of coal from the Bowen Port, which did not keep up
with the demand.
However, despite its young age it has seen many milestone achievements over those 30 years. Over
those 30 years it has provided employment opportunities for locals, through the port itself and the
wider logistic and supply chain network, and added revenue to the Queensland economy through
export. It has seen many expansion projects.
Abbot Point was constructed as single user terminal and was originally operated by the Mount Isa
Mines (MIM) Pty limited Company who was, in the 1980s, expanding their mining operations at
Collinsvale and Newlands. MIM Pty Ltd had constructed the onshore works and facilities for the port,
and the Harbours Corporation of Queensland funded the maritime facilities. The Harbours
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Corporation of Queensland was a department within the Harbours and Marine department (now
transport and main roads), and then the operations and overseeing of ports was corporatized, where
government owned businesses were established to manage ports and the surrounding land, but they
were not port operators. The Abbot Point Bulk Coal Pty Ltd a subsidiary of MIM Pty Ltd were the
terminal operators of the port.
In 2000, the port of Abbot Point went through some changes, with the writing of an agreement
allowing for the multi user port access and the export of coal from other mines, including the Sonoma
mine. This lead to the expansion of the terminal, called the x21 project, to meet the increase mining
and coal outputs from 15mtpa to 21mtpa. The x21 project was officially completed in 2007. In
addition, in 2003 there was a change of ownership, where Xstrata purchased MIM holdings Pty Ltd.
In 2008, the port was further expanded, in stages, with the ports corporation committing and investing
in expanding the capacity of the port from the 21mpta to 50mpta. Eventually the x50 expansion
occurred, with the construction of an additional berth, shiploader and area for stockpiling the coal. It
was completed in 2011, ready for the 99-year lease to Mundra Pty Ltd. As part of the x50 project.
Finally, in 2012 there was another change, with Xstrata merging with Glencore, who assumed
responsibility for port operations at Abbot Point, absorbing Abbot Point Bulk Coal.
Image 5.F Abbot Point
One of the coalmines that export to Abbot Point is Collinsville. The Collinsville coal mine is located
approximately 87 kilometres south of Bowen in the Bowen Basin and has been in operation since the
early 1900s. Coal in the region was discovered in 1866 and the mine opened in 1912 to export coking
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and steaming coal that are transported to Abbot Point by an extensive rail network. Prior to the
construction of Abbot Point the coal was exported through to Bowen. The mine over the years until
recently has provided jobs for the town, with a decrease in mining over the last year.
In 1954 the coal mine was the scene of a mining accident taking the lives of 7 people, resulting in a
mining heritage museum and memorial being set up in the town to remember those who died as well
as much stricter health and safety controls. The accident occurred on 13 October 1954 where an
outburst of odourless carbon dioxide filled the number 1 tunnel, suffocating the 7 miners. This mining
accident devastated the town and impacted the wider community and many lessons have been
learned from this incident. Ownership of the Collinsville mine has seen many ongoing changes
throughout its history. Originally being owned by MIM Pty, then Xstrata and finally Glencore.
Close to Abbot Point, is the town of Bowen. Captain Henry Daniel Sinclair discovered the town of
Bowen in 16th of October 1859. Sinclair left the colony of New South Wales in 1858 searching for a
harbour further north of Port Curtis, where he discovered Port Denison, a natural inner harbour,
within Edgecombe Bay, where Bowen is today. He was sent to find a suitable location north of
Rockhampton to set up port. The town of Bowen itself was formed on the shores of port Denison in
1861 and was open for settlement in 1st of January 1861, with settlers arriving not long after that, by
ship. Port Denison was also claimed a port of entry at this time to allow for the settlement. Sinclair
was appointed the Harbour Master, Pilot and Chief Constable of this new settlement but was later
dismissed in 1862. After which time, a number of harbour masters filled the role, including Richard E
Pym, and Frederick Kilner.
The Bowen jetty was built in 1865. It was 2,000 feet long and 24 feet wide. From this time forward the
jetty was extended and the first dredging took place in 1886. In 1905 stockyards were erected for
cattle export.
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Image 5.G Early Photo of the Bowen Wharfs Curtesy of John Oxley Library
The jetty and port were managed by the Harbours and Rivers Department, a precursor to the Harbours
and Marine Department up until 1915 when the Bowen Harbour Board was formed and took
ownership. The port was doing well financially and able to fully support itself without the need of
support or ownership from the harbours and marine department. In the past, all ports that could be
self-sustaining were able to become harbour boards and self-managing, whilst those still small and
not generating enough income to survive as an independent government owned business were
managed by the harbours and marine department. So, when the port of Bowen expanded they
became a board.
The main role of the port was the export of sugar, cattle, meat and coal. The first meeting of the new
harbour board took place on the 22nd of March 1915. The port generated £2904-13-3 in the first year
of the Harbour board establishment and was doing very well economically. From this time the port
continuously expanded and exports continued to improve, until the 1960s when all sugar was then
exported through the Mackay port. Having lost out on one of their top commodities for export, this
affected the port substantially. But there was a small resurgence of good fortune for the port with the
exports of coal and meats. With a new coal loading facility built in 1971, when the Bowen harbour
board entered into an agreement with Dacon Collieries Pty Ltd for the construction of a new coal
loader that did not export its full capacity of coal. However, it did improve the prospects for the Bowen
port and made a difference, allowing the port to hold out longer than was to be expected.
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It was the construction of Abbot Point that put a stop to Bowen’s coal export trade and as a result, led
to the demise of the port. They had anticipated and hoped that through the export of coal that they
could remain independent and be a high quality player in the port export market, but unfortunately
that was not to be. In 1985, the port was not able to pay for itself and was handed over to the harbours
Corporation of Queensland who became the custodians of the Bowen wharf. The Harbours
Corporation of Queensland, were a department within the Harbours and Marine Department.
After 1985 the jetty was maintained and managed by Harbours Corporation of Queensland (HCQ) and
subsequently, North Queensland Bulk Ports Corporation (NQBP). The Jetty is managed and maintained
for the public. In 2007, the jetty was used as a location for the film Australia staring Nicole Kidman and
Hugh Jackman, putting the town of Bowen in the spotlight. Today, the jetty is accessible for the public
and shipping and maritime activities are extremely important for the town.
Relatedly, the town of Mackay was also formed around its port. Prior to the discovery of the Mackay
area firstly by Captain Cook in 1770 and secondly, by the founder of the Mackay district, Captain John
Mackay, the area was inhabited by Aboriginal Australians. There was a strong Indigenous culture in
the Mackay district, and Indigenous people had lived in that area for long time. The Indigenous cultural
tribes living in the wider Mackay district were the Barad, Juipera, Barna, Wiri, Jangga and Biria. They
had their own unique culture and by the time the Europeans settled in Australia there population was
approximately 500.
Then in 1770 Captain Cook discovered the coast in what is now Mackay when sailing north. But Mackay
itself was not founded until 1860 by Captain John Mackay. Captain John Mackay was a Scotsman who
was from inverness and had travelled all the way to Mackay with his 1200 cattle in 1862. The Mackay
town was then formed and they made use of the pioneer river for trade and transportation, which
was also their first port. They had set up barges and a wharf to export sugar, their main commodity.
But the pioneer river could not be used as a deep water port, creating restrictions in the quantity of
commodities that could be shipped. So the current port was established in 1939.
Going south we have Hay Point. The port of Hay Point is located approximately 40 Kilometres south
of Mackay and 930 Kilometres North of Brisbane. It is a purpose built port, with two terminals for the
bulk export of coal. One of the Terminals is Dalrymple Bay Coal Terminal (DBCT) and the other the Hay
Point Coal Terminal (HPCT). The port was established in 1971 to meet the increasing demand for coal
in central Queensland servicing the town of Mackay and has continued over the years to become one
to the major coal export ports. In 2001, the two coal terminals were leased to private enterprise from
the state government (then controlled by Ports Corporation of Queensland) for 99 years. DBCT is
owned by Prime Infrastructure Holdings managed by DBCT Management Pty Limited and HPCT is
owned by BHP Billiton Mitsubishi Alliance with operations performed by Hay Point Services. Today,
the port authority North Queensland Bulk Ports (NQBP) still has oversite as landlord, and protects the
environment and provides pilotage services at the port of Hay Point.
Both terminals are part of an extensive supply chain network linking the coal mines to the port. The
port coal throughput for 2014-2015 for DBCT was 71,551,704 and for HPCT 43,424,800. DBCT has
name plate capacity for 85 Mtpa and covers a space of 67 hectares with a capacity of 2.28 million
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tonnes of thermal and metallurgical coal. The role of DBCT is to manage the coal when it arrives by
rail and stockpile it and then manage the ship loading processes. Therefore, the main infrastructure,
is the terminal, rail network, shiploader, stacker reclaimer, and stockpile yards, inloader, equipment
and technology for loading the coal to the ships for export. The port is one node in the wider coal
supply chain network.
On the gulf coast of the state is one of our biggest bauxite export facilities at the port of Weipa.
Indigenous Australians lived in the wider region of what is now Weipa, they were the Alngith people,
whose language is now extinct. Their ancestors and kin still live in this area today. They have and
continue to have a very deep and rich cultural history that spans a vast length of time.
In terms of European discovery, Duyfken point, just north of present day Weipa, was discovered by
Willem Janszoon in 1606 on his ship the Duyfken. Other explorers were to follow, such as Flinders,
Cook and Tasman.
In 1955 the area in and around Weipa were found to contain large quantities of Bauxite. Harry Evans
a Geologist discovered this Bauxite and it was in 1956 that the Commonwealth Aluminium Corporation
was established for the mining of this precious resource.
The original port at Evan’s landing for the export of Bauxite was established by Colmalco and in June
1965 placed under the control of the Treasury, with a Harbour Master. The first Harbour Master was
Captain A Caradine. The port, through the Treasury, was then managed by the Harbours Corporation
of Queensland (HCQ) a department within the Harbours and Marine Department. HCQ then became
the Ports Corporation of Queensland (PCQ) and now North Queensland Bulk Ports Corporation. Rio
Tinto Alcan lease this port to use for their exports.
There were a number of upgrades and maintenance works at Evan’s landing and the Weipa foreshore.
In the 1990s new mooring dolphins were built by HCQ. Interestingly, in 1967 a Harbour Master’s home
was built for the master in residence.
Over the years the people who have worked at the port have shaped it and made it what it is today.
They have been instrumental in working on projects, upgrades, building new dolphin moorings, boat
ramps, beacons, cottages and pilot boats.
If we now look at Townsville, the town was established as a frontier town in 1865. South of Townsville
pastoralists plied their trade and they needed a port for the transport and trade of their goods. It was
in 1864 that 2 men were sent in search for a suitable port site under the direction of John Melton
Black. Black was in partnership with a man named Robert Towns who was the financier owner of the
expedition and this newly discovered town. They found a suitable town and port site and WA Ross led
a party to settle this newly discovered area at Cleveland Bay.
The town continued to expand and more settlers came to the region for pastoralist pursuits. The port
continued to expand to meet additional needs of the town and in 1896 a harbour board was
established. The port was a mainstay for the town providing transport and trade opportunities. The
trade opportunities, involved gold, sugar and cattle exports. Today the port is one of Queensland’s
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biggest multi commodity ports with 8 operational berths. The port trades Bulk cargo, liquid cargo,
general cargo, cattle exports, and has a cruise terminal catering for the needs of all.
Further north along the Queensland Coast, the town of Cairns was also forming. Cairns was settled in
1876, with a port at Trinity Bay. It was one of the most northern Australian Settlements and is in a
strategic location for providing a cruise terminal and a place for the export and import of commodities.
The port was pivotal to the town’s development. Today the port is still an important part of the
community exporting and importing Petroleum, Sugar, Molasses, Fertilizer, Liquid Petroleum Gas and
is a Cruise Terminal for tourists.
Other ports are dotted along the Queensland Coastline and the Torres Strait. These ports include
Lucinda, Cooktown, Thursday Island, Quintell Beach, Cape Flattery, Karumba, and Burketown. Each
port was established for differing reasons. As an example, Cape Flattery was developed specifically for
the export of Silica Sand, while Lucinda was set up for the export of Sugar from the surrounding
townships.
This only gives you a very brief look into the history of ports in Queensland. It is highly recommended
that you explore the further readings section to get more insights about specific ports and their
history. What we have glimpsed at here, is that Queensland has a rich port and maritime history, just
like Western Australia.
Western Australia
Out of all the states, Western Australia has one of the richest maritime histories. Of course the western
coastline was spotted and charted first by the Dutch mariners. And it being a sandy windswept vast
coastline only adds to its interesting past and beauty.
In the south of Western Australia are the larger ports of Albany, Bunbury, Freemantle and Esperance.
While in the north are Ashburton, Cape Preston East, Dampier, Anketell, Port Hedland, Broome,
Wyndham and Derby. These ports provide services to the state and add significantly to the Australian
economy. Although this chapter does not have the room to explore each and every port in detail, it
does provide a glimpse into the ports varied and exciting past and their pivotal role in first colonisation
of the towns and state, and second their role in providing transport including passenger and leisure,
and international trade.
Beginning in the south of the State, the port of Freemantle has an early history starting in the 1830s
when the early settlements in Perth began. The port is situated at the mouth of the Swan River and in
its early days was known for its reef stricken channels, sandbar blocking the entrance and poor
berthing opportunities. These negatives prevented large vessels from entering the river. The port was
to service this new Swan river settlement, current day Perth, and the ships were the main
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transportation option for the early settlers, for traveling to other cities and for the trading of goods
and receiving supplies.
It was not until the late 1890s that the sandbar blocking the entrance was cleared, to allow ships to
enter the harbour. This gave ships a safe harbour to berth and was great progress for the port and
gave larger ships the option to use Freemantle port. During this time Gold was discovered in the north
of the state, which increased the prosperity for Perth and enabled the town to grow and expand.
Where the port of Fremantle harbour opened in 1897, after the removal of the sandbar.
Prior to the completion of Freemantle port, many of the larger vessels berthed at Albany Port. Albany,
therefore, was the first point of entry to Western Australia for many early settlers during the 1800s
and early 1900s and a major trading port for overseas shipping.
Image 5. H Early photos of Freemantle harbour Curtesy of the State Records office of Western Australia http://www.sro.wa.gov.au/archive-
collection/collection/harbour-and-shipping-records
The port of Albany and area of Albany in the southern coast is the oldest port in Western Australia,
being founded in 1826. However, the King George Sound, where Albany is located had been cited and
visited by early explorers including Nicolas Baudin in 1803. The Princess Royal Harbour and King
George Sound provided a good and safe anchorage for the settlement and it was established as a
military outpost. Originally, it was set up as a military outpost because the British where concerned
that the French would lay claim to the area if they didn’t get their first. In addition, Albany was also
used as a place for convict labour to build the outpost and town. However, as time progressed the
town of Albany expanded to become the port it is today specialising in woodchips and grain for export.
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Bunbury, another southern port and town was also established in 1830 and the port developed around
the small town to service the community. The main commodity for the early settlement of Bunbury
was timber. The surrounding areas were rich in timber that was needed by the colonies and
internationally. And in 1909 a harbour board was established to manage the port for the town. Today
the port exports timber as well as additional resources including Alumina, Silica Sand, Silicon Dross,
Aluminium Hydroxide, Spodumene and Mineral Sands. These natural resources provide income for
the economy.
When Australia was first discovered by the Europeans, the Western Australian coastline was seen as
a sandy land inhabited by primitive people. This deception was made on bias European view
assumptions and coastal observations. And when the colonies arrived they realised that the land had
natural resources that could be traded. It took a little longer to gauge the depth of Indigenous culture
and just how complex their great estate really was. The early pastoralists that communicated with and
worked with the Indigenous people were far better off than those who didn’t.
The pastoralists were needing land and were moving beyond the newly established colonies to explore
further inland and other coastal towns. Esperance was one example, being settled by a pastoral family,
the Dempster’s, which had a jetty for transport. Esperance is now a major port that exports a range
of natural and farmed resources, specifically Iron Ore and Grain.
While the pastoralists were exploring and settling new towns, Perth was expanding and the port of
Freemantle was a part of the cities story. As time progressed the port expanded to meet the needs of
the expanding township and surrounding communities. Where the port today exports manufacturing
goods and food products and it imports vehicles and consumer goods. The port also has a cruise ship
passenger terminal opening up the city to tourists.
As part of the exploration and expansion in the north of the state, the township of Port Hedland was
first sighted by Captain Peter Hedland in 1863 and the town was named after him. A port was
established to meet the needs of the early pastoralists nearby. And in the early times of the
settlement, the port was used for the pastoralists to export livestock, wool as well as pearl shell and
tin and copper. With the discovery of Iron Ore in the region in the 1960s the port began to export that
resource and today it is its main export.
To give some background, in the north of the state the iron ore boom was taking shape in the 1950s.
This Iron Ore boom reshaped the maritime and trade industry for the state. Lang Hancock had noticed
the iron ore over the Hamersley ranges and the rest is history. It opened up an export industry and
ports were needed to be able to export the iron ore. In this situation, ports were being established to
ship Iron Ore, and townships developed after the fact to service the port and mining boom.
The port of Dampier, as an example, was established specifically for the export of Iron Ore in 1963 for
Hamersley Iron. However, it soon started handling other products including salt and liquefied natural
gas (LNG). The name Dampier comes from the explorer William Dampier, who explored the coastal
region many years prior in 1688. This massive discovery of Iron Ore and LNG have led to the
establishment of northern ports to meet the needs of the economic mining boom that hit Australia.
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In addition to the land based resources, the sea also provides for the townships along the coast.
Broome is one such example. It was in the late 1800s that a pearling industry was established in the
region and a port was established to cater for this pearling industry. Pearling, Fishing and Tourism still
play a strong focus in the town today. But in the mid 1900’s the township started to expand and grow
and the role of the port and products being traded grew along with the township. Other exports for
the port now include livestock, container goods, and the port facilitates cruise ships to cater for the
tourism. The people of Broome have a strong, strong focus on the sea and fishing and because they
are in the far north of the state, they rely heavily on their port for imports and exports on goods.
This section has given an overview of the ports in place across the State of Western Australia. Outlining
the history of the more prominent ports and what commodities they import and export today.
Although this does not touch on all the ports, it gives a fantastic starting point at the diverse
commodities the state trades. Next we will explore the state of Victoria.
Victoria
With the discovery and opening of the Bass Strait, the Victorian coastline became a strategic place for
the early days of the colonies. When early settlers came from Europe they would often come through
the Bass Strait to cut the sailing time and many of them disembarked in Melbourne.
The state has a number of strategically located ports including, Portland, Geelong, Melbourne and
Port of Hastings. In addition, there are a number of small Jetties and Wharfs that service the coastal
towns and rivers along the breadth and length of the State’s coastline.
The township of Melbourne has a very interesting past, with the earliest convict settlement in 1804
being abandoned for the more favourable area of Hobart. Only for the area to be reinhabited in 1835
by pardoned convicts from Tasmania, therefore coming full circle. The pardoned convicts came in a
ship called the Enterprise and entered the Yarra River where they set up their first township. The port
facilities were also set up at the town of Williamstown on the north side of the Yarra River at the
entrance. These first facilities were a jetty in 1839. In the 1850s there was a massive Victorian gold
rush resulting in the immigration of many people to chase after the fortune and this put pressure on
the underdeveloped port facilities on the banks and entrance to the Yarra River. The port expanded
to cope with this demand and in the late 1800s the Melbourne dock opened for shipping. It is
important to remember that the Yarra River and the bay were the life blood for the new town with
new immigrants arriving at the Station Pier.
During the 1900s the port expanded greatly. A dock was built for early containerisation shipping. This
early dock was called Swanston Dock and was open in 1969. This was a major advancement for the
town of Melbourne and enabled them to become leaders of containerisation. And the Webb Dock was
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constructed for the shipping of cars. This shows just how progressive the port was during the mid-
1900s and how much foresight the decision makers had when constructing these facilities.
Image 5.I Early shipping at Port of Melbourne Curtesy of National Library of Australia http://trove.nla.gov.au/version/182649864
Today, the port of Melbourne is the largest container port in Australia and is multi commodity. The
port trades in containers, cars, and a range of dry bulk, liquid Bulk and breakbulk. The port plays a
pivotal role in the supply chain network and is a transportation hub for Melbourne, where ships load
and unload their commodities.
Geelong, to the West of Melbourne in the Corio Bay, is another port city in Victoria that was
established in 1838. Corio Bay extends from Port Philip Bay and was an alternative port to Melbourne
for Mariners. However, during the 1850s it was communicated that Geelong was not the port to weigh
anchor, so many of the immigrants arrived through Melbourne when Geelong was closer to the gold
fields. The area the town of Geelong sits had been explored by Europeans prior to 1838. Within
Geelong’s history a port was established to service the town in 1853.
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The main industry for Geelong was wool. The city was a heavy manufacturer of wool, with a wool mill
opening in 1868 in the town. Wool was a major export opportunity for the port to trade with England.
England needed wool and Geelong had the land and environment suitable for farms, facilities and sea
trading. As a result, the port town became the wool capital of Australia.
The port continued to expand to reach its current point with major exports of both dry and liquid
commodities including grain, petroleum and Woodchips. Today, the port imports, crude oil, and
fertiliser.
To the east of Melbourne, lies an enclosed bay called Western Port. This bay contains the French Island
and Philip Island. Within this bay lies the port of Hastings. Western Port has a history of shipping. All
areas of the harbour were services by ships along the coast line. Western Port even had a ferry service
that plied its transportation trade for the harbour. However, the current site of port of Hastings
commenced in the 1970s. The port was set up for the shipping of oil and gas. Today it trades in the
commodities of oil, liquid petroleum gas and petrol.
Moving west along the coast of Victoria is Portland. It is located around 360 kilometres west of
Melbourne and was the first town to be discovered in the state. The town was named after the Duke
of Portland and became a town in 1834. The town has a strong maritime past, with fishing being its
mainstay.
Image 5.J Portland Harbour in the 1900s Curtesy of the State Library of Victoria http://trove.nla.gov.au/version/182764419
As time progressed the port facilities were maintained, improved and modified. In 1960 the modern
port facilities were opened. The harbour still has a strong fishing industry. However, the modern port
has many more commodities that it handles that bring income and growth to the township. These
commodities are livestock, grain, fertilisers, and wood. They also host cruise ships entering the deep
water harbour.
This brief exploration of the history of the four major ports in Victoria shows the vast history o f the
state and what commodities the early towns relied on for their prosperity and growth. There are many
smaller ports, and leisure industries in the state that have not been explored here. One example, is
the Murray River in the north of the state. The river provides a natural border between Victoria and
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New South Wales. Today, the river has a strong cruise boat industry. In the past, the river was the life
blood of the surrounding towns. The importance of shipping can never be underestimated.
South Australia
Today the Flinders port authority are responsible for the major ports in South Australia. These ports
include Thevenard, Port Lincoln, Port Pirie, Wallaroo, Port Giles, Klein Port and Adelaide. These ports
enable trade in the state and are important assets to the state.
Adelaide was established 1836 and the suburb of Adelaide, port Adelaide its maritime beginnings. Port
Adelaide was nothing like we see today, it was tidal mud and swap. The port was seen as a miserable
place to be in the times of early settlement, swampy, full of mosquitoes, and a challenging landing
place for ships. The port did however, despite its miserable conditions play a strong role in the early
shipping for the town of Adelaide. Early settlers disembarked from the ships here.
Image 5.K Historical Port Adelaide Curtesy of State Library of South Australia http://collections.slsa.sa.gov.au/resource/B+11095
However, the port facilities and location improved and the port was moved down stream. This allowed
the catalyst for the current port and its facilities. The port lies on a river, Port River that starts from
the gulf of Saint Vincent. As the town of Adelaide expanded so did the port. The small river was
dredged, a bridge constructed and the port expanded. Throughout the ports vast history it has seen
many industries established. At the port containerisation also changed the way goods were
transported by sea. In the 1960s the port was designed to cater for this containerisation innovation.
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Today, the port services the surrounding towns and commodities traded include grain, limestone,
vehicles, metals, Fertilisers, Iron Ore, Steel, Iron, Break-bulk, Containers, Minerals, and Mineral Sands.
The port is managed by Flinders Port.
On the western side of the Gulf of Saint Vincent lies two smaller ports Klein Port and Port Giles. Klein
port is a small port used for the shipping of limestone. It was established specifically for trading the
highly prized commodity. While, Port Giles transports Grain and Seed from the surrounding farms
within the Yorke Peninsula.
The Yorke Peninsula, along with its pastoralism, has a strong maritime culture of fishing. Townships
and small ports are dotted along the Yorke coastline from the Gulf of St Vincent, across the
Investigator Strait and into the Spencer Gulf.
On the Spencer Gulf side of the peninsula is the township and port of Wallaroo. The township was
settled in 1851 for sheep grazing and farming. However, in the late 1850’s copper was discovered in
the area and this was mined for export. The port of Wallaroo was developed for servicing the Yorke
Peninsula and all the farming of grain, so the commodities handled are mostly grain and seeds and
some fertilisers.
Further north is Port Pirie. The town was established in 1845 and was named after a ship called the
John Pirie. Natural resources including Lead were discovered and in the late 1800s a lead smelter was
constructed for the town. Today, this smelter is operated by Nyrstar. The port itself was constructed
to service the town and today its commodities are coal, Mineral by-products, general cargo and
mineral concentrates.
On the west side of the Spencer Gulf, on the Eyre Peninsula, in Boston Bay lies the town of Port Lincoln.
This town was established in 1839. The Eyre Peninsula was home to early farming. In the early days of
discovery prior to the official settlement of the town, the coastal area was explored by Whalers.
Whaling was one of the earliest industries in this area but it ceased by the mid-1800s. The town was
dependent of farming, including wool and grain, and fishing due to its coastal location. Port Lincoln is
known as the seafood capital and the community to this day rely on the fishing industry having a large
fleet of fishing vessels and being reliant on aquaculture.
The port of Lincoln today handles these commodities. With the main commodities being delivered
from the farming communities in the Eyre Peninsula. Therefore, these commodities include Grain,
seeds and fertilisers. However, they also trade in Petroleum based products.
On the continuous westward exploration of South Australian Ports, the port and town of Thevenard
is reached. Thevenard is a coast town that began its life as a farm and used as an area for grazing. As
a town it was not established until the early 1920s. The port was developed with great foresight and
planning, as it was envisaged that the port would be an important hub for international trade.
Thevenard and surrounding towns were reliant on farming and the sea for their resources. And in the
1960s businesses constructed silos for the storage of grain, wheat, oats and barley. These products
46
are one of the biggest exports from the port. Other commodities that are traded through the port
include salt and Gypsum. The port is an integral part of the coastal township.
South Australian ports and coastal townships, like the rest of Australia, have a rich and interesting
maritime history. The state is heavily reliant on fishing, as well as their land resources, in particular
farming, for wool, grain and seeds. These commodities not only help their local communities, but they
also help the wider Australian economy. And the state has such rich farming lands that allow for the
international export of these products.
Northern Territory
The Northern coast of Australia has a long indigenous past. The first documented maritime trade was
with the Macassan traders who were exploring the area in search of sea cumber and pearl. The
Indigenous people learned about the outrigger canoe from this early trade as the Indigenous
population had a strong relationship with the sea.
In the early European settlement, the town of Darwin was part of South Australia and was set up as a
township in 1869. The settlement was well situated for maritime trade with neighbouring countries
as it was closer to Asia than other Australian towns. Also, it was a great location for pearl fisherman,
which encouraged international migration to the area. However, the area was prone to natural
cyclones, causing destruction, devastation and for the town to be rebuilt.
The port was established as soon as the town was founded to import goods for the local community.
The port was at first just a jetty for ships to anchor and transfer goods. This soon was expanded and
in the 1880s a railway Jetty was built enabling commodities to be loaded onto the ships. An image of
this jetty is included below.
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Image 5.L Early Darwin Jetty around 1900 Curtesy of National Library of Australia http://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-150847142
Being in the north of Australia, the northern territory relies on both the sea and land. Outside of the
township of Darwin, pastoralism was an important industry, cattle was one of the main trades through
the port and this continues to this day. But it was the mineral deposits that allowed the port to
maintain a challenging existence until World War II when it suffered major damage from the
bombings, both the loss of life and the destruction of port infrastructure.
In the mid 1950’s a valid effort was taken to improve the port after its damage during the war. A wharf
at stokes hill was constructed. The ports were increased to form the modern port facilities. The port
today handles a myriad of commodities, including cattle export, but also petroleum, dry bulk,
containers and is a cruise terminal for tourism. Many international and local tourists enjoy visiting the
town, to explore the sea and land.
The coast of Darwin also contains some other minor ports including Gove, Milner Bay and Bing Bong.
Heavy industry via oil and gas and mining of land resources have aided the economy for the Northern
Territory and this is shown with the existence of ports for bulk exports. The port of Gove contains an
Alcan refinery, run by Rio Tinto and exports bauxite. While, Milner Bay is located on the island Groot
Eylandt and is run by the Groote Eylandt Mining Co for exporting. Finally, the port of Bing Bong is a
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facility for shipping bulk concentrate. The bulk concentrate is transported on to a barge via the port
and transferred to the larger bulk carriers offshore.
An examination of Australian ports has shown how reliant Australia is on them for the transport of
resources around the world. Now, ports are hubs in the wider supply chain offering not only places to
load and unload cargo but as cruise ship terminals as well. Although, planes, trains and other forms of
transport provide viable options, Australia being an island, relies on the sea for the transport of large
bulk commodities. Ports will always play an important role in the maritime (and land too) transport
and trade.
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CHAPTER 6: THE FUTURE AND CONCLUSIONS
“The best way to predict your future is to create it” Abraham Lincoln
We have seen a brief glimpse at the maritime past of Australia. The rich vivid and exciting past about
how Australia was first populated, by Indigenous Australian’s and much later by the Europeans.
However, this is only but a glimpse. It is amazing at how quickly the European colonists expanded to
cover the continental coastlines, with cities, towns and important local and international commerce.
Not only the increase in sea trade, but something that has not been explored here, just how quickly
maritime innovation occurred – from sailing (including windjammers), steam ships, to bulk carriers
and everything in between. Without this innovation and foresight by designers, mariners, architects,
engineers and even port decision makers our current standing may have been different. It is
impossible to predict the future or to change the past. However, exploring the past gives information
and ideas about what to do and not do in the future. Without our past we would not be here, whether
the past is good or bad.
It is amazing to think what the world was like to people in the world in history. Their understanding of
the world and lands was very different that it is today. Imagine setting sail ready to explore the oceans
to discover a relatively unknown land. Today the world is mapped and charted, in history there were
many unknowns. An unknown land to the south. This is something it is difficult to understand what it
was like to live in a time when there were many unknowns about the world.
Just looking at Australian coastal exploration, the amount of natural resources discovered in the early
days of the colonies was in itself fascinating. Coming from a cold land, densely populated, to an island
with plenty of land for pastoralism, for mining, and with a great sea for fishing.
Therefore, when towns were established ports were often the first infrastructure to be constructed.
They were needed for trade and to transport people. As the towns expanded, the need for ports was
even more important as more migrants arrived the towns needed the infrastructure to process the
arrivals and receive and trade for supplies. In areas where pastoralism was the lifeblood of the inland
communities, railways, roads and ports were also extremely important. In many cases they
constructed ports along the coast as close to the farms, mine sites and so forth as they possibly could.
Ports were economical.
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Now the future lies ahead waiting to be created for the maritime sector. The maritime sector has
always been deeply rooted in the past, after all the sector shaped the economic growth and the social
and political environment in the world. Empires were forged through ocean discovery and exploration,
and countries were colonised and populated. However, that being said, the maritime sector is moving
forward and innovating faster and faster to create new shipping technologies, just take a look at the
companies developing automated ships, and the industry working to become as environmentally
sustainable as possible. Although some of these technologies are not going to be operating right this
minute, they open up world of endless possibilities. The challenge, the technology industry is
innovating faster than people can keep up with some of the time.
What will the future of the maritime sector look like? Trains, planes and driverless trucks provide
alternative transport options for trade and they are faster. Artificial intelligence (AI) is moving forward
in leaps and bounds and automation of shipping is being trialled. In addition, cruises and leisure
activities are a popular maritime industry. Therefore, it is safe to say that maritime is loved by people
and needed. The focus for innovating and developing sustainable ships for the future will remain.
A glimpse into the past of Australian maritime discovery and ports has shown what history has
delivered. It has shown us the people, explorers, places and the watercraft that made it all possible.
This EBook provides an overview into an exciting and interest past, ready for more exploration.
51
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS
Books and Articles
Bach, John 1976, A Maritime History of Australia, Nelson, Melbourne.
Dampier, William 1699, A Voyage to New Holland, third edition. Project Gutenberg.
Department of Harbours and Marine 1986, Harbours and Marine: Port Development in Queensland
from 1824 to 1985, Department of Harbours and Marine: James Ferguson Pty Ltd.
Flood, Josephine 2004, Archaeology of the Dreamtime: The prehistoric Australia and its people, JB
Publishing.
Jefferies, Greg 2007, The Stradbroke Island Galleon, JAG Publications, Cleveland.
Johnson, Wayne & Parris, Rodger 2008, A History of Sydney’s Darling Harbour, Sydney Harbour
Foreshore Authority.
Hill, David 2008, 1788 The Brutal Truth of the First Fleet: the biggest single overseas migration the
world has ever seen, William Heinemann, Australia.
Hill, David 2014, The Making of Australia: from a tiny struggling convict settlement to the remarkable
nation it is today, Penguin Random House Press.
Hinkson, Melinda and Harris, Alana 2010, Aboriginal Sydney: a guide to important places of the past
and present, Aboriginal Studies Press, Sydney.
Hoskins, Ian 2009, Sydney Harbour: A history, University of New South Wales Press, Sydney.
Hoskins, Ian 2013, Coast: a history of the New South Wales Edge, NewSouth Publishing, Sydney.
Lewis, Glen 1973, A History of the Ports of Queensland: A study in economic nationalism, The
University of Queensland Press, Brisbane.
Ludlow, Peter 2013, The port of Brisbane, its people and its personalities, Port of Brisbane.
McGrail, Sean 2015, Early Ships and seafaring: water transport beyond Europe. Pen and Sword Books
Pty, London.
Menzies, Gavin 2002, 1421, the year the Chinese discovered the world, Bantam Press, London.
52
Moore, C 2001, The South Sea Islanders of Mackay, Queensland, Australia,
http://www.multiculturalaustralia.edu.au/doc/mmaq01_moore_mackay.pdf
Moore, HA 1978, The Mackay Harbour Story, Mackay Harbour Board.
Mundle, Rob 2015, Great South Land, Harper Collins Publisher, Sydney.
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Pemberton, Barry 1979, Australian Coastal Shipping, Melbourne University Press.
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Steen, RM a 1972, History of the Port of Bowen, Bowen Historical Society: Bowen Independent.
Steen, RM b 1972, Bowen’s Maritime History, Bowen Historical Society: Bowen Independent.
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53
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