Chapter VI

AN AGENDA FOR SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND

ECOLOGICAL REHABILITATION OF SPITI VALLEY

Developmental concerns in the Himalayas revolve around .as to how could the

resources be managed for conserving/improving the environmental values of the

region, together with socio-economic development of mountain people. Linkages

between ecologi.cal and socio-economic approaches ensure that development is made

location specific. While conservation of natural resources figures as top priority on

the agenda of environmentalists, possible ways of building upon th~ economic

potential are linked to infrastructural development, advance technology, increased

cash flow through a well developed market economy being the primary concerns of

the deprived and desperate rural people. 1 Sustainable management · of natural

resources and Ecological Restoration2 is possible neither by asserting power by law

enforcing agencies of the state, . nor giving free hand to the people to decide the

2

Ramakrishnan, P.S., Purohit, A.N., Saxena, K.G. and Rao, K.S. Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development, Diamond Jubilee Publication, Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, 1994, p.32.

P.S. Ramakrishnan, Deforestation in Himalaya: Causes, Consequences and Restoration In Deforestation of Degraded Land: Concepts and Strategies, Ed. J.S. Singh, Rastogi Publication, Meerut, India, p.279. Restoration ecology is a proposition employing the ecological concepts for enhancing the utility potential of the degraded lands. This applied discipline of ecology is distinguished from other resourCe management approaches in that it attempts to take care of the opportunities and constraints from biological, physical, social, cultural and economic view points, of putting a land to a given use. Stimulation of natural processes in favour of mankind in a long term perspective, minimal possible dependence on the external inputs and interlinkages of the diverse subsistence needs of the human beings are the key considerations in ecological approaches of restoration.

192

balance between use of natural resources for the present and future, and . for

themselves and others. Going by the traditional days and infusing management

machinery in the hands of people apprehend a risk of exploitation of natural resources

for short-term gains. Though incompatibility between immediate local needs for

economic developmental and environmental conservation priorities of a region, there

is a scope for narrowing down this conflict. The objective of preservation/

conservation of the Himalayan environment can be achieved provided the actions

adopted to serve the long-term interest of a wide group (people living in the

Himalayas as well as those outside the region) is reconciled with immediate needs

of the people of the region in specific.

Regional development perspective of Himalaya seem to be clouded with

environmental and economic issues; social issues being usually given a peripheral or

secondary importance. Environmental degradation is more a problem of relationship

among people competing for productive resources than of relationships between

people and habitats. 3

Development priorities for the mountains are furnished for improving upon the

life quality of mountain people themselves and also to persuade the people of the

. plains that the future of the mountains can not be isolated from their own.4

However, to what extent a more marg~l area like the Himalaya gets priority over

a less marginal area like the Indo-gampetic plains will continue to be a question that

3

4

Horowitz, M.M. Anthropology and the new development agenda; Development Anthropology Network, 1988, 6: 1-4.

E. Eckholm, The deterioration of mountain environments; Science, 1975, 139: 764-770 .

. 193

is resolved more by the political decision making process. Protection of interests of

the indigenous population th~refore must assume priority and interventions should be

aimed at sustainable development of the Himalayan region as a whole.

Multiple ethnic composition is a striking feature of Himalayan culture and

environment. There are numerous tribal groups confmed to the Himalayan region.

Population size and distribution of different ethnic gr?ups greatly varies. Among

smaller groups, Raji tribe of Kumaon is represented by only about 350 individuals.

Ethnic spectra of Central and Western Himalaya differs conspicuously from that of

the north eastern region. Racially, a majority of tribal communities, particularly those

in the north-eastern region exhibit 'mongolid' affiliations. In Western and Central

Indian Himalaya, 'Khasa' ethnic characteristics are more conspicuous. 5

Evolution, migration and acculturation process give rise to a number socio­

cultural identities representing tribal-non-tribal continuum.lt could be generalised that

the traditional tribal societies in majority of cases, even at present prefer isolation and

preserve their culture with non-tribal groups. Huge variation in physical, biological

and human systems in the region demand careful consideration of locational

specificities while designing and implementing any developmental step.

The topography of the Spiti valley is very uneven having scarce water

resources. Consequently culturable area is also very limited seeing natural

constraints. The area is snow bound for more than six months. With the increase in

population pressure, the necessity of meeting food, fuel wood and fodder requirements

5 Op. cit., Ramakrishnan, Purohit, Saxena and Rao, p.8.

194

is affecting drastically the land use system: is the Spiti valley and mountain as a

whole. This accelerates the process of resource extraction both from forests and

farmlands. The decades of emphasis on food production without appropriate land

improvement techniques has now resulted in soil erosion which has become a major

environmental problem in Spiti.

During past, soil erosion control thorough terracing, cleaning and planting of

trees has been the response of farmers and developmental agencies. But in many

cases now, this response in no longer workable - either economically or

environmentally. Currently many areas under cultivation can not be terraced because

of the very steep slopes, pointing Spiti valley as an unique example. The obvious and

sustainable solution under such conditions would be to plant appropriate species and

bring steep slopes under forest cover. However, it is not acceptable either on

economic or on social grounds, since increasing population in the.hills has to depend

directly upon these lands for their livelihood. Hence, the question of reconciling long­

term environmental and resource conservation issues, with the short-term survival

strategies of mountain people is a major challenge for policy makers and

developmental agencies.

This calls for focusing on multiple goal centred strategies for resource

conservation and rehabilitation. Seabuckthom (SBT) as major natural resource will

greatly facilitate economic development and reduce pressure on forests for fuel use

and be a constant natural capital and 'Sustainable income'. 6

6 Hare, W.L., Marlowe, J.P., Rae, M.L., Gray, F., Humphries, R. and Ledgar, R. Ecologically Sustainable Development, Australian Conservation Foundation, Fitzroy Victoria, 1990.

195

Seabuckthorn (SBT) as a Panacea for Spitian Society

SBT is a deciduous shrub and is widely distributed throughout the temperate

zones of Asia and Europe and subtropical zones of Asia at high altitudes. Growing

at altitudes ranging between a few m to 5.200 m and above, Seabuckthom can resist

freezing temperatures of -43 oc and can withstand heat of 40°C. Some species grow

well in regions that have a precipitation of only about 300 mm. Some species grow

well in alkaline soils (with pH 9.5) while other species grow even on acidic soils

having pH 1 . 1.

Seabuckthom possesses a highly developed root system thus an excellent

choice for holding the soil on fragile slopes. In many locations, a five year old plant

can possess tap root upto three m deep with horizontal spread between six to ten m.

Two or three years after its plantation, horizontal roots start producing sproutS. Thus

plants planted 2 or 4 m apart cover the entire area through root sprouts within a

period of 3 to 5 years. It controls top soil erosion by 30 per cent and retains 80 per

cent of soil water.

It is estimated that about 180 kg of N ha -I yr-1 can be fixed in the soil around

seabuckthom roots also assist in transformation of insoluble organic and minerals in

soil into more absorbent states. In terms of ability to improve the physical and

chemical properties of soil, seabuckthom, acts as a pioneer plant within a fragile and

marg.inal contex~.

Thiere is also an extraordinary economic aspect attached with seabuckthom.

A natural seabuckthom forest can yield berries 750 about to I ,500 kg ha-1• Its small,

196

organge-coloured fruit is a storehouse of many substances. The vitamin C content is

5 to 100 times higher than any other fruit or vegetable known so far. Its pulp and

seeds contain high quality oil which is regarded to be very important for its medicinal

value. Thus, the seabuckthorn fruit is being used as a raw material for producing

food, medicines and cosemetics. In addition, it is a good source offirewood. In a six­

year old seabuckthorn plantation, it produces 18 t of firewood ha-1, equal to nearly

12.6 t of standard coal.

When the economic benefits of seabuckthorn were revealed, farmers started

considering seabuckthorn a valuable resource. Increasing cultivation of seabuckthorn

attests its multipurpose usage and tremendous value-added properties.

Geographical Distribution

The plant is found in all the countries of the Himalayan Region, and its

distribution extends for over 3,500 km from east to west. It grows abundantly

throughout this vast mountain area. There are four species and nine sub-species

distributed worldwide, of which four species and four sub-species are found growing

in the Himalaya and the other five sub-species are distributed throughout Eurasia. It

is believed that the Hindu Kush -Himalaya and the Qinghai Tibetan Plateau are the

main areas of origin and distribution of this genus. The detail is as follows:

Properties and Uses

Hippophae rhamnoides L. of the sub-species Sinensis Rousi occupies the

largest area, and is distributed throughout Shanxi, Shaanxi, Qinghai, Sichuan, Nei

197

Monggo, Hebel at altitudes varying from 50-3800 m.a.s.l. This sub-species is most

widely distributed in China. The berries vary in shape, size and shade of colour

indicating its diversity.

Currently, sea buckthorn products are extracted from this plant which is

growing naturally. Since the natural grooves are dispersed over wide areas, the yield

is not regular and stable. The large berries have high content of Vitamin C. Dwarf

plants with minimum thorns are the best. This can be propagated asexually by the

plantations established to raise the commercial value of this sub-species.

Hippophae rhamnoides L. of the sub-species Turkestanica grows near river

banks and even on open slopes of wide valleys, at an altitude 800 to 3000 m in

Western Xizang - Tibet, the former USSR, Afghanistan, North Pakistan and North­

West India. It is found throughout the arid regions of Xizang and Central Asia. The

arid climate with abundant sunshine and ·a wide diurnal temperature is favourable for

high oil contents.

Hippophae rhamnoides of sub-species Yunnanensis Rousi. It is distributed

throughout the gorges and along the river banks ofNorth-West Yunnan, South-West

Sichuan, Eastern Tibet and Northern Burma. The characteristics of this sub-species

are very similar to those of the sub-species Sinensis. Hippophae rhamnoides L. of the

sub-species G_yanstensis Rousi is found growing on terraces and river banks at.

altitudes betwee11: 3,200 to 3,800 m along the Yaly Tsangpo River in Tibet and

Sikkim. It is also distributed throughout the arid region of Tibet and flourishes in

river valleys with precipitation below 300 mm. Its introduction in other arid and

198

semi-arid regions is considered feasible. This sub-species differs from others in terms

of morphology, biological features, geographical distribution and chemical

constituents.

Hippophae salicifolia D. Don. It is found in gorges and on the edges of forests

in alpine areas ranging from 2,800 - 3,700 min Southern Tibet, Kashmir, Nepal,

Sikkim and Bhutan. It is an endemic species to the Himalayan Region, grows

vigorously and has few throns. It is advisable to introduce it in other similar regions

also.

Hippophae tibetana Schelechtend is distributed in grasslands and river banks

of the Qinghai Plateau, Gansu, Tibet, Sichuan, Sikkim, Nepal and Northern India

between 3,000 to 5,000 m.

The size is quite small (8 to 60 em high) with few thorns. Being a dwarf

plant, with large berries and few throns, it is easy to harvest and is also suitable for

close space planting.

Hippophae neurocarpa S.W. Liu et T.N. Distributed throughout the river

valleys and plateaue at altitudes ranging from 2,800 to 4,300 m in Qinghai, Gansu,

Sichuan and Tibet.

In areas above 3 ,500, where it is difficult to fmd trees other than the willow,

Hippophae neurocarpa grows to a height of one to three m. It can resist strong winds

and grows in clusters forming natural groves which makes· it a important ecological

crop.

199

Method of Analysis

The analysis was aimed at comprehending the 'ecological setting' of the study

area i.e. the cold desert region of Spiti. The many layers of informations available

from Remote sensing ~mageries, surveyed topographic maps and personal field

observations were all utilized to get the setting of the valley - soico-economic and

physical.

In ecological terms, the Spiti area is known as a cold Dersert region. 7 The

Aridity of the region results principally from physiographic . causes and the rain

shadow effect of the Pir Panjal range. The warm moisture laden monsoon winds get

blocked by this barrier and hence in Spiti, only winter precipitation in the form of

snow is the water source. There is a significant percentage of area of Spiti which is

under permanent snow cover. There are sizeable number of glaciers in the snow

bound areas. Though precipitation is very low i.e. less than 90 days a year, the

winter snow fall covers the whole area. The snow melts off continuously till the end

of September, the summer months are invariably dry and the maximum temperature

7 Cold Desert results due to the type of climate whose salient feature is aridity, or lack of regular precipitation; it may thus occur within ~ wide range of latitudes, the two principal climatic divisions being the tropical or hot desert and the mid-latitude desert. The lsohyet of 250 mm (10 in) may be taken as a rough guide to the limit of the desert climate, though in the far north of Canada and Siberia a rainfall of 250 mm is actually sufticient to promote forest growth. Character of rainfall, intact, is as important as amount: in some desert areas there may be a raintall of over 500 mm during the year, but it tails in violent thundery showers, and is mostly lost by Run-oft' and evaporation; Associated with the aridity of the desert climate are such .characteristics as amount of sunshine, range of temperatures, and relief of land - all of which combine to distinguish it from other climates, in whatever latitude it is situated. Its most significant feature is its unproductiveness, its inability to support settled independent communities. Moore, W.G. The Penguin Dictionary of Geography, Penguin Books (N.Z.), Auckland, 1982, pp.66-67.

200

reaching upto 32°C. During peak winter temperature goes down to - 20°C and

during heavy snowfall it may touch- 30°C also.

Snow is a predominant feature and extent and retreat of snow determines the

life cycles in the region. Snow is very easily identified in Remote sensed imageries.

It reflects light very strongly and appears white in the imageries. Spiti area is devoid

of cloud cover during summer months and offers an excellent opportunity for Remote

Sensing studies to assess cycles of vegetation growth.

The present study utilizes R.S. imagery taken during Oct. 1989; Two

transparencies of images taken at 1 :50,000 scale ·ratio from Indian Remote Sensed

Satellite were borrowed from State Council for Science Technology and Environment

Himachal Pradesh. A modified slide projector was utilized for projecting the

transparency imageries on to a flat surface. These images were in False Colour

Composite (FCC) with the standard colour combinations given by National Remote

Sensed Agency. The images show vegetation and cultural habitats as regions of

warmer radiation & hence reddish colour in the F.C.C.

Spiti area has only scanty patches of faint reddish tinge which indicate sparse

vegetative cover.

The imageries were taken in October which is the season of minimum snow

cover in Spiti. The concet of "Permanent Snow-line'8 is very important for

8 The snowline on a mountain or hill slope which represents the lower limit of perpetual snow; below the line, any snow which falls is melted during the summer. It is not a sharply detined line, for towards the margin of perpetual snow the covering becomes

understanding the environment and climate of the region. The imagery was of a

single year i.e. the year 1989. However, we are considering this as an approximation

of the 'Permanent Snow Line' and has been marked so in the Thematic map.

Survey of India (SOl) Topographic sheets of Spiti at 1:50 (Nos.52-L/3, 52-

L/4, 52-H/15, 52-H/16) were also utilized for the study. The Topo-maps provides

elevation model marked out in contour lines of 40 meter interval, thus giving an

excellent view of the micro-relief features of the region. The Topo maps contained

information on the glaciated features and the melt water originating from them

joining the Spiti river. It also contained all major socio-cultural features like roads,

settlements, culturable land etc.

These varied informations from Remote sensed imageries and Topographic

maps were superimposed to arrive at a composite picture. The imageries were

1:50,000 scale which is the same scale as that of the Topographic maps. Hence it

was possible to sharply focus the projections of the imageries using the modified slide

projector on to the topographic maps, and to align them properly. The resultant

image provides a 3 Dimensional t3D) view to the analyst so that one is able to draw

necessary inferences on the ecological/environmental issues. Various aspects

influencing. the existing land use pattern become evident in this 3D view. The

influence of features like the proximity of snow cover, the nature & extent of slope,

the vegetative cover indicating water availability & soil conditions can be interpreted

from the imageries by the analyst.

patchy and irregular, until tinally it disappears altogether. The altitude of snowline varies considerably in different regions, and in general falls from the tropics to the polar region.

202

The above approach has been used in the analysis of Spiti ecology by

superimposing Remote Sensed imageries on to the Topographic map. A tracing sheet

was placed on the Topographic map so that these observations could be marked on

it. This rough sketch maps were used for preparing a thematic map.

The final Thematic map depicts existing land use pattern, ro!'ds and physical

features like snow, glacier bodies and rivers. In addition the conclusions of the study

regarding future land use pattern and afforestation measures have also been

suggested. An attempt has been made to identify probable source of water and

locations for reservoirs. The figures given on the thematic map synchronises with the

figures of the photographs and ~ approximate location of the place where

photographs were taken.

Different geographical sub-units have been identified on the map. The orange

coloured large area adjoining Kaza is an elevated plateau with an average altitude of

14000 feet. The rest of area have high undulating relief. Cultivable areas are more ---- --.

or less located at the valley bottom. The community settlement and socio-economic

activities is primarily along the river valleys and the elevated and large plateau area.

The human settlements and their crop lands are marked in red in the map. The roads

. connecting these settlements have also been marked in red. The Pucca roads used for

plying heavy vehicles are shown in continuous red lines, where as Kucha road and

mule tracks are shown in broken redlines connecting the villages and while the

Kucha roads from a dense network connecting different villages and the plateau area.

However, the culturable land are mainly located around settlements only· and

the rest of the area is barren, underdeveloped and with very scarce vegetation used

for grazing and fuelwood.

203

It can be seen that the Pucca roads are mostly along the river valleys. The rest

of the area is outside the s~ope of the proposed afforestation effort. These include

areas which are shown in light brown colour and areas with snow cover in blue and

glaciers in purple colours.

The plateau area is near human inhabitation and is very accessible as is

evident in the thematic map in the form of dense net work of Kucha roads. These

areas and near bottom valley areas can be 'ta.nJed' using. SBT for introducing thick

vegetative cover and thus enhancing the soil properties and benefiting the

ground water regime. Managed forests of SBT can be developed in those areas

manually by transplanting saplings from the nursery into the open. The SBT .

plantations in these areas i.e. plateaus & valley bottoms, may be considered as a

'Precursor species'.

As evident in Remote sensed imageries, the vegetative cover is very sparse.

In this sense SBT managed forests would be precursor introducing vegetative cover

into the area. This proposed in these areas accessible . to human settlements the

precursor SBT plantations can be cleared after 5-l 0 years for introducing other crops

and forest species. The SBT would have in this period increased the fertility of the

soil and enhance the ecological properties.

The nitrogen~ fixing. root modules of SBT wil1 the ieft in the soil and the green

leaves is also to be returned to the soil while clearing SBT areas. The twigs may be

used as fire wood. In the 5-l 0 years period, the green colour area would have

achieved luxuriant growth from seeds spread by aircrafts (areal seeding).

204

In this scenario it is proposed that commercial exploitation of SBT may be

planned in a big way from this vast tracts of managed and partially managed

plantations.

SBT harvesting may initially start in the plateau area and as these areas are

replaced by other crops, SBT harvesting activity should shift to the green area in the

map.

Thus, industries revolving around SBT can be established and maintained is

the long term.

The Chinese example which is very relevant iti this regard is described, in the

following section.

The Chinese Experience

China is a country that lacks sufficient forest area. Its forest coverage is only

12 per cent of its total area, and the per capita of timber is 0. 02 m3. In China, 60 per

cent of 800 niillion farmers experience a shortage of firewood for 3 to 5 months each

year. In northern and north-western China, particularly, there is less vegetation cover

and the land surface is always exposed. Rainfall is below 400 to 500 mm and it is

extremely uneven. Ecological conditions are so poor, that soil erosion persists

throughout. 9

9 International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development. Occasional Paper No.20, Kathmandu, Nepal, 1992, p.25.

205

Severe loss of soil and water has devastating effects on farming, forestry,

stock-breeding, and on the ecology and environment of the area concerned. It also

influences use of water, land, and mineral resources.

In order to bring soil erosion under permanent control, to unprove the

environment, and to promote agricultural development, several species of tree and

shrub were planted in this region. Among them seabuckthorn bad the strongest

competitive ability both in pure and mixed forests.· Hence, it was sown over large

areas and soon several seabuckthorn forests were established. 10

The Loess Plateau covers an area of about 600,000 sq. k. and is located in

Northern China. The altitude of most parts of it is between I 000-2000 most end the

climate is semi-arid to semi-humid. The annual rainfall ranges between 400mm to

600mm. with a large arinual variation. There is low vegetation cover, and· the

percentage of natural forests s only 4.4 per cent. Poor cultural conditions and

primitive production methods have caused it to be one of the poorest areas of China

and lack of fuel, animal feed, animal feed, and fertiliser are the problems that many

districts here have to face. 11

A Synoptic View of Water and Soil Loss on the Loess Plateau

The eroded area of the Losses Plateau is estimated to be 430,000 sq. km (It

is almost equal to the area of Iraq or 3 times that of Nepal), and the total annual

10 Ibid.

II Ibid, p.28.

206

surface soil loss amounts to 1,600 million tons. Calculations revealed that the fertility

loss from the soil exceeded the total chemical fertiliser output produced in the entire

country in 1973. Downstream from the Yell ow River, the annual accumulation of

sediment averages 400 million tons, causing the river bed to rise about 10 em

annually. This not only endangers the life and property of the people but also

compels the Government to spend vast sums of money in strengthening and

increasing the height of the embankment. 12

Since the 1950s, organised control over soil erosion on the Loess Plateau has

been carried out and about 100,000 sq. km of eroded area have been primarily

improved. Thus more than 200 million tons year of sediment washed down into the

yellow River have been reduce~. Among the various control measures, biological

measures are predominatly used and have been adopted in 64 per cent of the

total area controlled. Among the areas using biological measures, soil and

water conservation forests have been established on more than 70 per cent of

the area.

For many year, because of the irrational selection of tree species; irrational

decisions regarding the location of afforestation; and a variety of other reasons. the

survival rare, preservation, and growth of the forests have been unsatisfactory.

Therefore, one important subject of research work relating to soil and water

conservation in the Loess Plateau is the identification of appropriate tree species and

the location of suitable afforestation areas.

12 Ibid.

207

After many years of investigation and study, it was found that the local

species of seabuckthom has wide ecological adaptations. It is distributed

extensively throughout grasslands, forest-grasslands, and deciduous forest zones

of the Loess, Plateau, especially on the mountains and. hills of the forest

grassland zone.

Investigations· showed that a three-year old Seabuckthom plant can sprout up

to 10 turions and a five-year old plant up 50 51 stems. On one abandoned wasteland,

sebuckthom forests expanded their borders by 2m or so each year.

Seabuckthom plants can multiply to form dense, bushy woods over a short

period of time and the bushy woods intercept rainfall and protect the soil from

erosion. It is reported that in Y ouyu Couny, Shanxi Province, 74 km of seabuckthom

forest planted on the banks of the Changtouche River protected the river banks, and

the sediment discharged into the Yellow River decreased by 3-5 million tons each

year.

In China, there are 7,40,000 ha of natural and 3000,000 ha of cultivated

plants of sea buckthorn and total output of seabuckthom products. reached more than

150,000 t per year and with the total output value of 21,184,J22 US$ during

1990 alone. 13

India has vast stretch of harsh, inaccessible and temperate area (7 ,4809

sq. km) designated as Cold Deserts in the northwest Himalya. These areas are

13 Ibid.

208

characterised by subzero winter and high summer temperatures, poor precipitation

in the form of snow. The Cold Deserts are located in Leh and kargil districts of

Jammu and Kashmir and Lahaula and Spiti district with some parts of Chamba and

Kinnaur in Himachal Pradesh .. The economic growth of these areas is hampered due

· to a variety of biotic, abiotic, ecophysiologic and sociopolitical factors.

fuaccessibility, harsh and inhospitable climatic conditions further jeopardise the pace

of economic development. 14

Seabuckthom there offers an opportunity to maintain a more sustainable

livelihood through its rational harnessing. The use of seabuckthom illustrates how

low input costs and careful planning can lead to substantial benefits. It qualifies as

a unique option for the simultaneous management of several problems emanating

from the exploitation of inaccessible, marginal and fragile areas.

Present Distributional Pattern of Seabuckthorn in Spiti Valley

Spiti valley comprising of. Lower Spiti area, the Pin valley and upper Spiti

(Kaza) valley emerged as an important habitant very rich in resources of Hippophae.

It showed great variability and density of SBT resource than Lahaul valley. Two

species H. rhamnoides and H. rhamonoides sub sp turkestanika dominate in most of

the forest patches of lower Spiti area. However, H. tibetana and H salifolia are

limited to only small patches at Sichling, Ligthi, Lari and Tabo. The best example

of much genetic diversity within small area _is visible at Lingti where almost all

14 Seabuckthorn (Hippophae L.) Consultation Meeting: 3-4 January, 1994, S.C.S.T. & Environment, Shimla, H.P. and Dr. Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, H.P., p.5.

209

t

1 rsooooc'l

Map showing distribution and genetic diversity of Seabuckthorn (SBT) m Himachal Pradesh

• H rhamnoides 0 H salicifelia • H tibetana

• H rhamnoides sub sp. turkestanika U 1 Unidentified sp. I. U2 Unidentified sp.2.

c H

tJ

A

species reported from this area are growing. In Pooh, Tabo and Hruling plants

belonging to two species of H. rhamnoides, H. rhamonoides sub sp turkestanika can

be seen growing side by side in several patches. Some unidentifiable populations

(species) of seabuckthorn are also found growing among other SBT stands of known

taxonomic relationship. IS

The Pin valley, probably coldest of all dry zones of this area also showed

good potential for genetic diversity of seabuckthorn. Here H. rhamnoids and H

tibetaria also exist at Sagnam and Mudh areas commonly on mountainslopes. At few

places in this valley, all the three species of Hippophae were found growing in close

association with each other. H salicifolia is restricted to lower areas only.

The upper Spiti valley ranging from 3 ,500 m to 5 ,500m and above with the

temperature in the winters sometime going below -48 oc has plenty of sea buckthorn

in the whole valley. H rhamnoides and H. rhamnoides sub sp turkestanika dominated

in all places of the valley including uttargu bridge, Ledang, Shego and kaza. Few

plants of H. tibet ana were also found growing near Kaza. H salicifolia was found

growing in Uttargu bridge, lara and Shego. These areas have maximum stands of

Hippophae at some places. Except H. tibetana, all other species are seen growing in

association with each other for quite long distances while H salicifolia exists in very

small patches. H. rhamnoides in all, dominated the sea buckthorn populations in these

dense forest like healthy stands continuing at some places for more than half

kilometre long stretch. 16

15 Negi, 1. P. Eco-Development Impact and Evaluation of Desert Development Programme of Cold Desert of Spiti (1978-93) in Himachal Pradesh, India, p.55.

16 Ibid, p.56.

210 0

In upper Kaza valley, once again the dominant plant species is H. rhamnoides

whereas at Losar, Kibber and Morang, few patches of H. tibetana do exist. The H.

rhamnoides plant go as high as 1.5-6.5 m or even more H. salicifolia is mainly

growing in Sumling and Morang. It is also present in other areas as very thin stands.

H. tibetana dominates other SBT species in Kibber, Chichong and Darcha. This

species is only 0.3-0.7 m. in height; rarely 1 m and expands in circular manner and

is much branched with most of the branches running parallel to soil.

A unique plant species resembling with H. rhamnoides exists at places in

upper Kaza valley. This species has intense fruiting ability with very less thorns

unlike H. rhamnoides sub sp turkestanika, and needs further taxonomic analysis to

assign it either to the existing species or it may be a new sub species. 17

In 19th century Russia, the berries were used for making wines, james, and

other types of food. Interest in the plant began to increase at the beginning of the

20th century when horiticulturalists started to introduce the plant into orchards.

Especially after the second World War, nutritionists and pharmacologists analysed

the vitamin components and found that seabuckthom could be used not only as a food

but also a medicine. Several countries, including the USSR, Mongolia, Polan, West

Germany, Finland, Italy, Norway, Hungary, Canada, and the USA have been

. studying this amaziing plant. 18

17 Ibid.

18 Sen, Lu Rong, JCIMOD, Mountain Farming Systems, Discussion Paper Series No.12, 1990, p.2.

211

Comparisons of the Vitamin Content of Seabuckthorn and other Fruits (mg/lOOg and Vegetables

VA Vat Vs2 Vp VK Vc

Seabuckthorn 11.00 0.04 0.56 1000.0 1000-200 300-1600

Cili (Rosa 4.83 0.05 0.03 2909.0 - 1000-3000 roxburghii)

Hawthorn 0.82 0.02 0.05 - - 100-150

Kivi fruit - - - - - -(Actinidia chinensis)

Oranges 0.55 0.08 0.03 - - 50

Tomatoes 0.31 0.03 0.02 - - 11.8

Carrots 4.00 0.02 0.05 - - 8.0

Source: Ibid.

Seabuckthorn Products Developed in China

Types Varieties of Seabuckthorn products

Raw materials clean, raw juice, thick juice, condenses juice, pulp; oil, seed oil, residual oil, raw powder, pigment and flavour

Soft Drinks Syrup juice, Fruit juice drinks (including thick juice and clean juice), carbonated juice, drink, soda water

Hard drinks Sweet wine, medium dry wine, carbonated (bubbling) wine, champanage and beer

Drink granules Seabuck thorn crystals

Functional drinks . Sport's drink seabuck thorn syrup

Jam, sweets Seabuck thorn jam, Sebuck thorn chocolate sweets .

. Cosmetics Shampoo, hair conditioners, hair dye, cosmetic beauty cream.

Medicines Medicines for treatment of cough, flaronoid liquid, compound oil supositories, seabuck thorn extracts etc.

Source: Op. cit., Negi, J.P., p.55.

212

Socio-economic Attributes of Mountain Ecosystems

Due to slope, altitude, terrain conditions, and natural hazards, inaccessibility

is one of the most known features of mountain areas. Its concrete manifestations

have a profound effect on the social systems and economies of mountain

communities. 19

Lack of infrastructure and serv1ces, especially in education, health, ·

and agricultural extension, are directly linked to inaccessibility. Transport costs

are high, markets are distant, and the value-added costs of goods and services

severely limit production flow both in and out of mountain areas. High investment

costs further limit infrastructure and economic development. Even with abundant

hydropower resources, rural electrification in mountains can . be prohibitively

expensive.

The above stated constraints can be overtaken by initiating SBT Activity. 20

With the start of the project remotest possible area within Spiti and linkages outside

the valley could be established for safer and better transaction. Even now government

has done substantially connecting quite high located villages like Gete, Kibber and

the plateau above Kaza (Hikkin, Komik, Langja, etc.) Better amenities could be

19 Price, L. W. Mountains and Man, University of California, Berkeley USA, 1981. Hewitt, K. The Study of Mountain Lands and Peoples: A critical overview, In Allan N.J.R. Knapp, G.W. and Stadel, C. (eds.) Human Impact on Mountains. Rowman & Stittletield, New Jersey. Jodha, N.S. A framework for Integrated Mountain Development, M.F.S. Discussion Paper No.1, ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal.

20 SBT activity denotes various types of ecological and economic benefits through plantation and exploitation of Seabuckthorn (SBT).

213

availed by the help of generating income there by leading a quality life. electrification

problem could be solved by its own production (within Spiti Valley) through micro- .

hydel projects and reservoirs.

Due to the extreme seasonal variation in river flows, storage is desired to

regulate river flows for flood control, dry season irrigation, and power generation

during the peak demand of winter. In addition, electricity from generating facilities

associated with large impoundments will provide Spiti with a greatly needed export.

While the multipurpose reservoirs are highly beneficial in terms of their stated goals,

they are extraordinarily expensive, environmentally disruptive, and have a relatively

short life under the high Himalayan sedimentation regime.

But the general soil erosion rate can be found from the silt flowing in the Spiti

rivers. Information as given in below table describes the ten year's average of silt

between 1971-80 and 1981-90.

Sr. No. Year (gl_l) (gl-1) Average Max. Silt Minimum Silt

1. 1971-80 11.7425 0.0002

2. 1981-90 5.9050 0.0003

·Source: Op. cit., Negi, p.50.

These figures reveal that during the progressive phase of the DDP, there is a

decrease in silt g I J of silt load in two successive decades ( 1971-80 to 1981-90).

214

This is certainly an encouragmg analysis about the positive impact of

'Restoration Ecology' checking sedimentation and siltation and much more could be

achieved through SBT plantation holding soil on fragile mountain slopes.

Stemming from ecosystem diversity is the tremendous variety of adaptive

strategies of mountain peoples, both within and between cultural groups. Men and

women must successfully manage a multiplicity of roles and production systems in

order to survive. Mountain regions are characterized by political and economic

marginality with respect to surrounding lowland areas and regional centers of power.

The people generally have little or no voice in national affairs, even on issues that

affect their own resources or communities directly. Access to external markets is

often available only on unequal and unfavourable terms of trade.

Throughout history mountain regions have been net exporters of resources to

the plains. The economic trusts of minerals, forests, water, and recreation are

frequently viewed as valuable national or regional assets. primary resources have

been extracted with minimal consideration of the rights of local property owners of

the impacts on local populations. Many mountain areas have, at some point,

experienced marginalization or disinheritance of their peoples due to extractive

activities. For example coal mining operations in the Appalachian mountains a

century ago disinherited thousands of mountain farmers.

Thus, marginalization and disinheritance won't occur as because it Is

people's participation and cooperation that will make SBT Activity successful m

Spiti valley.

215

Mountains commonly occupy trans-boundary areas between nations- another

form of marginality. This can result in a confusing political or economic climate for

communities whose national boundaries cross traditional trade routes, or cut through

culturally linked areas.

Sacred places, pilgrimage sites, and areas of taboo abound in mountains.

There is a universal tug on the human spirit exerted by the sight of soaring crystal

peaks, or mysterious hidden valleys. Religious leaders or sacred traditions can also

be powerful allies in promoting conservation. Budhist lamas and Nuns have played

a noteworthy conservation role in the Himalayan ranges. More than a hundred years

ago in New Zealand, Maori people, fearing exploitation of sacred peaks by

European sheep fanners and others, found a unique solutions; the Tongariro

Mountains were given into the stewardship of Queen Victoria and New Zeland's first

national park came into being. Similarly in the central mountains of Venezuela is

an area· held sacred to the goddess of nature, who will enhance the welfare of

people provided they do not enter it. It was relatively easy to designate this as a

protected area. 21

Similar strong traditional belief system which exists in Spiti valley may help

in presenting there ecological degradation.

21 Poore, D. Guidelines for Mountain Protected Areas, IUCN Protected Area Programme Series No.2, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K. 1992.

216

SBT: Indigenous Specie for Indigenous People

The vast majority of mountain regton m . the developing world have

experienced an increase in absolute poverty, especially of women and children.

· Marginalisation of most mountain cultures and communities is also increasing.

Outmigration especially of young men, takes a heavy toll on the social fabric

mountain communities. Especially in the context of recent changes mountain peoples

have not been manageable to their own resources and orient developmental initiatives

to their own advantage. Malnourishement, infant mortality, cold stress, and

association health problems are intimately linked to the reduction in food and fuel

availability in mountains.

Hence, SBT as indigenous species for indigenous people can organise

adequately to manage their own resources interms of fuel, food and cash orient

developmental initiatives to their advantage. New pattern that reinforce longterm

sustenance use while incorporating certain added socio-cultural norms must be taken

into consideration.

Gender Relations and Mountain Ecosystem Management: The Spitian

Perspective

Women in mountain areas play a predominant role in the management of

subsistance resources. The diversity of ecosystems and small-scale production

strategies necessary for survival in mountains lead to a multiplicity of women's roles

and a profound knowledge of ecosystem process and potential. Collective resource

217

management through informal women's groups is common, through labour exchange

groups and joint travel to seasonal use areas. As primary providers of basic needs,

women can be counted to have the long-temi future of the household as a motivating

force. Likewise, Spiti women's groups can be relied upon to seek sustainable benefits

for the community.

Animal husbandry is linchpin of sustainable ecosystem use in mountains. 22

Animal dung is ess_ential as fertilizer to sustain agricultural productivity on thin

fragile mountain soils. This critical re-cycling of nutrients between ecosystems by

livestock is largely women's work. In the High Andes of Peru, livestock grazing is

central to the multiple tasks performed by women. Similarly women are very much

involved in managing livestock and its subsidiary products; especially its utility in

carrying out agro activities. We can singularly state by field observation that women

folk in Spiti valley have wide interactional patterns compared to men folk.

Spiti women work long hours to provide the basic needs of their families.

They share agricultural and livestock tasks, but add an additional 4-5 hours each day

for basic domestic needs. Comparison of mountain and plain communities shows that

hiil women work significantly longer hours in subsistence natural resource

management ·than do plains women, and do a higher percentage of such work

compared to men, and is congruent to what observed in the field.

Many traditional income-generating activities involving Spitian women depend

on ample supplies of energy or biomass. In addition to direct sale of firewood or

22 Denholm, J. Reaching out to Forest Users: Strategies for Involving Women. In Bajracharya, D. Women and the Management of Energy, Forests and Other Resources, MPE Series No.3, ICIMOD, Kathmandu, 1993.

218

fodder, income is acquired through livestock products, cheese and butter processing,

beer and liquor brewing (Chang & Aarra), processing of agricultural products, raw

materials for crafts, etc.

There could be even varied opportunities for Spitian women to participate

immensely in different activities initiated by SBT. Sustainable harvesting and

processing of these resources can generate significant income and status for women

and community cooperatives in the valley.

Women, Culture and Tourism - A Symbiotic relation

Things apart, these cooperatives can work as a productive force for cultural

regeneration and promotion of sustainable tourism. With the changing process, the

Spitians are no longer attached only to traditional means of subsistence. More

so, after abolition of restriction for visiting Spiti, tourists from different quarters

are thronging. But the question arises, how to promote tourism in the most

sustainable manner given limited resources and fragility of the natural setting of

the area?

As suggested in the thematic map, a good strech of flat area between Gete and

Kibber village could be utilised for cultural festivals and winter sports. Different

villages should organize their cultural troupe and participate during the festival. At

the same time winter sports may be an added charm for the tourists. A good amount

of revenue could be generated facilitating better facilities in the coming days. Of

course, an annual fair known as 'Ladarcha fair' takes place during summer near

219

Kaza, but much more could be done for preservation of culture and tradition of

the valley.

Women are increasingly being recognized as key agents of change and as

important allies to conservation initiatives. There is a natural convergence of interests

between women's needs, and the need to conserve mountain environments. Woinen

maintain a . rich storehouse of technical environmental knowledge which can be

. mobilized in the problem-solving process. In addition to their profound knowledge

of fragile ecosystem management and sustainable resource use, Spiti women have a

remarkable ability to work together. They also have a powerful influence over future

attitudes toward the environment. Concern for conservation actions could be strongly

initiated among women, since they are the first to suffer as resources diminish. A

thorough understanding of local ecosystem processes, community organization, and

local priorities is an essential ingredient of almost all successful development or

conservation initiative.

One method of mobilizing local knowledge is through currently popular

participatory rural appraisal techniques. while this is a valuable assessment

technique, it should extend over a long enough period of time to allow the community

to develop confidence in the facilitators. It is essential to include a women in

the team.

Most environmental training programes, whether in agriculture, forestry,

energy, or water sectors, include only token or no participation from women.

However, the potential for positive action is large; training can be a dynamic tool a

220

for stimulating information exchange and an effective means of bringing women into

environmental and resource management initiatives. 23 Successful training can revive

a strengthen traditional skills and knowledge, it can also help to eliminate women's

sense of isolation and to build confidence. Training in ecosystem management issues

brings the highest rewards when it also includes topics such as leadership, decision

making and new technologies.

Without greater participation in decision making and conscious attention to

tenure and use rights, natural resource management projects may directly increase the

work burden of women, while reducing their rel~tive status in the community.

likewise, income-generating programs that do not address the distribution and control

of community and household income frequently increase women's work burden and

decrease their life options.

• In community forestry initiatives, the recognition of women as household

representatives would achieve a breakthrough in sustainable resource management.

In the mountains, married women are stable members of the community, whereas

men often migrate seasonally. It is women who manage forest resources and who

suffer most when access is diminished. If women were granted formal control over

forest resources it would solidify to raise their status within he community.

The integration of women's development, family planning, and environmental

concerns is both natural and obvious at the community level. Conventional

23 Bayers, E. and Sainju, M. Mountain Ecosystem and Women: Opportunities for Sustainable Development and Conservation, In MRD, Vo1.14, No.3, UNU, 1994, p.222.

221

approaches to development issues often reinforce gender bias by undervaluing

women's work and granting males disproportionately greater access to land, credit,

and other resources. 24 This encourages child-bearing as a woman's primary route

to social status and economic security. The most direct and significant action to ease

the population crisis may be to increase women's access to education, training, land

ownership, and credit, thereby giving them significantly more control over their own

lives. Education increases the average age at marriage, an important determinant of

fertility rates; the non-formal education of married women heightens their awareness

and ability to discuss important issues openly, and enhances their status within the

community.

In traditional cultures, relationship between the ecosystem and people

embrace cultural identity, spirituality, and subsistence practice~, which frequently

contribute to maintenance of biological diversity. These relationships have too often

been ignored and even destroyed by resource conversation and management

initiatives. 25

Furthermore, attention should be directed to the intellectual rights of those

people in Spiti with knowledge of the use of medicinal or otherwise useful plants, and

those who provide genetic source material.

Effective planning and decision-making processes in environmental

management require input from those who use and depend on the natural resources

24 /hid.

25 McNeely, J.A. (ed.) IV World Congress on Parks and Protected Areas: Recommendations, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

222

and these are often women. Women have limited access to information, education,

and training, yet they have pressing needs for technical and ecological information,

and for training in leadership skills. They also require access to extension resources

and markets. As the main users of natural resources, women make daily decision

regarding the management of land, water forests, and livestock. Women's activities

and knowledge should be recognized as directly relevant to national level policies,

and as valuable assets in meeting national and project goals for environmental

protection. National economic and political interest need to be balanced with basic

needs of mountain populations. These interests may conflict directly with a

rheoretical commitment to participatory management and promotion of women. The

environmental and social impacts of extractive activities, and equitable terms of trade

for mountain peoples and products, should be carefully assessed.

Through gender analysis, an understanding may be gained of the technical

knowledge of both women and men about the natural environment and their

relationships of forestry, wildlife, agriculture, livestock, and water resources. Such

an understanding makes women's work more visible.26 In addition to the catalytic

role of literacy prog-rams, training can be a powerful tool mobilizing Spitian

women's environmental knowledge and its maintenance.

Internal monitoring of projects should become a regular part of planning and

implementation, not an extraordinary event that takes place once or twice a year.

Table I lists_ indicators of sustainability to be included in the assessments of mountain

26 Gurung, S.M. and M. Banskota. Women in Mountain Management in Nepal. In Bajracharya, D. Women and the Management of Energy, Forests and Other Resources. MPE Series No.3, ICIMOD, Kathmandu, 1993.

223

ecosystems. Monitoring and evaluation must consider not only gender and equity

. but also satisfaction of basic needs, equitable sharing of benefits, and attainments

of self-reliance. Results that were not intended or predicted such as possible

changes in defacto tenure or use rights due to project interventions, should be

fully assessed.

The proposed land use model is subsumed in the socio-economic regeneration

and empowerment model proposed in this thesis. This model is proposed to convert

the DDP into a prime activity and full involvement of the local populace. It proposes

enterpreneural ventures in SBT .cultivation and· SBT industries for economic

regeneration.

Since the area is a Cold Desert, significant capital infrastructure is to be built

up for irrigation, planting/areal seeding, construction of reservoirs and Mini/Micro­

hyde) projects (MMH) and marketing of varied SBT products. If this infrastructure

can be put in place, the local populace can be motivated to understand enterpreneurial

ventures and make the region self-sufficient and vibrant.

The economical power supplies produced by Mini I Micro Hydel projects

(MMH) have helped in development of country or commune-operated industries. In

many mountainous regions the availability of MMH led to the establishment of

industries in such branches as agricultural machinery, cement, fertilizers, paper,

textiles and food. 27

27 Techno Market Survey of Mini I Micro Hydel Power Stations for Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Council, DST, Government of India, March 1993, pp.l27-128.

224

On the other hand, . the development of local industry speeds up the

exploitation of MMH. Local factories usually run by the country manufacture

major MMH equipment and also . do the maintenance and repair work. Thus,·

the development of MMH is interrelated with that of industry at the local

level.

MMH contribute to the accumulation of funds for development. An MMH

station in Hubel Province (China), with an installed capacity of 2,400 kw, took only

four years to recover its initial investment. The Defeishui MMH s~tion in Sichuan

Province (China) has an installed capacity of 5,000 kw. Over the last nine years it

has had a total income of 10,270 YRMB, several times the original capital

investment. 28

MMH promotes the development of rural electrification and mechanization.

Power supplies by MMH also enriches and promoters the cultural life of the people

and speeds up the construction of new villages. 29

Availability of technology in India is nearly sufficient. There are 10

manufacture/supplier of equipment for mini/micro hydel plants (MMH). All of

them have collaboration with one of other leading manufactw:ers in Europe or

U.S.A. 30

28 Ibid.

29 Ibid, pp.9-10.

30 Ibid., p.l07.

225

Some of the manufacturer/suppliers are L & T received industrial licence for

manufacture of Hydraulic turbines in the year 1983. and extended the collaboration

agreement with VOITH -_Germany for the manufacture of the same.

Another is Triveni, in collaboration with ESAC, France offers turnkey

services for the design, manufacture, installation, erection and commissioning of

mini/micro hydel power plants.

ESAC are acknowledged internationally in view of their efficient design and

in providing site specific configurations ESAC have supplied more than 300 turbines

world wide and today ESAC is widely regarded as the most cost effective

manufacturer in Europe. 3l

BHEL offers a total service for mini/micro hydroelectric power stations right

from selection of machines to commissioning of the power plant including civil works

and is fully geared to executive the projects on turnkey basic. 32

Thus, the MMH units and highly advised for Spiti region seeing its multi

dimensional role for quality development of the area.

The present proposal for the afforestation via large SBT managed forests

pertain only to the areas shown in green colour and also for the plateau area shown

in orange-brown colour.

31 Ibid., pp.108-115.

32 Ibid.

226

These two areas are distinct geographical sub-units and this proposed

afforestation measure takes care to suggest different approaches for these areas. The

areas shown in green though located in the vicinity of human settlements, they are

of rugged topography and hence with difficult access for the community. The forest

in these areas may be partially managed to collect revenue yielding berries, fuelwood

& for grazing of animals.

Thus, the existing picture is of precarious ecology sustained by significant

inputs from outside the region to meet the food & household energy needs. In terms

of economy, the Spiti area is maintained by a heavy subsidy from the government.

Therefore sociological and ecologically dependence on outside support is crucial for

sustenance of the ecological balance at the moment.

This situation is inspite of the concerted effort by the government in the form

of Desert Development Programme (DDP) which includes fuel subsidy in the form

of cheaply available kerosene. This because of complementary afforestation

programmes is yet to take off; The DDP programmes has been reviewed by a

especially constituted high level committee in 1993, and also by an independent study

carried out by Sh. J.P. Negi and sponsored by Ministry of Rural Development,

Government of India.

The thematic map which has been prepared represents a model land use

pattern. In this m~del extensive afforestation is proposed, and these areas have been

indicated in green colour of the map. These areas have been proposed considering

the slope aspect as well as benefits to human settlements. It is proposed that

227

Seabuckthorn (SBT) may be an ideal vegetation for the proposed afforestation.

Manual methods of afforestation like transplanting from nurseries is difficult in these

areas. Under such circumstances, the Chinese experience suggest that areal seeding

of SBT could be highly effective in reclaiming desert land.

Government Campaign and role of NGOs

It is seen that NGOs have been successful in initiating dialogues and

environmental awareness and overcoming the associated problems. Success hass been

based on long-term commitment, flexibility, motivation and integrating various

dimensions. The role of NGO as catalyst and intermediaries, therefore needs to be

encouraged, and the support of the government in this regard is very important. The

complementarity in the functioning of NGOs and government agencies needs to be

identified and acted upon. Before launching any such project, one must clearly

understand the local ecological systems and stresses, the existing environmental

management strategies, cultural norms and values, community organisation and sub­

groups, formal or informal leaders and gender roles.

Proposed Market Development Strategy for Revenue Yielding Managed Forest

of Seabuckthorn (SBT)

1 . Development of Seabuckthom (SBT) Plantation

SBT requires less attention and caring for its survival and growth, but for

optimum yields, it may be necessary to nurture the plantations I forests initially.

Typically the area available for SBT plantations are of two kinds.

228

i) flat areas at high altitude of the plateau area

ii) barren mountain slopes

iii) vacant plateaus at valley bottom or river banks.

The strategies for nurturing SBT plantations in the areas will be different. It

may be necessary to establish large scale nurseries and transplant the saplings

· manually in areas (i) and (iii), mentioned above. These areas are accessible from

human settlements, and hence well laid out managed forests can be maintained with

good network of roads I paths criss-crossing the area. On the other hand, the area (ii)

mentioned above are relatively less accessible and would not be ameanable to

constant monitoring. The water supply is also a problem here. Hence these areas,

which comprises a large part of the map may be afforested by resorting to areal

seeding during the appropriate time of the year, so that snow melt water is available

to sustain the plantations.

In area (ii), once the SBT plantations attain maturity and start yielding berries,

some infrastructure like roads/paths may have to be cut into the forest, to facilitate

harvesting of berries and fuel wood. In addition to this, grazing of domestic animals

can also be promoted in this area. Perhaps only partial harvesting of SBT plantations

may be possible in this area due to difficult access.

Areas (i) and (iii) as mentioned above are easily accessible and can

. be developed as farm size plots which are well managed and irrigated. The yield

from this area may be suitable in quality and consistency for Food Processing

Industries.

2. Development of suitable infrastructure for farm management and transport

of produce

Major infrastructure development is required for (a) establishing

and maintaining them. (b) harvesting and processing, and (c) transport of their

produce.

(a) For establishing and maintaining, the major requirement would be

irrigation, road network, areal seeding I nurseries and assured watey; supply. For

areas like plateau and valley bottom irrigation network is envisaged. Suitable

locations for reservoirs (small dams) have been identified on the map. It is possible

to have Mini Micro Hydel Projects (MMH) at these two locations. However lift

irrigation has to be resorted ·to for the plateau area. The power generated at the

MMH may not be sufficient for lift irrigation. Hence, requirement of power is part

of infrastructure for SBT plantations. This deficiency of power availability could be

compensated from existing Rongtong Hydel Project which is located within a very

nearby vicinity. Irrigation network involving Drip-irrigation may be appropriate for

the plateau area as water has to be used with maximum efficiency in this area.

(b) Harvesting would be a labour intensive activity. Some mechanisms can

be experimented. But the thorny plant is not easily ameanable for fast or mechanised

harvesting. Hence, only small areas can be harvested manually each day. This

necessiates a good network of roads I paths for efficient harvesting.

(c) The main infrastructure for transport of SBT produce and fuel wood to

major producing centres, and from there onwards to major markets, perhaps outside

230

the district or even abroad, highlights necessity of good transportation network

together with efficient communication and service structure. For quick transport of

special SBT produce and convenience of tourists I visitors, the proposal of the

government for an airstrip at Rangrik (near Kaza) could be very beneficial.

3. Entrepreneurship Development Programme

Enrepreneurs would be the pivot around which this model for a self­

sustainable economy based on natural renewable capital, which would yield

sustainable income. SBT can be the basis for intense commercial activity centering

around tradingin, fuelwood and rawproduct, and processed SBT consumer products

which include Jams, Jellies, wine, beer, soft drinks etc., and mass consumed

medicated health-care products. SBT can be a very rich raw material for extracting

Vitamin C and other vitamns and allied medical ingredients.

A primary requirement for SBT entrepreneurship development programme

centering in and around Spiti would be the development of assured marketing

infrastructure. National agencies concerned with horticulture based food industry like

APEDA (Agricultural Produce Export Development Authority) and NHB (National

Horticulture Board) would have to establish active channels for centralized marketing

and promotion of SBT products in the major metros and international market~ There

is immense scope for this, as observed from Chinese experience.

In Spiti valley, the enterpreneurship development has to be promoted for both

(a) cultivation of SBT and its harvesting and (b) food processing industries based

on SBT.

231

Traditionally, neither there had been infrastructure nor motivation for SBT

activities. So it is essential to launch a planned and effective awareness campaign on

the revenue yielding possibilities and various tasks and roles to be undertaken by

individual enterpreneurs. The ecological restoration aspect beneficial for mi<;ro­

climatic effects, and improved soil fertility due to SBT afforestation, may also be

communicated. Ancillary activities like livestock breeding are also economically

viable ventures.

The entrepremiership development programme has to be necessarily provided

on the one hand long term soft loans, and harvesting rights to planters I peasants,

developing commercial SBT plantations. On the other hand, similar long term soft

loans have to be extended to establish SBT food processing industries. It is proposed

that twenty tracts of land may be selected for leasing to local entrepreneurs for SBT

cultivation and harvesting. It is envisaged that the rights of the lease period would

have to be of 25-30 years long consisting of an initial five year establishment period.

Subsequent I 0 years would be for repayment of loan and another 10-15 years for

commercial cropping. The lease may be renewed or the rights contracted out to new

entrepreneurs on the expiry of the lease period. A soft-loan of Rs. five lakhs would

entail a montly repayment of approximately Rs. 10,000 per month after the initial

establishment period of 5 years.

The tracts of the land may be marked out based on estimated minimum

fuelwood and SBT harvest volumes, sufficie~t to enable the entrepreneurs to make

the repayments without difficulty. This activity alone would entail an initial loan of

Rs.l crore from the government for the initial batch of new entrepreneurs.

232

It is felt that the yield from the above plantation can sustain five units of small

scale food processing industries. These five units may produce consumer items in

botteled I sealed forms, and also supply SBT products for bulk consumption, like

breweries and pharmaceutical industries. These units may be established at a cost of

5-l 0 lakhs each loan amount from the government. The repayment schedule could

be ten to twenty thousand rupees per month after a initial jestation period of five

years.

Decision making in respect of laying of infrastructure like irrigation,

roads/paths etc. and disbursement of soft loan etc. along with other developmental

activities, will have to be a well coordinated effort between district authorities and

Panchayat representatives.

Within Spiti, different zones represent different problems and opportunities.

Seabuckthom (SBT) with its promising features could be an everlasting linkage in ·

conservation of cultural and biological diversity and ecological integrity .. Constant

natural capital and 'sustainable income' could be generated if it is cultivated

scientifically with a well formulated policy. This may definitely ensure stronger

community participation in the process of transition to an ecologically sustainable

society augmenting socio-economic status of the area.

233