AMERICAN GOVERNMENT

Paul Christiansen, for Scholars Online

Tuesdays and Thursdays, 10:30am-12:00pm Eastern Time

Overview and PurposeWhen the Constitution was first written, a woman asked Benjamin Franklin what kind of government the country now had. “A republic, madam,” Franklin replied, “if you can keep it.” I believe firmly that keeping the republic rests on our ability as citizens to consider and discuss issues with care and thought.

Democracy requires more still, however: it requires us to work with our fellow citizens. We must understand each other, and understand when people truly believe they are working for the best interests of the country, even if we cannot always see eye to eye. In fact, we must recall that “We the people” means just that: “We,” even if we don’t agree with—or even like—the people we work alongside. Thus, in an odd way, democracy requires us to love our neighbors.

If this is truly a democratic republic, then ultimately the burden of governance rests on us all, and we must bear that burden wisely.

This course is, in some ways, a revival of the old traditional civics course, with a focus on the Constitution and means of governance. It also has elements of a media literacy course—and, more fundamental still, echoes of the older path of education called rhetoric, dealing with logic, argument, and civic discourse. Intelligent conversation, if you will. From first to last this class is focused on honing the minds of students to ably grasp the tangled issues that Americans face today.

To this end, the course explores the following issues:

• The original structure of the Federal Government in contrast to its present state; • The election campaign(s), with particular focus on the expanding powers of

government, particularly of the executive branch; • The structure of Congress under the Constitution compared to the internal

mechinations of party politics today; • The basics of rhetoric and civil debate, emphasizing civility, respect for others, and

proper defense of ideas; • The purpose of government and its limits.

Class Structure With these priorities in mind, the course has two basic structures. First, the weekly pattern: every Tuesday, students explore the Constitution, the present-day situation, and the difference between the two. The class will eventually read the whole of the Constitution. Every

Thursday there will be a moderated discussion on an issue, either on current events such as election news, or on some issue of ongoing controversy in American public affairs, or on some topic such as what limits a government should place on the freedom of citizens. This structure allows for both a continuity of the lessons and a certain flexibility in response to the news, which is vital to a class dealing with current affairs. As an example, during the 2010-2011 class, Hosni Mubarak resigned as president of Egypt just five minutes before a chat session began, and so naturally all of our discussion that day was focused on the morning’s events. It is not everyday that a government falls during government class.

Secondly, the class marches through the Constitution, beginning with Congress and proceeding onward through the three branches of government. (In presidential election years, the course is reordered and the presidency placed first, to coincide with the fall campaign.) Next we move into the vital amendments: the First, the Second, the Fourteenth, etc. We conclude with a unit addressing putative “fourth branches of government”—for instance the media, lobbyists and special interests, and state and local governments. In each unit we compare the text written by the Founders with the current state of affairs, as gleaned from the news and other provided sources.

Parents may reasonably ask why I do not use a government or civics textbook. The core of the answer is that the United States government is in constant change, and any textbook becomes outdated swiftly. While a book could present much more in-depth information on how the branches of government are intended to function, I find that the key phrase there is “intended to function”—many texts I have looked at describe an idealized state, rather than actual current events, and moreover we might justly say that our government is only barely functioning at all! The 2013 government shutdown would not, I think, be adequately explained by a textbook.

Course WorkAssignments vary widely, from the small daily tasks to the large unit projects. Students are asked to keep a daily journal of the news during the week, including a short summary of a news event for each day and a brief personal response to each item. These will be handed in to me, but students are also required to post one of their journal entries on the class Moodle forums each week, and also required to respond to one another’s entries. This should generate an ongoing discussion, which will foster and reinforce the skills learned in class proper.

The larger unit assignments take many forms as the year progresses, but are usually essays or projects. To continue with the theme of flexibility, students choose which three of the four unit projects they complete. The final “capstone” project must be completed, however.

A note on arguments and opinions: in a course on politics, it would appear inevitable that the class would have a particular bias or orientation. I attempt, however, to make sure this does not occur. I have absolutely no intention of forcing opinions on anyone, or imposing my own viewpoint on the class. I would be entirely content if my students left the class holding the selfsame opinions they entered with, but better able to discuss and defend those opinions while also honoring those of others. That said, this class does hinge on some mentally challenging exercises. For example, I will, from time to time, require students to argue against their own beliefs or defend positions they disagree with. This is not to force them to change their minds, but to see why a person of good will might hold a position so contrary to theirs—and, moreover, it gives them a better grasp of how to defend their own beliefs once the

exercise is over. As a result, while these projects can be a challenge (or even infuriating) for some scholars, in my experience they are invaluable for strengthening opinions, beliefs, and minds.

As to my own beliefs: I have a long-standing policy of keeping my opinions entirely in check. I’ll confess this has not always worked, but every year I try. My intent is to let my students make up their own minds, without bias or interference on my part, so long as they do so based on good reasoning. As a result I ask challenging questions from every angle necessary, and I do not hesitate to “play devil’s advocate” if it will help students advance their thinking.

Required ReadingJames Madison et. al. Constitution of the United States. (1787)

Paper copies of this are helpful and are often even free, but numerous online copies are available as well. I commonly use the one provided by Cornell University Law School, available here. However, I recently discovered usconstitution.net, which has extensive background infor-mation and answers to frequently answered questions.

Students are also required to read a text-based news source every day. By this I mean a website such as CNN.com, a news magazine such as US News and World Report, or a good old-fashioned newspaper. Online news sources have the benefit of being available during chat, but anything printed will be acceptable. I do not allow radio or television sources for class work because students will need to be able to refer back to the news more than once—not possible with a fleeting broadcast. Students of course may listen to radio/TV news in addition to reading their print sources, however, as a supplement.

As the class relies on the news, the issue of media bias must be addressed. We will look at the deficiencies of the media as a part of the course, but we must rely on them to get necessary day-to-day information. My hope is that students will bring a range of sources to the class. International sources such as the BBC, the Guardian, or the Economist can provide useful commentary. But any news source, be it Fox News or al-Jazeera, will be welcomed.

Course Syllabus

0.1 Introductions

Tuesday“…[T]hat government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from this earth.” —A. Lincoln

“The nine most terrifying words in the English language are ‘I’m from the government and I’m here to help.’” —R. Reagan

What is government? Is it an oppressive outside force, a benevolent ally, a mass of incompetence, or just us?

These questions are too big for one day. They’re probably too big for one year, too. But we’ll begin thinking about them here, and first off, we’ll begin thinking about definitions. What do you think government is? What’s the American government? What does it do, in broad outlines? We’ll also talk about a few other critical terms: democracy, republic, branches of government, separation of powers.

Finally we’ll read the Preamble of the Constitution, and see what the government is supposed to do according to the Founding Fathers.

Partially this is to get you thinking. Partially this is to help me see what you already know. Mostly it’s to get us talking, and discussing, and getting to know one another.

On Thursday this process continues with our first seminar. Come prepared to discuss a topic you know at least a little about: homeschooling.

Homework: Autobiographical essay/curriculum vitae on the following question: what does Mr. C need to know in order to teach you best? Include any or all of the following: interests, hobbies, favorite genres of music, literature, and film, other classes you’re taking this year and with whom, preferred methods of studying and reading, anything else you can possibly think of! Also include where you live, specifically city and your congressional district. Find out who your representative and senators are. Credit/no credit assignment, worth five points.

Also: begin your journaling on the news. Every weekday, read one textual news report and write a paragraph responding to what you’ve read, perhaps including thoughts on the constitutionality and morality of the events, your emotional response, questions the report raises, and problems you have with the report itself. File this in a single text document and submit it once a week. Also once every week, take one of your journal entries and post it on the Moodle forums, and respond to your classmates’ posts as well. Each individual piece of this is credit/no credit, but taken together they will form roughly twenty percent of your grade.

ThursdaySeminar on homeschooling.

For these first seminars, I’ll give you some hints and pointers. What do you personally like about homeschooling? What do you dislike? So, some things to consider: what are some advantages of homeschooling? Some disadvantages? Why did your parents decide to homeschool you—or why did you decide? Now consider: are your reasons for being homeschooled good reasons for everyone?

We’ll learn the procedures of a Socratic seminar, in particular the role of the moderator, ground rules for politeness, avoiding ad hominems and straw men, etc. Above all: what are your reasons? What is your evidence?

This series of videos provides some quite basic guidance on logic, reason, and good argumentation. There are six films, none longer than three minutes; follow the link at the end of each one to see the next.

0.2 Media Week

Tuesday“There can be no liberty for a community which lacks the means by which to detect lies.” —Walter Lippman, American journalist

We’ll deal with the news media in greater detail later in the course, but we’ll be relying on the news for the whole year, so we’d better talk about it ahead of time. A few crucial questions: what does the word “media” mean? (Important side note: is it plural or singular?) Looking at the topic more broadly, how do we find out what’s going on? How do we learn more? We’ll discuss contrasting sources, the 24-hour news cycle, and why we stick to reading print sources.

On a different note, we’ll also talk briefly about reading the Constitution. It can be a difficult document, as it’s over two hundred years old and sometimes written vaguely.

ThursdaySeminar: on media bias

Can we trust the news media? It is an extraordinarily common claim that the media are biased, and entire corporations have been built around the premise of correcting that bias. Is it true? Should it be true, or is Lippman’s quotation correct, and thus truth in media is essential?

HW: Read Article I, Sections 1-4.

Also: Start signing up to moderate future seminars. There will be a signup sheet on the Moodle forums; reply with your preferred dates. First come first served, unless there are extraordinary circumstances.

UNIT ONE: THE LEGISLATIVE BRANCH

Unit Goal: To Learn the Powers of Congress and its Functions

News Focus: Congress and its actions, in particular for your congressional delegation.

Unit Project: Write a summary of a bill that you feel could benefit the country. Give careful thought to its implications for citizens and to its enforcement. Then describe its passage in Congress, going into detail how it will be passed by Congress. Describe the steps and participants in full, including sponsors and co-sponsors, committees and committee chairs, how it will pass both houses, and why the president will sign it (or why his veto will be overridden). Be realistic in your assessment of actual political figures. If you believe that your bill as written cannot become a law, explain why, or explain what would have to change in Congress in order for your bill to pass.

1.1 The Constitution, Part I

TuesdayWhat’s a legislature? For that matter, what’s a law? How is “a law” different from “the law”? How is Congress elected, according to the Constitution? What’s the same, what’s missing?

ThursdaySeminar on the topic of law, or the news of the week.

HW: Read Article I, Sections 5-9. This is probably the longest reading assignment in the Constitution we’ll do, so be prepared! Section 8 in particular is lengthy—but vital.

1.2 The Constitution, Part II

TuesdayDiscussion of the homework. (There’s a lot here, a lot requires some context, and a lot of it can be confusing. Now’s the time for questions, and if you aren't asking I’ll either be disappointed or deeply impressed.) In essence this portion of the Constitution spells out the duties of the government, and is probably our single best view of what (many of) the Founders felt government should and should not do, should and should not be. What is the primary function, according to these sections of the document, of government? Is anything missing?

ThursdaySeminar on the powers and duties of Congress.

HW: Identify a bill passed into law by Congress in its last session—ideally one that your representative or senator proposed, but if that doesn’t work it’s okay. Figure out how, if at all, Congress is permitted to take such an action under the Constitution.

1.3 The Present, Part I

Tuesday“Laws, like sausages, cease to inspire respect in proportion as we know how they are made.” —John Godfrey Saxe

The powers of Congress these days, or: “What on earth are they doing?”

Discussion of the homework. How much of what Congress has done lately is actually legitimate under the Constitution? How is it justified? Do those justifications hold up? How much of it actually serves any purpose? What are you learning about the power structures in Congress?

ThursdaySeminar on the news of the week or a topic from Mr. C’s files.

HW: Identify which committees your representative and senators are on. Research these committees and see what their areas of responsibility are. Find out how senior your members of Congress are. Be prepared to present a summary to the class.

1.4 The Present, Part II

TuesdayDiscussion of the homework. How do the committees and rules of the House and Senate affect their behavior? How do members of Congress get on committees? What’s seniority? How does a bill become a law? What’s “pay to play,” what’s a filibuster, what’s a rider? Is all this constitutional?

ThursdaySeminar on Congress in the present day.

HW: Read Amendments 16, 17, and 27. Inform me whether or not you will be completing this unit project.

1.5 Changes

TuesdayIn particular, money.

Discussion of the homework. Taxes, the budget, and other financial affairs (in particular Social Security and Medicare). Progressive taxation vs. regressive. The story of the Progressives, and why senators are directly elected now. The story of the 27th Amendment.

ThursdaySeminar on taxation, or on the news of the week.

HW: Rough Draft of Unit Project due.

1.6 Project Week

TuesdayToday we’ll focus on your projects, ironing out any problems, getting feedback, etc. Those who have done the project will present their work (so far) to the class.

ThursdayFinal seminar on Congress.

HW: Final Draft due by midnight tonight.

Also: Read Article II, Section 1, of the Constitution.

UNIT TWO: THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH

Unit Goal: To Learn the Powers of the Executive Branches and How They Have Expanded

News Focus: the President & his administration.Unit Project:Research and examine one of the major departments of the Executive Branch (Defense, Education, Health & Human Services, etc.), preferrably one that is at the forefront of one of the president’s main priorities, and assess how well this department’s activities are in line with the powers granted to the presidency by the Constitution.

2.1 The Constitution, Part I

TuesdayDiscussion of the homework. How is the president elected? What are the requirements to be president? The Electoral College. Why does the College exist?

ThursdaySeminar on the Electoral College and efforts to reform it, or on the news of the week.

2.2 The Present, Part I

TuesdayHow does the election procedure in the Constitution line up with what actually happens these days? What’s missing? Caucuses, primaries, and conventions. What advantages might the present system have over the original way? What disadvantages?

ThursdaySeminar on the election process.

HW: Read Article II, Sections 2-4.

2.3 The Constitution, Part II

TuesdayDiscussion of the homework. What powers does the presidency have? What is the president required to do? Again, what’s missing?

What are the advantages and disadvantages of having a chief executive? A little background: Alexander Hamilton wanted a president-for-life, and Thomas Jefferson didn’t want one man at all, but three, like the triumvirates of Rome. Why four years and not for life? Why one man instead of three?

ThursdaySeminar on executive power, or on the news of the week.

HW: In your journals for the week, focus on what the president is saying he will do, and thus consider what he thinks he can do. Then compare that to the powers we’ve just reviewed. These journal entries could probably be adapted to your unit project (hint, hint).

2.4 The Present, Part II

TuesdaySo what are the candidates saying they can do? How does that line up with what the Constitution say they can do? This will also serve as a check-in on the unit project, which you should be working on by now (the rough draft is due in less than a week).

ThursdaySeminar on the news or some topic from Mr. C’s files.

HW: Read Amendments 12, 20, 22, and 25, as well as the case studies Mr. C has prepared.

Also, research the presidential line of succession.

Finally, inform me if you will not be doing this unit project.

2.5 Changes

TuesdayHow did the amendments change the presidency? How did other events shape it, and expand the power of the executive branch? How much of this expansion is constitutional?

ThursdaySeminar on the expansion of the president’s power, or on the news of the week.

HW: Rough Draft of the Unit Project due 24 hours before class. If you will need an extension between getting the draft back and submitting your final copy, contact me now.

2.6 Project Week & Conclusion

TuesdayToday we’ll focus on your projects, ironing out any kinks and problems, getting feedback, etc. Those who have done the project will present their work (so far) to the class.

ThursdayFinal seminar on the presidency.

HW: Final Draft due by midnight tonight.

Also: Read Article III.

UNIT THREE: THE JUDICIAL BRANCH Unit Goal: To Learn the Powers of the Judicial Branch and Their Expansion

News Focus: While following all major news events, focus on major court cases before the Supreme Court, as much as possible. Unit Project: Select one significant Supreme Court decision (it need not be one we have studied), discuss the decision’s significance, and then rule on the case yourself. Your ruling must rely on the Constitution of the time and relevant precedents. Try to select a ruling that no other student is working on.

or

Rule on why your bill from Unit Two is or is not constitutional. If you have permission from the author, you may also rule on why one of your classmate’s bills is or is not constitutional, but be respectful!

3.1 The Constitution

TuesdayDiscussion of the homework. Jurisdiction, whether original or appellate. Jury trials. Treason.

ThursdaySeminar on jury trials or the news of the week.

HW: Read Amendments 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 11.

3.2 Changes, Part I

TuesdayDiscussion of the homework. Protection against search and seizure, protection against prolonged imprisonment and self-incrimination, protection against "cruel and unusual punishments."

ThursdaySeminar on the 5th & 6th Amendments, or on the news of the week.

HW: Research Marbury v. Madison.

3.3 Changes, Part II

TuesdayConstitutionality. The main power of the Supreme Court, and how it was acquired. Precedent.

ThursdaySeminar.

HW: Divide up and research the following famous court rulings: Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas; Gideon v. Wainwright; Loving v. Virginia; Roe v. Wade.

3.4 The Present, Part I

TuesdayDiscussion of the homework. Before, during, and after the Warren Court. 9-0 versus 5-4: is the Court just another branch of the legislature? Bush v. Gore.

ThursdaySeminar.

HW: Read Amendments 9 and 10. Inform me if you are not doing the unit project.

3.5 The Present, Part II

TuesdayJudicial activism? Has the Supreme Court created new rights? How do these amendments apply? The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals (and circuit courts in general).

ThursdaySeminar.

HW: Rough Draft of Unit Project due 24 hours before class.

3.6 Project Week

TuesdayOur customary project day: presentations to the class, feedback, etc.

ThursdayFinal seminar on the Judicial Branch.

HW: Final Draft due by midnight tonight.

Also: Read Articles V and VII. (Not immense, I promise.)

UNIT FOUR: THE MAJOR AMENDMENTS

Unit Goal: To Understand the Vital Amendments to the Constitution

News Focus: Study the news for court cases or laws that pertain to the amendments. Unit Project: Write an amendment to the Constitution. Explain its need, explain how it will be enforced, and explain how it will be ratified. Be realistic about the general political leanings of the states, and about the current balance of power in Congress.

or

Take one amendment of the Constitution (other than the 18th), explain why it is unnecessary, and argue for its repeal. Also explain how this will be ratified. Be realistic about the general political leanings of the states, and about the current balance of power in Congress.

4.1 The Amendment Process

TuesdayDiscussion of the homework. How are amendments passed? Why are they necessary? Why don’t we just amend the Constitution every time? The unused method of amendment.

ThursdaySeminar on amendments, the news, or one of Mr. C’s topics.

HW: Read Amendment 1, and research Schenck v. US.

4.2 The First Amendment

TuesdayDiscussion of the homework. How far does “freedom of speech” go? What limits have Congress and the courts placed on it? The meaning of “clear and present danger,” libel, and “free expression.” Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission. What about “separation of church and state”? Freedom of Assembly: should marches require permits? Petitioning: the overshadowed right.

ThursdaySeminar: you decide. Shall we discuss the Schenck decision, Citizens United, or separation of church and state? Some other First Amendment issue might arise as well!

HW: Read Amendment 2.

4.3 The Second Amendment

TuesdayDiscussion of the homework. The right to bear arms and a “well-regulated militia.” Is Jefferson’s intent still relevant in this age of modern weaponry? The influence of the Second on slavery and the Civil War.

ThursdaySeminar on the 2nd or on the news.

HW: Read Amendments 13, 15, and 24.

4.4 The Civil Rights Amendments

TuesdayDiscussion of the homework. The end of slavery and the defense of civil rights. Why was the 24th Amendment needed? Lesson of the day: the Constitution is only valid so long as it is enforced…

ThursdaySeminar.

HW: Read Amendment 14.

4.5 The Fourteenth Amendment

TuesdayDiscussion of the homework. Most of this is currently irrelevant, isn’t it? But there’s that one part that’s key: perhaps the key to it all. What is a citizen? What rights do citizens have? Where do those rights come from?

ThursdaySeminar on citizenship, birthright citizenship, the news, or a topic from Mr. C’s files.

HW: Read Amendments 19, 23, and 26. Inform me if you are not doing this unit project.

4.6 The Expansion of Suffrage

TuesdayDiscussion of the homework: votes for women, District of Comubia citizens, and teenagers. How did women get the vote? How did DC, and what is the district’s current status? Why was the voting age lowered to eighteen, and what does that have to do with the Vietnam War?

ThursdaySeminar.

HW: Rough Draft of Unit Project due 24 hours before next class.

Also: read Amendments 3, 18, and 21. (Won’t take long.)

4.7 Project Week and the Forgotten Amendments

TuesdayBrief discussion of the homework: the effectiveness of the 3rd, the failure of Prohibition. Then the usual project presentations and feedback.

ThursdaySeminar on the amendments, the news of the week, or a topic from Mr. C’s files.

HW: Final Draft due by midnight tonight.

Also: Read Articles I Section 10, IV, and VI; also re-read Amendment 10.

UNIT FIVE: OTHER BRANCHES OF GOVERNMENT

Unit Goal: To Study Other Portions of Government, Official and Otherwise

News Focus: Study news articles pertaining to all of the following: state governments; the Pentagon, military, or Joint Chiefs of Staff; lobbyists; newspapers, TV news, internet media sites, or anything regarding the media.

Final Project: NOT optional.Compare the government of the United States, point-by-point, to another government (real or imagined). Consider as many aspects of society and law as possible. If using an imaginary government, present your proposed comparison to me within a week of the beginning of Unit Five for approval and any necessary adjustments.

or

Rewrite the Constitution, in its entirety, to reflect current needs. You may collaborate with others on this admittedly large task, so long as you inform me in advance. Be realistic about, and respectful of, the range of political opinion in this country. Or present a careful and point-by-point defense of the Constitution as it stands, explaining why nothing needs to be changed.

or

Invent your own project design that in some way demonstrates your mastery of the subject of American Government. Present your design to me within a week of the beginning of Unit Five so that I can approve the design. If I do not approve, you will need to rework it, or try one of the other options. That said, have fun, and be imaginative.

5.1 The States: the Past

TuesdayDiscussion of the homework. What is a “state”? How does one make a state (and how did we get West Virginia)? How does the Federal government interact with states, and how do the states interact with each other? What’s the “full faith and credit” clause? Also we’ll discuss “domestic violence”: Shays’ Rebellion and the problem of slavery.

ThursdaySeminar on the “full faith and credit” clause as it pertains to marriage, or on the news, or on one of Mr. C’s topics.

HW: Find out who your state representatives are, and do some research onto major issues before (or recently passed by) your state legislatures.

5.2 The States: the Present

TuesdayDiscussion of the homework. How has the meaning of “state” shifted, and why? What do our state governments currently look like?

ThursdaySeminar.

HW: Compare the budget of the Department of Defense with the budgets of at least thee other Federal departments.

5.3 The Pentagon

TuesdayDiscussion of the homework: how do the various departments measure up against each other? Does this reflect our national priorities, or the intent of the Founders? How does the Army exist, constitutionally? Eisenhower’s Farewell Address. Are we securing our nation or building an empire?

ThursdaySeminar on the military, or on the news.

HW: Research Jack Abramoff.

5.4 Lobbyists

TuesdayDiscussion of the homework. The influence of money on politics, methods of lobbying, and the “revolving door.” Major donors and the concentration of corporations. Bank mergers. How lobbyists hedge their bets. What’s the ultimate effect? Does money actually buy elections or influence? Citizens United again.

ThursdaySeminar on money in politics, or on the news.

HW: Take a news story that you’ve read and brought to class at some point. Find other versions of the story, preferrably ones that have a different take (or even different “facts”). Try to have it not be a follow-up with more information, but a truly different slant. Contrast the language, style, and details included.

5.5 The Media, Part I

TuesdayDiscussion of the homework. Back to the bias issue; how we see bias differently now, after months of close attention? Can we trust the news articles we have been reading all year? How can we check and confirm? The Associated Press, Reuters, the Times. Internet news and aggregation. Sensationalism. What kinds of stories have we not seen?

ThursdaySeminar.

HW: Divide up and research the following names and their news organizations: William Randolph Hearst (New York Tribune), Joseph Pulitzer (New York World), Chandler Family (Los Angeles Times), Ted Turner (CNN), Rupert Murdoch (NewsCorp).

5.6 The Media, Part II

TuesdayDiscussion of the homework. Who own the news? What effect does that have? The rise and fall of the “Great Wall.“ The role of the FCC, and its recent troubles.

HW: Rough Draft of Final Project due 24 hours before next class.

Recall it is NOT optional.

ThursdaySeminar.

5.7 Project Week & Farewells

TuesdayThe usual project week routine.

ThursdaySeminar: “the view from outside.” Farewells and assessments.

HW: Final Draft due by midnight tonight.

Copyright 2012 by Paul Christiansen. Permission to download or print this material is granted to members of Scholars Online currently enrolled in American Government for personal study. All other use or redistribution constitutes violation of copyright.