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Internal Condition of the newly-independent America

A treaty signed on 3rd

September, 1783 at Paris recognized the independence of the colonies

of the American Union. The American Congress was elected in 1789 in accordance with the

new Constitution and it unanimously declared George Washington the first President of

America. He had to face a number of difficulties in building a new nation. At this time

America had neither money nor a residence for the President or a suitable building for

holding the meetings of the Congress. The position of the Federal government was also

precarious. This new Union was not supported by all sections of society. A powerful

minority in the states which had accepted the Constitution still opposed the Union. North

Carolina and Rhodes Island had not yet joined the union.

The states of the Union nursed a feeling of mutual rivalry; they differed geographically and

economically. The northern states were well-endowed with natural resources but the

southern states were backward and in a semi-civilized state. They were marked by social

inequality and the problem of slavery worsened the class differences.

Thus, the newly independent America faced the problems of economic, social and political

inequality, which demanded an immediate solution. Though America had a number of

internal and external problems, it has been a characteristic feature of its history that it has

made unobstructed progress since its inception. Except for the War of 1812, with Britain and

Civil war of 1861, no devastating war has been fought on the soil of America. However, it

cannot be denied that the Civil War interrupted America‟s progress for four years. America

suffered heavy financial and military losses during this period.

Regional Interests of the States

During the early nineteenth century, the American federation was weak and each state

clamoured for its own regional interests. At the root of the struggle between the Northern

and Southern states were the economic interests. Merchants and industrialists dominated the

Northern states while the majority of the people in the south owned orchards and those in the

west owned farms. They all wanted to influence the policy of the Federal government in

their own favour. As none of these sectors was powerful, each tried to strike a bargain with

his rival. The main controversy revolved round tariff, internal reforms and policy regarding

government land, money and banking. The states in the north and the north-west of America

wanted to raise money through protective tariff and use it for internal reforms. The northern

states wanted to put an embargo on the sale of government land to check the migration of

labour to west. All this added to the complexity of the political forum. Actually, the

American federation was a union of reluctant states whose requirements had forced them to

stay together. The members of the Congress could not have a bill passed unless they had

compromised with rival interests. This state of affairs could not continue for long and

ultimately America plunged into a Civil War from which emerged a strong organization

which continues steadily even today.

Slavery in America and its form

Slavery in America began when the first African slaves were brought to the North American

colony of Jamestown, Virginia, in 1619, to aid in the production of such lucrative crops as

tobacco. Slavery was practiced throughout the American colonies in the 17th and 18th

centuries, and African-American slaves helped build the economic foundations of the new

nation. The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 solidified the central importance of slavery to

the South‟s economy. By the mid-19th century, America‟s westward expansion, along with a

growing abolition movement in the North, would provoke a great debate over slavery that

would tear the nation apart in the bloody American Civil War (1861-65). Though the Union

victory freed the nation‟s 4 million slaves, the legacy of slavery continued to influence

American history, from the tumultuous years of Reconstruction (1865-77) to the civil rights

movement that emerged in the 1960s, a century after emancipation.

In the early 17th century, European settlers in North America turned to African slaves as a

cheaper, more plentiful labour source than indentured servants (who were mostly poorer

Europeans). After 1619, when a Dutch ship brought 20 Africans ashore at the British colony

of Jamestown, Virginia, slavery spread throughout the American colonies. Though it is

impossible to give accurate figures, some historians have estimated that 6 to 7 million slaves

were imported to the New World during the 18th century alone, depriving the African

continent of some of its healthiest and ablest men and women.

Did You Know?

One of the first martyrs to the cause of American patriotism was Crispus Attucks, a

former slave who was killed by British soldiers during the Boston Massacre of 1770.

Some 5,000 black soldiers and sailors fought on the American side during the

Revolutionary War.

The Constitution of America declares that „all men are born equal‟ but this applies

to the white and not to the blacks. Slavery had begun in American Colonies two

hundred years before it declared itself an independent nation. The first known slave

trade was Dutchman of Warre who sold twenty Negro slaves in Jamestown. So

many African Negro slaves had been imported to America between the 16th

and the

19th

centuries that each European Christian had a Negro slave for cutting wood and

fetching water. This trade of selling Africans as slaves in America was very

profitable. The slave trade expanded and the English, the Spanish and the Portuguese

traders earned a lot in it. Special types of ships were designed for transporting slaves.

This made Liverpool a big city as fifteen of its ships were designed for transporting

slaves. This made Liverpool a big city as 15 of its ships were engaged in this trade.

Their number rose to 132 by 1792. In the early years of the Industrial Revolution the

spinning industry made a record progress in Lancashire and this led to an increased

demand for slaves in the U./S.A., for the cotton used in Lancashire Mills came from

large Cotton farms in the Southern States of America. America had 6 million slaves

in 1790. England had abolished slavery in 1771, but no serious measures were taken

to curb this flourishing trade. The principle implied in the Declaration of American

Independence struck at the roots of slavery. The Northern states led an anti-slavery

campaign and urged all the states to implement the Declaration. One of the forms of

anti-slavery campaign was that if a slave tried to escape from his master, he was

taken by night to a safe place in the north or to Canada across the border. During the

fourth decade of the century a network of secret routes had been laid down in all

parts of the north for these run-away slaves. It was known as the „underground

railroad‟. This activity was carried out very successfully in north-western regions.

Between 1830 and 1860, Ohio alone helped more than forty thousand slaves to free

themselves in this way. Slavery had become part and parcel of life in the southern

state. The slave-owners here spurned anti-slavery feelings. It became a controversial

question between the north and the south. The Southerners treated slaves as personal

property but the Northerner considered it a slur on humanity. Undoubtedly, slavery

had many drawbacks which both its opponents and slave-owners criticised

vehemently. The members of one family were sold in the market to different people,

which annihilated the institution of family. This was a very pitiable and heart-

rending scene. After 1830 the question of slavery rose as a national problem. On the

one hand the demand for slaves increased and on the other the anti-slavery

movement gained strength. Literary effusions also underline the question of slavery.

Poets like Hittier Lowell Briant, Emerson and Longfellow powerfully expressed

anti-slavery sentiments. Newspapers propagated the stories of atrocious, repressive,

cruel and inhuman treatment of the slaves. By 1840 the American Anti-slavery

society had two thousand branches all other the country and two lakh members.

The Southerners drove the anti-slavery campaigners out of their territory. It was

dangerous there to oppose slavery in newspapers or in public meetings. The

supporters of slavery asserted that in every society one section or the other has to do

physical labour. For cultural and economic development we need a section which

does not shun labour. In this situation the American society would have to opt either

the labour-dependent northern society or the slave-dependent southern society. They

argued that slavery was comparatively a safe and permanent institution immune from

labour organizations, strikes and class difference. Moreover, as compared to northern

producers the slave owners of south provided more facilities to their slaves. On the

basis of this mentality and these arguments, the southerners justified slavery.

Efforts were made to sort out the differences that had cropped upon between the

northern and southern States on the question of slavery. Senator Henry Clay made

several significant proposals. In September, 1850 the Congress made five laws in

this regard. Out of these the law to abolish slave trade in the District of Columbia

and the Fugitive Slave Law are very important. The Fugitive Slave Law was very

strict. Under it the officers of the Union were required to arrest fugitive slaves and to

prosecute them before the court for punishment. The slaves had no right to plead

their case before the court. The courts accepted what their owners said. This strict

implementation of Slave Law aggravated the controversy instead of alleviating it.

The controversy had two aspects economic and welfare. The southern states stood

for the first because the abolition of slavery would strike at the root of their

prosperity. Their agriculture which brought them happiness and prosperity depended

on slaves. Who can easily sacrifice his own interests? Moreover, the inhabitants of

these states did not start this system, they had inherited it from the Spaniards. The

English had just supported and accepted it. Their economic, political and self-

interests so inter-twined with each other that it became impossible to separate them.

On one side was the abolition of slavery and on the other was the threat of the

dissolution of the Confederation.

The Northern states, though not fully inspired by humanitarian and welfare motives,

had some vestige of pity and supported abolition of slavery as a matter of policy and

interest. They sheltered and helped the fugitive slaves. They were not only

indifferent to the implementation of the Fugitive Slave Law but were eager for its

repeal. They directed the slaves who had escaped punishment towards Canada. They

also used another method known as underground rail road. They had marked places

where the fugitive slaves could assemble. These were called stations. The slaves

were taken from one station to another and set free. This caused loss of property to

the slave owners. The atrocities perpetrated under the Fugitive Slave Law inspired

Mrs. Harriat Beecher Stowe to write a novel entitled Uncle Tom’s Cabin which

described the system of slavery so realistically that the atrocious treatment of the

slaves filled the people of both north and south with abhorrence.

The work done by this book in arousing public opinion against slavery was far

greater than what had been done through thousands of meetings, speeches and

pamphlets. This book was translated into several languages and sold 3 lakh copies in

the first year of its publication. When it was transformed into a play, the audiences

were horrified. Mrs. Stowe showed the atrocities could not be separated from slavery

and a free society was greatly different from a slave-ridden one. Until now slavery

was criticised on the basis of abstract arguments but the characters in the play

presented it in a living form. Among the persons who had been working against

slavery at this time, the most prominent was Abraham Lincoln.

Causes of the Civil War

There had been a long tradition of struggle between the northern and southern states

of America. Differences between the Union and the Confederation arose in 1787 Economic

values aggravated these differences in the 19th

century. There were acute differences in Union

politics between 1820 and 1830. The question of slavery caused a bitter controversy between

the north and the south for the first time in 1820. Consequently, the Missouri treaty was

signed. Although this treaty kept slavery away from the north-west yet it signified victory for

the south at that time. Then came the question of the merger of Texas in the Union. The south

wanted to make it a member of the Confederation, but the north opposed it. Finally, Texas

joined the Union as a state which approved slavery. The Mexican war contributed to widen

the rift between the north and the sough. It aimed at capturing the slave territory. The people

of California wanted independence for their state. Under a treaty signed in 1850, it was

declared independent. After 1848 it became a decisive factor in the political conditions. This

conflict developed unto the civil war. The factors responsible for this are as follows.

1. Economic Disparity – There was economic disparity between the states of the north

and the south right from the beginning. In 1861 the north was in a better condition

than the south. Out of the 34 states of the Union, 23 belonged to the north. About

two-thirds of the population lived in the north where the number of Negros was vry

small. The 9.5 million population of the South consisted of 3.5 million slaves who

could not be used in war. Out of 30,000 miles of rail-roads about 20,000 were in the

north. Most of the American mines, banks and industries were in the north so it could

easily ge the supply of war materials during the period of Civil War. Industries

dominated the north. Large industries were rapidly developing there. They

manufactured cotton textiles, woollen clothes, shoes, leather goods and wooden

articles on a large scale. These industries used machines and slaves ere not required

here for economic progress. If the north enjoyed all these advantages, the south

performed better in other spheres. In the early year of the Civil war many people in

the border- states supported the confederation which raised its army equal in strength

to that of the Union. The soldiers in the south were fighting under the inspiration that

they were defending their rights and their homes from the north invaders. As against

the north, the basis of the economic life of the south was agriculture. Agriculture was

not mechanised and no proper implements had been developed till then. So the

farmers depended on the labour of their slaves. Cotton, sugar-cane and tobacco were

grown on a large scale in the south and slaves worked there as labourers. The society

in the south was fully dependent on slaves. So they were against the abolition of

slavery. These differences caused variance in their economic interests and there was a

state of conflict on the question of customs and tariff since 1830. Motivated by its

own interest no state relished the central interference. There were two political parties

in the country. One party advocated sovereignty for each state, while the other

pleaded for a strong centre. European immigrants saw more possibilities of profit in

north. In 1860 there were only 13% immigrants and 10% American industries in the

south. Though the south possessed other natural wealth, it could not generate capital

till cotton dominated there. In these conditions other trades, labourers and commerce

failed to get any encouragement there and in the social organization of the south only

the rural farming class could develop. This economic disparity caused differences in

economy, philosophy, political thinking and social stratification in the states of the

north and the south. To end this disparity, Abraham Lincoln decided to participate in

the Civil War and strengthen the Union.

2. Slavery – Although the system of slavery involved a moral question for the north, for

the south it was especially related to their economic interests. So they were very

sensitive to it. The controversy over the system of slavery was very old and it was

both a direct and an indirect cause of the Civil War. But it is partially true. It cannot

be separated from the desire to acquire supremacy over the Union, but Prof. Elson

believes that every cause of the Civil War had its root in slavery. To defend this

abominable institution, the slave owners offered many constitutional comments

regarding the sovereignty of the state, dissociated from the Union and committed

deeds which caused suspicion and resentment in the heart of northerners. By the end

of the eighteenth century the common people in America had begun to disparage

slave trade. In the north, slave trading was abolished up to the southern boundary of

Pennsylvania. This boundary was known as “Mason-Dickson Line”. In the new

territory west of Alignese and north of river Ohio, slavery had been abolished under

the ordinance of 1787. It was also gradually dying out in the south, but here it was

being achieved through a change of heart and not through legislation. In the

meantime development of industries made slave trade very profitable and now no one

was willing to give up this lucrative trade. Gradually slavery became a very

complicated issue in American politics.

In the draft resolution of the Declaration of Independence, there was a clause that

the slave trade was a crime, but later on it was removed to honour the desire of the

southern states of Carolina and Georgia. Although the ordinance of 1787 had

abolished slavery in the whole territory north of river Ohio, it provided that the

fugitive slaves could be arrested. Perhaps the founding fathers of the American

Constitution had compromised on the question of slavery obeying the needs of the

hour. The constitution agreed to grant to the Negro slaves the right to participate in

the State Assembly-elections but confined it to 3/5 of the total slave population of the

state. After the Missouri Agreement (1820) slave trade continued for thirty years

more. By 1850 the number of slaves had reached 3.5 million. The Fugitive Slave Law

was enacted in 1850, but the northern states opposed it. Four years later, the south

achieved a great victory by cancelling the Missouri Agreement through the Kansas-

Nebraska Legislation.

Thus the American states in the north and the south did not see eye to eye on the

question of slavery. The northern states considered it a disgrace for the society,

whereas the southern states considered it a necessary evil which could not be cast

aside. Neither party was willing to compromise. Some scholars are of the opinion that

through slave trade America wanted to extend its boundary in the west. So, all the

attempts for an agreement on the slave trade failed. Ridiculing the growing influence

of slavery, the poets and journalists said that the light of the stars and the red beams

of the dawn should be wiped off the American flag and whips and shackles should be

painted on it. From the above facts, two conclusions can be drawn – (i) for a long

time before the Civil War, the government had been under the sway of slave-

owners, and (ii) the people on the whole had no sympathies with them.

3. Election of Abraham Lincoln:

November 8, 1863

The election of Abraham Lincoln was an important landmark in the history of America. He entered

the office of the President on March 4, 1861. His election signified that the days of slavery were

now numbered. In the election of 1860, disruption in the Democratic Party paved way for the grand

success of Lincoln, the Republican candidate, but in its election campaign the Republican P:arty had

highlighted issues other than slavery. Lincoln once said : ‘ I don’t want to interfere in the state of

slavery in which it is today. If I got all the moral rights and powers, I would like to know how I could

use this state of slavery’. In the Civil war, the main aim of Lincoln was to defend the Union whereas

the states of the south separated from the union to preserve slavery. Lincoln succeeded with a

thundering majority, and the southern states were filled with the apprehension that new

government would put an end to their institutions and specific civilization. This instigated them to

secede from the Union.

The northern states were determined to safeguard the union because of their economic interests. If

the southern confederation established close trade relations with England, the northern states

would lost a very profitable market for their goods. Therefore, for the defence of Union, Lincoln

received more support from the farmers of Middle West than the merchants of north east.

4. Atmosphere of fear created by the political propaganda

The opponents of slavery had caused panic by propagating that the north would do away

with the historical labour system of the south. Most of the criticism of the southerners

made by the leaders of the northern states was selfish, impractical and humiliating. This

created in the south an atmosphere of apprehension, fear, hatred and resentment. On the

other hand efforts made by the Southerners for the expansion of slavery alarmed even

people like Lincoln in the north lest this system should spread all over the country. In the

beginning of 1857, Roger Brooke Taney,5th

Chief Justice of Supreme Court gave a

majority verdict in the case of Dred Scott that the Congress had no right to abolish

slavery in the states. This interpretation of the Constitution was not in the interest of the

national unity. It roused great controversy throughout America. Seven public discussions

were held between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas on the political aspects of

slavery, which were widely acclaimed Douglas strongly asserted that he was indifferent

towards slavery and supported the principle of public authority as the only means of

ending tension between the groups. Answering the challenging questions, Lincoln in a

speech at Freeport emphasised that in spite of the Dred Scott decision, any region could

have slavery Lincoln stressed that the question of slavery had to be solved once for all,

whether its results were favourable or unfavourable. To put it off or its solution through

agreements was not good. Accepting his nomination for the senate, in a speech he said,

“This government where half the states are free from slavery cannot be permanent. The

movement will continue till the crisis is reached and got over”. Lincoln considered the

institution of slavery morally, socially and politically unsound. Douglas overlooked the

question of morality and accepted the Freeport Principle according to which the question

of slavery fell under the state constitution. This principle was criticised in the South. It

created an atmosphere which made civil war inevitable.

5. Mistakes of the Slave Owners

The greatest mistake made by the slave owners was that they started the Civil War

and attempted to break the Union. This misadventure proved to be a deplorable

blunder. The Constitution and the politicians from the north had so far been shielding

the slave-owners, but now they disregarded the Constitution andc broke up with

friends in the north. Now this case reached the final court – the public. Before

breaking away from the Union and starting the war, the slave owners must have

realized that the north was more powerful, feelings for a federation were very strong

and it was not easy to get recognition and aid from foreign countries. Some people

thought that being the largest cotton growers in the world, the southern states would

have many advantages. Britain which depended on them for cotton would support

them. Soon the ensuing events proved them wrong in their calculations. Like the

cotton from the south, Britain needed wheat from the north. Some other, thought that

by temporarily braking away from the union, the southerners would be able to strike

a deal with the4 north on favourable terms. But this was a wrong assessment of the

situation.

6. Separation of the Cotton growing States from the Union

The news of Lincoln‟s victory was a bolt from the blue for the southerners, as many

of their leaders had already decided before the election that they would not remain in

the Union under a Republican President. The first step in this direction was taken by

Carolina. It declared secession from the Union on December 20, 1860. In its

declaration, it said that the laws granting personal freedom passed by the 13 states of

the north were against the spirit of the Constitution. The anti-slavery movement in

the north had endangered their personal property, the slaves and high customs and

tariff rates imposed on the south were meant to benefit the north. When Lincoln

entered the President‟s office on March 4, 1861, seven states of the south had already

seceded from the Union. They formed a southern confederacy on February 4, 1861

and elected Jafferson Davis their President and Alexander H. Stephens vice-

president. In place of the stars and stripes it adopted a flag with a palm tree. Like the

constitution of the United States, they made a separate constitution for the

confederacy which recognized complete sovereignty of the federating units and

accepted in clear cut terms their right to secede from the confederacy. Now the

eruption of the volcano was at hand. Though Confederacy had been formed in 1861

many states which supported slavery had not dissociated from the old Union. The

northern states had a mixed response towards the formation of the Confederacy.

Further President Buchanan held the view that though withdrawal from the Union

was unconstitutional, any state could not be forced to remain in the Union against its

will. Most of the people in the northern state were against using force against the

members of the Confederacy. Lincoln had determined to save the Union at any cost.

After his election as President, he made an immaculate declaration that the federation

formed under the name of United States of America was incontestable and

imperishable and it would not be allowed to disintegrate in any manner whatsoever.

He assured the southern states that he would not interfere in the system of slavery

prevalent there. Lincoln‟s speech fell flat on the states of the Confederacy. To subdue

the insurgent states he organized a voluntary militia. The rebellious states also

gathered force for their defence and a war broke out between the two parties.

Failure of Attempts at Compromise

The secession of the seven states of the south from the Union posed a serious

problem for the existence of the United States. The founding fathers of the American

Constitution had not given any state the right to secede from the Union because they

wished to keep it intact. Several meetings were held at New York, Boston and

Philadelphia to reach an agreement. Sentiments for compromise were expressed in

these meetings. Anti-slavery statements were checked and criticism of slavery in

public meetings, news papers and other forums was banned, so that the southerners

might develop an attitude of compromise. The people preferred the old system of

government to waging a war or dissolving the union, so innumedrable anti-Lincoln

resolutions were passed. Besides these meetings, Virginia convened a peace congress

at Washington. Eminent representatives of all the southern states of the union and

most of the northern statges attended the congress. After a deliberation for three-

weeks it sent its recommendations to the Congress, but they did not attract any

notice. On December 18, 1860, senator Cretendon presented to the senate a proposal

for agreement. A committee of 13 members was appointed two days later to consider

it. The committee said that the Congress had no power to interfere in the system of

slavery in any state or region south of 36 o 30 o latitude. This proposal might be

included in the Constitution as an amendment and it should not be further amended in

future. The Republican Party voted against it and it fell through. At this time a

committee of 33 members of House of Representatives was also trying to work out

an agreement. All the above attempts toreach an agreement fell through because of

anti-Union attitude of the southern states, the Civil War could no longer be kept off.

Beginning of the CIVIL WAR

Hostilities began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces fired

upon Fort Sumter, a key fort held by Union troops in South Carolina. Now

Lincoln was forced to take up arms to defend the disintegrating Union. He

feared that if he showed any impetuosity in taking up arms, the remaining

eight states which supported slavery might join the southern confederacy.

His Cabinet failed to help him reach a final decision. At last on April 6,

1861 he ordered to send re-inforcement forces to the Pckens and Sumter

Forts. On April 15, 1861 he organized a Civil militia of 75 thousand

citizens and posted it for the implementation of the Union laws and to

barricade the coasts of the Confederacy. Very few people had imagined the

gravity and fierceness of the forthcoming struggle. It became necessary for

the eight independent states to join either of the two parties. Four states –

Virginia, North Caroline, Tennessee and Kansas – decided to join the

southern confederacy whereas the remaining four states – Maryland,

Delaware, Kentucky and Missouri – joined the old Union. The capital of

the Union government was shifted from Montgomery to Richmond, 100

miles away from Washington. This war between north and south America

which started on April 12, 1861concluded on May 26, 1865 ( i.e. 4 years, 3

weeks and 6 days - last shot fired June 22, 1865).

In the history of America, this war is known by two names. The northern states called it a

„great rebellion‟ and the southern states called it the War of states. We call it Civil War

because it was fought between two sections of the American people.

War Time Resources of the Two Parties

Before going into the details of this war, it will be in the fitness of things to compare the

conditions of the north and the south. When the War began both had made a wrong

estimate of the power of the other party and so both were hopeful of their victory. But the

War continued for four years and concluded only when the people of the south wee fed

up with it.

In the beginning of the War the north was in a strong position. According to the census

of 1860 the population of the northern states was 2.3 million, whereas that of the 11

southern states was 9 million of which 3.5 million were slaves. This made the north more

powerful. The north had 22,000 miles of rail-road system, whereas the south had only

9000 miles. The north enjoyed a better position because of its industrial development and

the production in New York and Pennsylvania equalled that of the whole south. For the

purpose of collecting and organizing the army, the north started civil militia and other

programmes of recruitment. In July 1861, to make the military services attractive an

additional pay of ( $ 100 ) was announced. It was raised in 1863 to $ 302 for new recruits

and $ 402 for the veterans. As a result of this policy during the last quarter of the war 2

million soldiers from the north and 8 millions from the south were fighting. After 1862

the north had started the manufacture of all its war equipment. Industries and

transportation system were in a flourishing state in the north. Their economic condition

was sound. Rail and road transport system made a great contribution towards carrying

food supplies from one place to another. They had good trade and diplomatic relations

with foreigners. Due to diplomatic efficiency of the Lincoln government, the southern

Confederacy could not establish relations with foreign governments. Hence no foreign

government recognized it. Otherwise the barricade of southern ports could be broken in

an hour and then the south could have procured its desired food supplies, clothing and

arms for the war in exchange for its cotton. Thus the profusion of army, transport,

communication and food supplies provided the northern states stability in war. However,

the south also enjoyed certain advantages. There was great unity among the states

professing slavery. Three million people in these states owned no slaves and took no

interest in slaves as property. Even then they joined their slave-owning neighbours in this

war. The southerners were trained soldiers and most of the slave-owners were proficient

in horse riding and the use of fire-arms. They fought on their own ground and could

enlist the sympathy and support of the people.

For raising an army, the south also planned Civil Militia and used conscription. People

between the ages of 18 and 45 were conscripted into the army of the Confederacy. Even

then they could muster the strength of 8 million soldiers. Places in the south were far

apart which raised the expenses of transportation. They lacked naval power and could

defend their coast and ports with difficulty. As the northern states had barricaded the

southern ports they could not easily get foreign aid. There was scarcity of essential

goods. In the words of Novins and Comegar, we can conclude about the two rivals that

from all points of view the people of the north were far stronger than those of the south,

but the chances of the victory of the south were based on the ground that it would be

difficult to vanquish such a vast area and its discontented people.

The Attitude of Other European States during the Civil War.

In the aperture of the Civil War, the administration in England and France let their

support to the Confederacy but public opinion in these countries was divided on this

issue. Most of the people considered it a fight between slavery and independence and

sympathised with the north. The southern states expected that England and France would

support the Confederacy to get cotton. Barricading of the southern ports caused crisis for

the British textile mills, but the public feelings were still in favour of the north. The

incidents of Trent and Albama also created differences between England and the

Confederacy, but these differences were soon clarified. The question here arises: Why

did England not, in spite of favourable conditions, come forward in support of

Confederacy? There may be two reasons: First, both the north and the south had appealed

to England to help them. The government could not take a decision in a hurry before

considering all the pros and cons. Secondly, signs of some commotion wee visible in

Europe itself. Tzar Alexander II had set the surfs (slave farmers) free (1861) and had

assured them help for buying land and building houses. Constitutional monarchy was set

up in Italy and in Prussia, William I had ascended the throne after the death of Fredrick

William IV Bismarck, a shrewd politician, was high right hand. Napoleon II of France

was also very ambitious. In these circumstances England faced the question whether it

would be wise for her to meddle in the conflict in a distant place. She thought it better to

remain neutral. It is true that the policy of barricading adopted by the north caused some

loss to British trade, but it was not large enough to arouse her to protest and invite

trouble for herself.

During the Civil War the southern states hoped that if they got recognition and aid from

foreign countries, it would help them in the war. They wanted to prepare England and

France to mediate and to help lift the barricade. The northern states believed that if there

was no external interference, they would vanquish the south. So they made all efforts to

stop foreign countries to grant recognition to the south. England and France exercised

great influence during the Civil War. Both these countries had fought against Russia in

the Crimean War and in a treaty they had agreed to follow England in all matters relating

to the United States of America. Russia, the third power in Europe at this time supported

the North America. This made the condition of the south deplorable.

In spite of army disparities between the two rivals the war protracted for four years.

During the first three years of the war, President Lincoln was the Chief Commander of

the military organization of the north. Right from the beginning he aimed at not capturing

the southern regions but at decimating the forces of the Confederacy. In 1864, U S Grant

was appointed Commander in Chief. The leadership of the forces of the Confederacy was

in the hands of those able generals who might he called the ablest generals of the United

States. The most important name among them was Robert E. Lee. Besides him, the other

commanders were Jackson, Albert Johnston, Georgif Johnson, George Bownek.

VARIOUS WAR FRONGS AND THE DEFEAT OF THE SOUTH

On April 12, 1861 South Carolina bombed the arsenal of the Union forces in the Sumter

Fort and put a match to the Civil War. The four important fronts of the war were: The

sea, the Misissipi Valley, Virginia and the states on the eastern coast and the diplomatic

field. In the beginning the Union navy consisted of 40 vessels but it was not well-

organized. Gidian Wales, the able minister for navy consolidated it and made it very

strong. The barricading of the southern coast imposed by Lincoln was weak in the early

years but by 1863 it became very effective and export of cotton to Europe completely

ceased; nor could the sough import arms and ammunition, cloth and medicines which it

badly needed.

At this time appeared David G. Faragat, the talented naval commander who mounted

two special attacks. In the first campaign be drove the northern fleet through the

Misissipi delta and crossing two strong forts forced New Orleans to surrender. In the

second campaign he crossed the fortified gate of the Mobile Bay and captured an

armoured vessel of the south and closed the port in 1862. The northern naval forces

destroyed Merrymank and Albama, the two battle ships of the south. Thus he established

complete supremacy over the sea and deprived the south of any foreign assistance.

The forces of the Union were victorious at many places in the Misissipi Valley. In the

early years of the war they broke the long linear entrenchment south of Tenessee and

easily captured the whole of western part of the state. They seized Memphis, an

important port of Misissipi and entered up to 200 miles in the territory of the

Confideracy. In 1863, General US grant or North achieved a significant victory. He laid

the seize of Vicksberg, moved downwards and held back the forces of the Confederacy

for six weeks. The northern forces captured Vicksberg the strongest fort in the south on

July 4. In connection with this victory, Lincoln said, „ Our great river is now going to

meet the sea unobstructed‟. The south was divided in two parts and it became difficult

for the states of the east to get food supplies from the fertile regions of Texas and

Arkansas across the river.

But in Virginia the northern forces met one defeat after another. Washington, the Capital

of North was only 100 miles away from Richmond (Virginia) the capital of the south.

But the territory between the two was crisis-crossed by many streams and there were

many places where one could seek shelter. Besides this, the south had two generals

Robert F. Lee and Thomas J (Stonewall) Jackson who were more ingenious than the

earlier generals of the north. They gave a tough fight to the forces of the north near

Richmond, the capital of the south. The south gained great success in this battle but lost

General Jackson and the right arm of General Lee. None of the southern victories was

decisive.

One important event occurred on January 1, 1863. President Lincoln made his famous

‟Declaration of Independent‟ according to which all slaves had been set free and were

invited to join the forces of the Union. About one lakh fifty thousand Negro slaves joined

the northern army. The south realized the significance of this declaration and under the

force of war-time conditions released the slaves. Now the whole nation was absolved

from the taint of slavery and one of the objectives of the war was fulfilled.

In early 1864, Grant was sent towards the east. He defeated the forces of Lee in many

battles. Now the end of the war was clearly visible. Northern forces gained victory in the

battles of Pennsylvania, Vicksberg and Atlanta. Finally, on April 9, 1865, General Lee,

the commander of the southern forces surrendered to General Grant. Johnston

surrendered to Sherman on April 26 and the Civil War came to a close.

Assassination of Lincoln

On March 4, 1865 Lincoln started his second term as President. In his inaugural

speech, he used memorable words and called upon people to do what was just and

necessary to establish permanent peace. Lincoln made America a truly United States,

showed a new light by abolishing slavery and consolidated the political sys of America.

This great leader laid the foundation of that chapter in American history, after which the

nation ma forward on the path of progress. Unfortunately, the unpremeditated murder of

the creator of the historical unity of America, deprived him from seeing the realization of

his dream. John Viscus Booth shot him dead on April 14, 1865.

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