WANG Alvar Aalto 1

Shou-Hui Wang Swinburne College 20th Century Design 4 December 2014

Alvar Aalto and Modernism in Finland

Introduction Hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto (3 February 1898 – 11 May 1976) was a Finnish architect and

designer (includes furniture, textiles and glassware). Due to comparatively abundant of foreign experience, Aalto was mercurial and positive to feature new element in his career. His early works were influenced by the Swedish and Danish architects’ 'Nordic classical’ style; next shift to functionalism in the late 1920 (like Viipuri Library); then he started to feature experimental element to his work after 1930s (like Auditorium of Helsinki University of Technology). In his mature career, Aalto became a modern architect of established reputation by his use of monumental element to mark an outstanding character of Finnish modern architecture (like Finlandia Hall). This article describes Aalto’s career life in brief, and analyses two his famous works — the auditorium of Helsinki University of Technology (Now Aalto University, School of Science and Technology) (1949-66) and Finlandia Hall (1962-71).

(Fig.1) Coloured sketch of the Finlandia Hall concert-hall.

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Table of Contents List of Figures .................................................................................. 3 I. Designer Profi le ............................................................................. 4

I-1. Student age .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 I-2. Ear ly Career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 I-3. Modernism ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 I-4. Mid-Career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 I-5. Mature Career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

I I . Visual Analysis ............................................................................. 9 I I-1. Hels inki Univers ity of Technology Auditor ium (1949-66) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 I I-2. F in landia Hal l (1962–71) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

I I I . Conclusion ................................................................................ 13 Reference ...................................................................................... 15

Bibl iography .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Reference of Images .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

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List of Figures Figure 1. Coloured sketch of the concert-hall wall ................................................ 1 Figure 2. Jyväskylä Workers' Club ....................................................................... 4 Figure 3. Turun Sanomat ..................................................................................... 4 Figure 4. Viipuri (Vyborg) library, façade and interior ............................................. 4 Figure 5. Paimio Sanatorium ................................................................................ 5 Figure 6. Villa Mairea ............................................................................................ 6 Figure 7. Alvar Aalto: Model No. 41 lounge chair .................................................. 6 Figure 8. Säynätsalo town hall, Jyväskylä, Finland ............................................... 6 Figure 9. Kulttuuritalo ........................................................................................... 6 Figure 10. The façade of Helsinki University of Technology Auditorium ................... 9 Figure 11. Section of the auditorium .................................................................... 10 Figure 12. The concept of Kemi Rural Municipality Defence Corps ....................... 10 Figure 13. The façade of Finlandia Hall ................................................................. 11 Figure 14. Interior of Finlandia Hall ....................................................................... 11 Figure 15. The plan of Finlandia Hall ..................................................................... 12 Figure 16. Interior of Essen Opera House (Aalto Theatre) .................................... 12 Figure 17. Interior of Seinäjoki City Theatre .......................................................... 12 Figure 18. The Finnish Pavilion in 1939 ................................................................ 13

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I. Designer Profile I-1. Student age

Alvar Aalto was born on February 3, 1898, in Kuortane, a small village in Southern

Ostrobothnia, a province of Western Finland. When Aalto was 5 years old, his family moved

to Alajärvi, a larger town in the same province, but soon from there to Jyväskylä, the largest

city in Central Finland and on the Finnish Lakeland, before 1907. The city is famous of

being ‘the heart of Finland’ and is supposed to be the representative of Finnish culture.

When Aalto was a schoolboy, he placed his earliest recollected responses to architecture of

illustration of Eliel Saarinen’s works in the magazine Nuori Suomi. (Pearson, 1978) He

started formal studies of architecture at the Helsinki University of Technology (where

Saarinen also graduated from) in 1916.

One of his teacher whose influence on Aalto was Armas Lindgren, one of the leading

architects in Finland, and the chief proponents of National Romanticism. Lindgren in spired

Aalto from the emotional roots of Finnish design in classical direction. Beside Lindgren,

Gustaf Nyström and Yjö Hirn. Aalto learned Nyström’s approach to classical detailing and

influenced by Hirn’s theory of ‘objective aesthetics’ through his major books — The Origins

of Art and The Sacred Shrine, which were standard reading at many art schools in early

20th century. (Pearson, 1978)

‘Architecture must be deeply rooted in place and circumstance, it requires a delicate sense of form; it must support man’s emotional life.’

Upper - left: (fig.2) Jyväskylä worker’s club, 1925. right: (fig.3) Turun Sanomat Building, 1928-1930. Lower - left: (fig 4a) Façade of Viipuri library. Right: (fig 4b) Interior of the library.

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I-2. Early Career Having received his architect’s diploma in 1921, Aalto started his professional career in

Jyväskylä. His early commission was made in ‘Nordic Classicism’ — the eclectic classicist

idiom from the Renaissance, the baroque, neoclassicism and Art Nouveau, following the

influence of his professors. (Reed, 1998) His work in this period includes The Railway

Employee’s housing, Jyväskylä (1924-26) and Jyväskylä worker’s club (1924-25) (fig.2), a

ceremonious building in National Romanticism, which the neoclassical revival constituted

(Pearson, 1978). Besides the office's steady increasing workload, Aalto married Aino

Marsio, an architect four years Aalto’s senior who started to work in his office since 1923.

According to Teuvo Takala, draftsman and model make in Aalto’s office, they traveled to

Mediterranean on their honeymoon in 1924. His observance of and respects for the stones

and aesthetic structure of the Southern European environment sealed an intellectual bond

that remained important to Aalto for the rest of his life. (Pearson, 1978)

I-3. Modernism Following his moving to Turku in 1927, a city on the southwest coast of Finland, he

started his practice on Modernism. At the time, the architectural environment in Turku was

more liberal than Helsinki, where authoritative traditionalists were outspokenly critical of

emerging modernist sensibilities. (Pallasma

1998, p. 24) Aalto established a design

partnership with the architect Erik Bryggman

(1891-1955), who was well versed in

continental modernism trends. Books and

magazines in Bryggman’s library offered Aalto

a window into the architectural debates on the

continent, had him start to observe the quest

for a national culture and architecture as

integrally linked to the creation of a collective

body delivers the sense of commonality higher than class, language, or local loyalties.

(Pelkonen, 2009)

(Fig. 5) Paimio Sanatorium.

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Aalto’s projects from the Turku years are thus for discovery on the ‘collective body’ in

architecture. Turun Sanomat Building (1928-1930) (fig.3), Paimio Sanatorium (1929-1932)

(fig.5) and the Municipal Library (1927-1935) at Viipuri (fig.4), where was the largest city in

Eastern Finland and the capital of southern Karelia in that time (this city names Vyborg in

Russian and now belongs to Leningrad Oblast of Russian Federation), are examples for

Aalto’s putative discovery of continental Modernism. (Goldhagen, 2008) The cubic form and

seamless glass of these buildings are clearly adopted from German Functionalist (Bauhaus)

architecture; however, Aalto also considered the physiological and perceptual experience

of the building. The ‘skylights’ ceiling of Viipuri library, which collects ample ambient lighting

for the reading room in daytime, is an instance of how Aalto concerned readers’ actual

experience – ‘interrelationship of the reader, the book, and light’. (Goldhagen, 2008) This

instance displays how Aalto improved the Modernist characteristics, created a medium that

science and art cooperated and combined together, and extended the rationalist working

method to prevent 'inhuman‘ results. (Ceylanli, 2008)

In the period, Aalto belonged to a group Tulenkantajat (The Torch Bearers), a group of

Finnish artists who sought international contacts. The group’s same-named magazine

featured Aalto’s Turun Sanomat Building in the issue no.6 1930.

I-4. Mid-Career 1933 was important for Aalto by his phenomenal bentwood furniture and the bold

sanatorium design had become famous in the CIAM (International Congresses of Modern

Upper - left: (fig.6) Villa Mairea, 1939. right: (fig.7) Paimo chair made of birch veneer layers, Turku, 1930-1933. Lower - left: (fig.8) Säynätsalo Town Hall, 1951. right: (fig.9) Kulttuuritalo, 1958.

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Architecture) meetings. As the plenary session in Athens on the theme ‘The functional city’,

he was invited to bring a lecture for CIAM in August. However, Aalto sent Nils-Gustav Hahl

(1904-1941) as his outrider while Aalto was well occupied by commitments. (Schildt, 2007)

Following his success years, Aalto started to develop the ‘organic buildings’, a new

form with laminated vertical timber, curved wall sculptures, and abstract reliefs, in order to

deliver ‘the deep enmeshment of reason with emotion and bodily experience’ and ‘the

entanglement of its forms with sensory perception’. (Goldhagen, 2008)

For instance, Villa Mairea (1939) (fig.6) in Noormarkku, the luxury home of the young

industrialist couple Harry and Maire Gullichsen, is Aalto’s early experiment about delicate wood structure to convey the synthesis of Finnish regionalism, Modernist visual elements

and traditional Japanese architect influence which is also acknowledged as the harmony of

human and nature. (Ban et al., 2007)

In 1941, when Finland was drawn into Second World War, Aalto travelled to

Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the USA following an invitation as a Research

Professor. Besides his lectureship at MIT, Aalto designed the student dormitory, Baker

House, completed in 1948. The design takes influence of Frank Lloyd Wright’s use of brick

and its beauty and economy as a building material. (Pearson, 1978)

Aalto kept his position as a Research Professor at the Institute, until Feburary 1951,

two years after his wife, Aino’s death in January 1949. Then Aalto returned to Finland for

Helsinki University of Technology’s new campus project, which was eventually finished in

1966. (Schildt, 2007) In December 1951, Säynästsalo Town Hall (fig.7), the first well-known

project after he returned to Finland was finished after 2 years building period. Then another

building of similar function, The House of Culture (Kulttuuritalo in Finnish) (fig.8) in Helsinki

was completed in 1958. These culture buildings recorded Aalto’s practice in the form,

which is made of red bricks, black granite and copper, to meet the condition of modern life

along with the impression of ‘rationalist’ dignity appropriately. (Schildt and Aalto, 1994)

(Goldhagen, 2008)

I-5. Mature Career In his mature career between 1950s and 1960s, Aalto had his second marriage, with

architect Elissa Mäkiniemi, who had been working as an assistant in his office. Aalto

concentrated on Helsinki’s new city centre design, but only two pieces of his plan were

actually completed, including the concert hall names Finlandia Hall (1976), and an office

building for the Helsinki Electricity Company (1975). Finlandia Hall is heralded as one of

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Aalto’s remarkable concert halls by the successful delivery of Finnish national identity with

the experiment of the colours and rhythmical curve on the walls which represent Aalto’s

central notion of ‘humanisation’. (Pelkonen, 2009) Aalto received honours over the world in

his mature career, including a gold medal from the Royal Institute of British Architects

(Schildt, 2007) in 1957, and the Gold Medal from the American Institute of Architects in

1963 — Aalto was also elected president of the Academy of Finland in this year, until he

retired from the Academy in 1968. (Schildt, 2007)

After Aalto’s death in 1976, his office continued operating by Elissa to complete Aalto’s

designed building project, until Elissa’s death in 1994. Then the office was taken by Alvar

Aalto Academy, which established by the Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture in 1999,

in order to guide the restoration of Aalto’s buildings. In legacy, Aalto’s architecture leads a

‘sculptural experience by way of its topological connection to its site and the greater

Finnish landscape’, (Hartoonian and Utomo, 2012) to strength the national peculiarity of

Finland. By the direct communication to people and organic material (Giedion, 1954), Aalto

contributed a new vision of Modernist architecture with the concept of naturalised,

humanised and environmentally accommodated architecture creates a sort of form and

space of visual pleasance, which provides patients with as near a domestic environment as

possible. (Campbell, 2005)

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II. Visual Analysis

II-1. Helsinki University of Technology Auditorium (1949-66) In 1949, after Aalto had won the competition for the Helsinki University of Technology’s

new campus in north-west of Helsinki, a long-drawn-out period of development began in

1953, then the basic design of the main building being completed in 1955. However, the

construction did not begin until 1962, and the building was inaugurated on the 1st of

September 1966, and its process of furnishing was continued into the following year.

(Schildt and Aalto, 1994)

The auditorium (fig.10), set at centre of the building group in the complex, forms a

sloped cylindrical segment that rises in a funnel shape over the building compound. The

rhythmical vertical ‘stair’ surfaces which faces the courtyard also serves as an outdoor

theatre. On the upper level, there are windows which are set up similar to ‘larger’ stairs that

reach the top of the building. The interior is emphasised by the natural light (sunlight)

streaming from the windows. The lecture room follows the whole building’s shape, and

(Fig.10) The façade of Helsinki University of Technology (now Aalto University) Auditorium

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partly extends underground to allow an

increase in space. (fig.11) The predominant

materials in the construction were specially

manufactured red bricks, black granite and

copper to create the remarkable colours of

the building. (Lahti and Aalto, 2004)

Aalto was very used to designing this

sort of sloped cylindrical and sector

segment at the time, especially in cultural

buildings, both in exterior and interior

planning. The forms can be traced back to

an early plan of Kemi Rural Municipality

Defence Corps Building (fig.12) in spring

1932, which features a similar open-air,

cylindrical auditorium. Even though the

building was never built, the concept recurs

in his many later works, including this

auditorium. (Schildt and Aalto, 1994)

Additionally, the building features a

number of strong Modernist characteristics,

with the rejection of decorations, although

this was for financial reasons according to Aalto’s description. Also, Aalto stated that ‘the

intention was to produce an architectural form that in itself lends the building the academic

dignity.’ to stand for the applicability of Modernist characteristics for the campus buildings.

(Schildt and Aalto, 1994)

As a mid-career work of Aalto, the auditorium is an extremely functional building and

aesthetically pleasing, with the successful expression of ‘academic features’. It is still used

today and is regarded as the mark of Aalto University at now.

(Fig.12) The concept of Kemi Rural Municipality Defence Corps.

(Fig.11) Section of the auditorium.

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II-2. Finlandia Hall (1962–71)

In 1962, the Helsinki City Authorities commissioned Aalto to design a concert and

congress building as the first part of his great centre plan. The Finlandia Hall (fig.13) was

completed nine years later. Even the earliest plans show the main characteristics of the final

solution. The most conspicuous alterations involved the main façade which opens up onto

Töölö Bay, treatment and the chamber music room, originally intended to soar like the main

auditorium above the main building mass. (fig.15) (Schildt and Aalto, 1994)

Aalto produced variations on the key ideas of his previous design for the competition

for Opera and Music theatre in Essen, Germany (fig.1

6) in 1959, which was eventually built between 1981

and 1988 under the supervision of the German

architect Harald Deilmann. (Schildt and Aalto, 1994)

The remarkable aspects of International style can be

found in the design of Finlandia Hall as well as Essen

Opera and Music theatre, including asymmetry,

geometric shapes in the acoustic wall sculptures, and (Fig.14) Interior of Finlandia Hall.

(Fig.13) The façade of Finlandia Hall.

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the contrasting of cobalt blue walls with the white marble of the gallery front.

Comparatively, Finlandia Hall is more decorative than Aalto’s previous works. The

cobalt wall sculptures on the walls at both sides of the concert hall (fig.14), connotes a pipe

organ or stringed instruments. Some of lines curve in several specific angles, creating

another rhythmical appearance.

As the name ‘Finlandia Hall’, the building expresses more specific political messages

regarding Finland’s geopolitical ambitions: the white walls serve as a perfect metaphor for

neutrality as an emblem of freedom, in this case freedom from geopolitical conception.

(Pelkonen, 2009) It also symbolically represents the colours of the Finnish state flag, with

the cobalt acoustic wall sculptures and the white walls.

Besides Essen Opera House, Seinäjoki City Theatre (1969) (fig.17) shares similar

feature with Finlandia Hall, such as the colour palette and rhythmical decoration. The

contrast of colour creates a solemn but comfortable atmosphere as well as the

(Fig.15) The plan of Finlandia Hall.

(Fig.16) Interior of Essen Opera House (Aalto Theatre)

(Fig. 17) Interior of Seinäjoki City Theatre

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symbolisation of Finland. Being a late-career monumentalist work, the Finlandia Hall ranks

as one of the artistic high-water marks in Aalto’s career. (Schildt and Aalto, 1994)

III. Conclusion Central terms of Aalto’s architectural thinking were recognised as ‘nature, man, and

technology’ (Passinmäki, 2012), by his harmonisation of ‘Nature’ and ‘Culture’, so as the

symbol of Finnish Modernist architecture. Since Aalto’s comparatively wide International

experience, he was also active in the integration of foreign visual elements in architecture

along with Scandinavian.

In architecture, ‘natural’ can mean that the building process imitates natural processes

in terms of growth or function. It can describe the reason why Aalto’s buildings are not

particularly ‘biomorphic’ (Anderson et al., 2012), but the ‘natural’ image is highly related to

Aalto. Aalto’s argues nature provides the best model in that: ‘Nature herself is the best

standardisation committee in the world. But in nature, standardisation is almost exclusively

applied to the smallest possible unit, the cell. This results in millions of different

combinations that never become schematic… It also results in unlimited riches and

perpetual variation in organically growing forms. We must follow the same path in

architectural standardisation, too.’ (Aalto and Schildt, 1998)

Nevertheless, Aalto started to include the usage of

natural elements when he developed a style for

Finland as a nation in his design for the Finnish

Pavilion at New York World’s Fair in 1939 (fig.18). The

form of waving, curving walls of vertical timber

expressed the Finnish identity, (Anderson et al., 2012)

with the obvious innovation from horizontal

arrangement of timber in the Finnish tradition. (Ban et

al., 2007) With Modernism’s characteristic rejection of

unnecessary decoration, the beginning of Aalto’s ‘emotional’ and ‘expressive’ style can be

seem in Finland Pavilion, as the curves on the wall and cylindrical segment were frequently

reproduced in his later works, including Helsinki University of Technology Auditorium and

Finlandia Hall.

Generally, Aalto’s view of public building was that it should serve as examples for all

construction in the society. In other words, Aalto aspired after ‘realism’ more than

‘functionalism’ and emphasises the importance of ‘intuition’. (Aalto and Schildt, 1998) On

(Fig.18) The Finnish Pavilion in 1939.

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the other hand, Aalto describes the International Style architecture of ‘parallelepiped of

glass squares and artificial metal' as ‘no fun’. (Aalto and Schildt, 1998) This could explain

the individuality and innovation of Aalto’s style, as he evolved ‘the Finnish style’, through

experimenting with monumental visual elements, as well as his contribution to the transition

from modernism to post-modernism, since Aalto’s intention was to ameliorate and

humanise space by the integration of modern technology with a designer’s realisation of

buildings. (Quantrill, 1990)

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Reference

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London, Yale University Press. 3. BAN, S., PALLASMAA, J., SATO, T. & BARBICAN ART GALLERY. 2007. Alvar Aalto through

the eyes of Shigeru Ban, London, Black Dog Publishing, in association with Barbican Art Gallery.

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6. GIEDION, S. 1954. Space, time, and architecture; the growth of a new tradition, Cambridge, Harvard University Press.

7. GOLDHAGEN, S. W. 2008. Ultraviolet: Alvar Aalto’s embodied rationalism. Harvard Design Magazine, 27, 38-52.

8. HARTOONIAN, G. & UTOMO, N. 2012. Topology in the Architecture of Alvar Aalto. Alvar Aalto Researchers’ Network.

9. LAHTI, L. & AALTO, A. 2004. Alvar Aalto, 1898-1976 : paradise for the man in the street, Köln & Los Angeles, Taschen.

10. PASSINMÄKI, P. 2012. The Trout, the Stream, and the Letting-Be. Alvar Aalto’s Contribution to the Poetic Tradition of Architecture.

11. PEARSON, P. D. 1978. Alvar Aalto and the international style, New York, New York : Whitney Library of Design.

12. PELKONEN, E.-L. 2009. Alvar Aalto : architecture, modernity, and geopolitics, New Haven, New Haven : Yale University Press.

13. QUANTRILL, M. 1990. Alvar Aalto: A critical study, New Amsterdam Books. 14. REED, P. 1998. Alvar Aalto : between humanism and materialism, New York, New York :

Museum of Modern Art : Distributed by H.N. Abrams. 15. SCHILDT, G. 2007. Alvar Aalto : his life, Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä : Alvar Aalto Museum. 16. SCHILDT, G. & AALTO, A. 1994. Alvar Aalto : the complete catalogue of architecture, design,

and art, London, Academy Editions.

Reference of Images Figure 1. Alvar Aalto Museum, ‘Coloured sketch of the concert-hall wall. Many sketches were

made during the design period to study individual details of the building'. [Illustration]. Viewed on 27 Nov 2014 at Finlandia-talo. <https://finlandiatalo.fi/en/architecture/alvar-aalto/finlandia-hall-spaces-and-interior>.

Figure 2. Liao, L 2011, ‘Jyväskylä Workers' Club’. [Photograph]. Viewed on 27 Nov 2014 at Flickr. <https://www.flickr.com/photos/leonl/5681559714/>.

Figure 3. Kreegah, 2009, ‘Turun Sanomat building on Kauppiaskatu in Turku, Finland’. [Photograph]. Viewed on 27 Nov 2014 at Wikimedia Commons. <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Turun_Sanomat2.JPG>

Figure 4. Kairamo, M 2013, ‘Vyborg’s Aalto library reopens after 20-year renovation (exterior and interior)’. [Photograph]. Viewed on 27 Nov 2014 at yle.fi. <http://yle.fi/uutiset/vyborgs_aalto_library_reopens_after_20-year_renovation/6950745>

Figure 5. Mindel, L. F 2013, ‘the exterior of the Paimio Sanatorium, completed in 1933 by architect Alvar Aalto.’ [Photograph]. Viewed on 4 Dec 2014 at Architectural Digest. <http://www.architecturaldigest.com/blogs/architects-eye/2013/06/paimio-sanatorium-alvar-aalto-architecture-visit-finland-blog>.

Figure 6. Drewniak, F 2009, ‘Villa Mairea.’ [Photograph]. Viewed on 27 Nov 2014 at Flickr. <https://www.flickr.com/photos/27655859@N06/3538481128/in/set-72157618225173633>.

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Figure 7. The Metropolitan Museum of Art 2006, ‘Alvar Aalto: Model No. 41 lounge chair (2000.375) In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–.’ [Photograph]. Viewed on 27 Nov 2014. <http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/2000.375>.

Figure 8. Virtanen, K 2007, ‘Säynätsalo town hall and library, Jyväskylä, Finland.’ [Photograph]. Viewed on 27 Nov 2014 at Wikimedia Commons. <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SaynatsaloTownHall4.jpg>

Figure 9. DreferComm 2013, ‘Helsingin Kulttuuritalo (Alvar Aalto, 1958) toukokuussa 2013.’ [Photograph]. Viewed on 27 Nov 2014 at Wikimedia Commons. <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kulttuuritalo_Helsinki_28_toukokuuta_2013.JPG>.

Figure 10. Miguel, M 2011, ‘Aalto University School of Science and Technology.’ [Photograph]. Viewed on 27 Nov 2014 at Marta Miguel. <http://martamiguel.blogspot.com.au/2011/08/aalto-university-school-of-science-and.html>

Figure 11. Aalto, A 195, ‘Section of the auditorium’ [Design Drawing]. Retrieved from SCHILDT, G. & AALTO, A. 1994. Alvar Aalto : the complete catalogue of architecture, design, and art, London, Academy Editions.

Figure 12. Aalto, A 1932, ‘the concept for the assembly hall in the Kemi Rural Municipality Defence Corps Building.’ [Illustration]. Retrieved from SCHILDT, G. & AALTO, A. 1994. Alvar Aalto : the complete catalogue of architecture, design, and art, London, Academy Editions.

Figure 13. Hybel, J. H 2013, Finlandia Hall. Viewed on 27 Nov 2014 at arcspace. <http://www.arcspace.com/image-library/finlandia-hall/>.

Figure 14. Tenreiro, O 2009, ‘El interior del Finlandia Hall de Alvar Aalto.’ [Photograph]. Viewed on 27 Nov 2014 at Entre lo cierto y lo verdadero. <http://oscartenreiro.com/2009/10/05/la-ensenanza-de-finlandia/>

Figure 15. Alvar Aalto Museum, ‘Plan of Finlandia Hall.’ [Design Drawing]. Viewed on 27 Nov 2014 at Finlandia-talo. <https://finlandiatalo.fi/en/architecture/alvar-aalto/finlandia-hall-spaces-and-interior>.

Figure 16. Stadt Essen, ’Theater und Philharmonie Essen, Zuschauerraum Aalto-Theater.’ [Photograph]. Viewed on 27 Nov 2014 at essen.de. <http://www.essen.de/kultur_und_bildung/kultursparten_1/musik_1/essen_musik_1/essenmusik_startseite.de.html>

Figure 17. City of Seinäjoki, ‘Seinäjoki City Theatre: Designed by Alvar Aalto and completed by his second wife, Elissa Aalto.’ [Photograph]. Viewed on 27 Nov 2014 at visitlakeus.fi. <http://www.visitlakeus.fi/aalto_centre>

Figure 18. Stoller, E 1939, ‘Finnish Pavilion (Alvar Aalto), gelatin silver print, gift of Dr. J. Patrick and Patricia A. Kennedy.’ [Photograph]. Viewed on 1 Dec at Artillery. <http://artillerymag.com/stellar-stoller/>.