Aluminium toxicity in environmental...

Aluminium toxicityin environmental health

Giovanni Pagano

Federico II University, Department of Biological SciencesSection of Hygiene, Naples, Italy

E-mail: [email protected]

Efforts Project – Le Havre 22-23.09.2009

OUTLOOK

The available information points to a number of Al(III)-induced toxicoutcomes, both in humans, and in several biota from freshwater, terrestrialand marine ecosystems. A pervasive Al(III) pollution is recognised as eithera consequence of freshwater acidification, or following deliberate utilisationof Al(III) salts in water treatment.This latter procedure is carried out to remove suspended matter fromwastewater, or in the production of drinkwater. Both processes involve theutilisation of large-scale amounts of Al(III) salts, which can result inextensive bioavailability of Al(III) to aquatic ecosystems.In particular, micromolar levels of Al(III) are legally accepted as “residues”in both wastewater treatment and drinkwater production, although it cannotbe assessed whether, and to what extent, these residues can be harmful tohuman and/or to environmental health. It is worth noting that micromolarAl(III) residue levels in drinkwater overlap with the Al(III) levels associatedwith definite health effects both in clinical and in experimental reports.


Main Toxicity Endpoints Associated to Al(III) Exposures

_______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______

Organisms/ Exposure Routes Endpoints ReferencesTesting Objects____________________________________________________________________________________ _________________

Humans Renal dialysis Neuro-, Myelo-, Ganrot 1986; Evans et al. 1992;Antacid drugs Bone and Nephrotoxicity Yokel et al. 1994; Jeffrey et al. 1996;

Shcherbatykh & Carpenter 2007

Mammals Oral / parenteral Developmental defects Bernuzzi et al. 1989; Gomez et al.1991; Golub & Domingo 1996

Mammalian Cells Medium Neurofilamentous changes Gilbert et al. 1992; Stankovic &Excess ROS formation Mitrovic 1991; Oteiza 1994;Membrane lipoperoxidation Savory et al. 2006

Other vertebrates Developmental defectsBirds Yolk sac Gilani & Chatzinoff 1981Frogs Medium Olsson et al. 1987

Invertebrates Medium Developmental defectsSea urchins Cytogentic abnormalities Pagano et al. 1989; 1996; Trieff etBivalves Transmissible offspring damage al. 1995; His et al. 1996;

Oxidative stress Wilson & Hyne 1997

Plants Medium Phytotoxicity Costantini et al. 1992; Kong & ChengCytological & cytogenetic anomalies 1997; Berggren & Fiskesjö 1987Gene induction (of cytoskeletal Cruz-Ortega et al. 1997; Wang et al.proteins) 2006; Ma 2007


Developmental defects induced by Al(III) sulfate, Fe(III) chloride or their1:1 mixture (Mix) in sea urchin embryos (S. granularis)Abbreviations: P1 = % larval malformations; P2 = % developmental arrest; D = % deadembryos/larvae.

_______________________________________________________________________

Agent M P1 P2 D_______________________________________________________________________

Blank 12.0±4.3 12.8±2.1 1.4±0.5

Al2(SO4)3 10-6 31.0±4.3 36.8±6.6 6.4±5.710-5 15.2±10.2 32.4±18.5 40.0±24.110-4 40.3±5.8 35.3±13.2 3.0±1.0

FeCl3 10-6 43.4±2.4 25.4±1.9 4.2±3.710-5 31.2±7.3 33.4±10.9 7.6±6.110-4 49.0±21.0 32.0±15.0 0.5±0.5

Mix 10-6 17.4±7.4 27.0±13.2 42.0±23.710-5 23.4±10.7 21.6±11.5 43.4±23.210-4 7.0±4.7 22.7±22.7 67.0±30.5

_______________________________________________________________________


Main issues in aluminium toxicity

a) due to the high affinity between silicates and Al(III), “pristine” Al(III) levelsin terrestrial and in most freshwater ecosystem are in the femtomolar range;

b) hence, there are no specific Al(III)-binding proteins in animal cells, nor anyother biochemical devices targeted to Al(III) detoxification, unlike e.g. iron;

c) a number of human interventions have caused Al(III) levels to increase byseveral orders of magnitude above the environmental pristine levels;

d) drinking water production from surface waters can represent a subtle casefor human exposure to bioavailable and substantial Al(III) levels;

e) the use of Al(III)-based antacids drugs has been highlighted as a potentialhealth hazard, although most of the available evidence has been confined toanalytical studies and to scarce case reports;

f) Al(III)-associated toxicoses in humans have been reported involving thenervous system, bone marrow, bone, and kidneys;

g) genetic effects are suggested by studies reporting on: i. cytogeneticabnormalities; ii. transmissible damage from sperm to offspring, and iii. geneinduction;

h) a number of reports have focussed on ecotoxic outcomes in Al(III)-pollutedwater bodies.


Forman T. McLean and Basil E. Gilbert.Aluminum toxicity. Plant Physiol. 1928; 3: 293–302.

Lucia M et al. Trace element concentrations (mercury, cadmium,copper, zinc, lead, aluminium, nickel, arsenic, and selenium) insome aquatic birds of the Southwest Atlantic Coast of France.Arch Environ Contam Toxicol. 2009 Sep 18. [Epub ahead of print]

[ . . . ]

The long way of aluminium toxicity(3005 references cited in MedLine to date)


Aluminium and anodes1: Boroski M et al. The effect of operational parameters on electro-coagulation-flotation process followed byphotocatalysis applied to the decontamination of water effluents from cellulose and paper factories. J HazardMater. 2008;160:135-41.

2: Friesen MC et al. Adequacy of benzo(a)pyrene and benzene soluble materials as indicators of exposure topolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a Söderberg aluminum smelter. J Occup Environ Hyg. 2008;5:6-14.

3: Mameli O et al. Effect of aluminum consumption on the vestibulo-ocular reflex. Metab Brain Dis. 2006;21:89-107.

4: Pavanello S et al. HPLC/fluorescence determination of anti-BPDE-DNA adducts in mononuclear white blood cellsfrom PAH-exposed humans. Carcinogenesis. 1999;20:431-5.

5: Oganesian GA, Titkov ES. [The long-term action of low concentrations of aluminum on the central nervoussystem of white rats and the determination of the potential danger of the action of these concentrations on man].Zh Evol Biokhim Fiziol. 1995;31:483-8. Russian.

6: Granella M et al. [The urinary mutagenicity test in monitoring exposure to aromatic polycyclic hydrocarbons inworkers in the aluminum industry]. Med Lav. 1992;83(5):511-8. Italian.

7: Fontenier G et al. Design of experimentation with a platinum-magnesium bioelectric battery. Biomater MedDevices Artif Organs. 1975;3:25-45.

8: Crapper DR, Dalton AJ. Alterations in short-term retention, conditioned avoidance response acquisition andmotivation following aluminum induced neurofibrillary degeneration. Physiol Behav. 1973;10:925-33.

9: Gilliland SE, Speck ML. Inactivation of microorganisms by electrohydraulic shock. Appl Microbiol. 1967;15:1031-7.


Aluminium anodes and toxicity

Hic sunt leones…



Experimental plan within the EFFORTS Project

Comparing toxicity of aluminium and zincto sea urchin early developmentby testing Al(III) or Zn(II) sulfate solutions vs.sacrificial anode-dissolved Al(III) or Zn(II)


Main laboratory procedures and endpointsin sea urchins embryo and sperm bioassays

Testing object Duration Endpoints

Embryos up to 72 hrs 1) larval malformations(zygote pluteus) (or shorter intervals, 2) developmental arrest

pre-hatching vs post-hatching) 3) embryonic mortality4) cytogenetic aberrations5) oxidative activity:- LDCL- 8 OHdG

Sperm 10 min to 120 min 1) fertilization rate(according to species) 2) offspring quality

3) LDCL; 8 OHdG

Al(III)-induced developmental toxicityto sea urchin embryogenesis

%D

evel

opm

enta

lDef

ects

Control 0.3 1 3 10[M]

*

* p = 0.007

Zn(II)-induced developmental toxicityto sea urchin embryogenesis

Control 0.3 1 3 10[M]

%D

evel

opm

enta

lDef

ects

SA-derivedZn(II)

*

* p = 0.0005

Fertilization successSea urchin sperm exposure to Al sulfate vs.

sacrificial anode (SA)-derived Al(III)

“Static” Al(III) sulfateSA-derived Al(III)

%Fe

rtili

zed

Eggs

Control Cd(II) 3 102.5x10-4 M Al(III) [M]

Fertilization successSea urchin sperm exposure to Zn sulfate vs.

sacrificial anode (SA)-derived Zn(II)

Control Cd(II) 3 102.5x10-4 M Zn(II) [M]

%Fe

rtili

zed

Eggs

“Static” Zn(II) sulfateSA-derived Zn(II)

Controls 3 M 10 M

%D

evel

opm

enta

lDef

ects

Offspring abnormalitiesSperm exposure to Al(III) from Al sulfate

solution (“static”) or from sacrificial anode (SA)

“Static” Al(III) sulfateSA-derived Al(III)

*

* p = 0.02

Offspring abnormalities following sperm exposure to Zn(II)from Zn sulfate solution (“static”) or from sacrificial anode (SA)

%D

evel

opm

enta

lDef

ects

Controls 3 M 10 M

“Static” Zn(II) sulfateSA-derived Zn(II)

*

* p = 0.01

Cytogenetic analysis: quantitative parameters

Treatment schedules # Mitoses per Embryo

Blank 13.8 ± 2.5

Cd(II) sulfate 2.5 mM 8.7 ± 3.92

Al(III) sulfate 0.1 mM 9.4 ± 1.80.3 mM 7.7 3.11 mM 9.0 ± 3.13 mM 7.5 2.210 mM 6.8 ± 2.1

SA Al(III) 0.1 mM 8.9 ± 2.10.3 mM 8.1 ± 3.01 mM 8.2 ± 2.43 mM 8.0 ± 2.010 mM 8.6 ± 1.4


Cytogenetic analysis: Percent embryos with 1 mitotic aberrations

Treatment schedules % Embryos (Ab+) TOTAL

Blank 13.5 7.9 13.5 7.9

Cd(II) sulfate 2.5 mM 16.0 ± 7.6 16.0 ± 7.6

Al(III) sulfate 0.1 mM 20.9 ± 16.80.3 mM 25.2 ± 17.81 mM 30.2 ± 20.83 mM 30.1 ± 6.610 mM 29.4 ± 9.2 27.2 4.1

SA Al(III) 0.1 mM 27.7 ± 19.00.3 mM 22.1 ± 16.01 mM 26.3 ± 13.23 mM 27.6 ± 3.110 mM 20.0 ± 14.3 24.7 3.5


CONCLUSIONS

Both aluminium and zinc, at concentrations in the micromolar range, exerteddevelopmental toxicity to sea urchin embryos and to the offspring of Al(III)-or Zn(II)-exposed sperm. Cytogenetic effects were observed in embryosreared in Al(III) and to Zn(II). No significant effect was detected on spermfertilisation success.

A sharp and significant difference was observed between Al(III) and Zn(II)toxicity according to whether they were obtained by dissolving their sulfatesalts, or by electrochemical corrosion of sacrificial anodes. Toxicity wasobserved only by exposures to salt solutions, not to sacrificial anode-derivedsolutions.


Christelle Caplat, Cherbourg, FranceDaniel Barillier, Caen, FranceMarie-Laure Mahaud, Cherbourg, FranceRahime Oral, Izmir, TurkeyAndrea Mao, Venice, Italy

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