ALT-C/eLN Webinar:The Science of Learning

Richard CoxSchool of InformaticsUniversity of Sussex

22nd June 2010

Learning

• One definition: “Change in behaviour not attributable to maturation…”

• Human learning (because the science of learning includes much research on learning by non-humans…)

• Science, scientific method…a ‘way of knowing…’ – LT, e-learning, TEL a real boon to study of learning in educational contexts– e.g. nice methodological innovations such as controlled

experiments comparing subtle variations in presentation, type of feedback given to students etc, collect massive amounts of data for educational data mining later…

Issues (in 20’ !)

• Learning what?• Learning how?• Learning context• Learning types• Learning to learn• Learning and feedback• Learning and information modalities

Learning what?

• Declarative information– Knowing that

• Procedural skills– Knowing how

Learning how?• Direct instruction

– Instructionism– Instructional model/design– Curriculum structure (conceptual pre/co-requisites of a topic in a

domain, etc) (Bloom, Ausubel)• By exploration

– constructionism/constructivism (Piaget, Papert, Bruner)• By doing

– Teaching in context of problem solving – Maximise receptivity to needed information kind of JIT

teaching(Anderson)• By observing others (vicarious)

– Learned emotional responses (Bandura)– Also cognitive skills (e.g. Cox, Lee, et al.)

Learning context

• Formal settings– Schools– Universities– Workplace training

• Real-world– Hobbies– Interests– sports

Learning types

• Explicit– Available to articulation e.g. via spoken/written language– Students encouraged to ‘stay explicit’ (e.g. for assessment)– Analytical, rational, rule-based, controlled, cognitively

demanding, slow, cultural, formal tuition• Implicit– Heuristic, tacit, associative, quick, automatic…– Hallmark of expertise, practiced skill– Intuitive (and not necessarily inaccurate)

• Aka system 1 and system 2 cognition– (see Stanovich’s “dual-process framework”, 1999)

Learning to learn

• Metacognition• E.g. Chi’s ‘self-explanation effect’• Awareness of own learning – Achievements– Styles– Cognitive and emotional states

• Learning to learn – can be taught?– Study skills courses…

Learning and feedback

• Feedback crucial to (efficient) learning– Marks– Remarks– Knowledge of results– Applies to learning declarative knowledge and

procedural skills

• However, instructionless (& feedbackless) learning does occur too - students have insights of their own

Learning modalities• Information can be presented to students in two modalities

– Graphical• Pictures• Diagrams, charts, graphs

– Linguistic• Natural language (spoken, written)• Formal languages and notations

– Mathematics, logic

• Two modalities have very different expressive, cognitive and semantic properties

• Mix and match judiciously (cf Richard Mayer’s CHoMMLng; Cox jnl paper in Lng &Instr. (1999); Stenning’s book ‘Seeing reason’)

• Students (may) differ individually in their propensities to learn graphically and/or linguistically…

Of course these factors interact massively…

• E.g.• Constructivist learning approach X procedural

skill X graphical information presentation probably maximises likelihood of implicit learning…

• Direct instruction X declarative knowledge X natural language modes of information expression probably maximises likelihood of explicit learning…

References

• Bransford, J.D., Brown, A.L., & Cocking, R.R. (Eds), (2000) How people learn: Brain, mind, experience and school. Wa:DC. National Academy Press.

• Mayer, R.E. (Ed.) (2005) The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. Cambridge University Press.

• Stanovich, K.E. (1999) Who is rational: Studies of individual differences in reasoning. Mahweh:NJ, LEA.