t .

"

"

"

09:33 THU 20 NOV 75 Page 1 <AVRON>AI, OUTLINEDBRFAKDOWN OF ARTIFICIAL, INTELLIGENCE

Davi d Wilkins

(This is a composition of a number of other papers which were freelyborrowed from. References will be added later. Few* if any* branchesgo down to the terminal nodes, Most branches go down as far as myknowledge or time to research the subject allowed. When I had vaguenotions about what should be in the subtree* there is an asteriskfollowed by informal comments, when I had ideas for some but not allof the branches from a point* there is an "ETC," after the last branch.This is a very rough draft and comments* suggestions* and additions areencouraged at all levels. Mail them to DEW at SAIL,This file is OUTLIN,AU22S,EAF] and <AIHAND3OOK>BREAKDOWN-OF-AI/WILKINS',3

I, Artificial Intelligence from a global viewpointChow much of this section* if any* do we wish to include In the handbook?)

A, Phi losophy♦perhaps Turing's Test article* Dreyfus's what Computers Can't Do

withPapert's reply* Anderson's Minds and Machines* mind-body problem*definitions of artificial intelligence and intelligence*Lighthill and replies* "AI: A Case for Agnosticism"* etc.

B, Relationship to society1) Science fiction2) Popular misconceptions3) Home terminals (McCarthy hasFTC,

art icles)

C, History1) Funding

*ARPA* .etc,*cybernet ics* etc. Weiner's Human Uses of Human Beings: Cybernetics

and Socity* appendix in Human Problem Solving, Pam McCordic(?)*etc.

D, Conferences and publicationsJournal of AISIGARTSIGCASMachine IntelligenceIJCAI proceedingsCACM (computer science* some AI)JACM (computer science* some AI)Cognitive p sychology (some AI)American Journal of Computational Linguistics (some AI)Special interest conferences: cybernetics* natural language*

robot i cs

11. Artificial Intelligence Methodologies and Techniques

A, Knowledge representation(pointer to memory and learning section of information processing

psychol ogy]

09:33

#B.

"

THU 20 NOV 75 Page 1.l <AVRON>AI,OUTLINE?21) Production systems

♦Waterman* Newell and Simon* Dendral* Mycin* Davis+King* etc',2) Frames

♦Minsky, Mnograd* etc.3) Conceptual Dependency

♦Schank and students4) Semantic Nets

♦Qui 1 1 ian* etc.5) Formal systems

a) Predicate calculus[insert El-Masri's outline here)

b) Higher-order logicc) LCFd) Hoare's logicC7C.

6) Procedural representationsa) Pattern directed invocationb) Assertionsc) DemonsETC,♦Winograd* Hewitt* etc.

7) Representation of timea) Frame problemb) qualification problem♦McCarthy and Hayes* Hendricks and Bruce* etc

8) Discrimination nets♦FPAM* etc.

9) Mi seel l aneous*Hewitt's Actors* etc.

Knowledge Acquisition[pointer to memory and learning section of information processi ng

psychology]1) User Interaction2) CS Custom Crafting3) Reading text4) Inductive inference

♦Dendral system* etc[the following comes from Aikjn's learning outline)5) Planning

--''mi 1 epost" paradigm for plans6) Reasoning by Analogy7) Learning

--evaluationfunctions--generator functions--CHECKERS (Samuel; 1959,1967)--Hewitt-functional abstraction (1968 et, seq,)--Learning as heuristic development--self-affecting programs

8) Waterman's ideas--heurlst 1c rul es--heuristic definitions--heur i st lc bl ccks--decision matrix

9) Samuel ' s ideas--parametric functions--signature types and tables--rote learning--learning by generalization--book learning

09;33 THU 20 NOV 75 Page 1,2 <AVRON>AI. OUTLINED10) Production Systems

--product l ons--PSG (Newell* 1973); PASII (Waterman* 1974);

VIS (^oran* 1973); ACT (Anderson* 1976);LTSF7O (Tesler* 1*573) ? MYCIN? DFNDRAL" --Control elements (Anderson* 1976)

C, Knowledge use: reasoning and problem solving1) Search methods

[pointer to Heuristic Search section)a) Generate and testb) Hill climbingc) Means end analysisd) M atchc) Hypothesize and matchETC.

2) Theorem Proving and proof finding proceduresa) ResolutionETC.

3) Planninga) Subgoal l ngb) AbstractionETC.,

4) Dealing with uncertainty♦Sproull* Fledman* The Advice Taker* etc,

5) Reasoning by analogy*Evans* MIT, etc.

6) Using multiple knowledge sources♦Heresay II blackboards* etc,

7) Using productions" ♦MYCI^, DENDRAL* etc.

D, Heuristic Search1) Combinatorial problems2) Strategies

a) Breadth firstb) Depth firstc) Branch and boundETC.

3) Search spacesa) Graphsb) Treesc) AND-OR graphsETC

4) Heuristics and techniquesa) Minlmaxb) Alpha-betac) Killer heuristicd) Evaluation functionc) Generator functionETC,

5) Optimality and efficiency

E, AT Languages

" 1) List processing2) St ring

s

processing3) Recursion4) Production systems5) Data structures and retrelval

a) Non-associative

"

*

"

09:33 THU 20 NOV 75 Page 1,3 <AVPON>AI.QUTLINt;2

♦Sets* bags* list* tuples* etc,b) Associative

♦data contexts* pattern matching retreival* etc.6) Control structures

a) Control contextsb) Backtrackingc) Co-routinesd) Multiprocessingc) Demonsf) Pattern directed function invocationg) User specified mechanisms (Cor.niver)

7) Actual systemsa) LISTb) SLIPc) POP-2d) SAILc) PLANNERf) IPLg) CONNIVERh) QLISPi) SNOBOL

111, Problem Domains of AI Research

A, Automatic programming [the following is WTL's outline)I) PROGRAM SPECIFICATION TECHNIQUES

A) NATURAL LANGUAGE TO SPECIFY ALGORITHMS1) HEIDORN'S SYSTEMii) OWLHi) ISI WORK

B) EXAMPLES1) HARDY'S WORKH) SHAW'S AND SWARTOUT'S WORKHI) SIKLOSSY'S WORK

C) TRACES1) BIERMAN'S WORK11) SIKLOSSY'S WORK1 1 1) BAUER'S WORK

D) VERY HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES1) EXTENDABLE LANGUAGESii) SET ORIENTED LANGUAGES

E) PREDICATE LOCKII) PROBLEM TRANSFORMATION TECHNIQUES (AUTOMATIC CODING)

A) THEOREM PROVINGB) STANDARD PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUESC) DEBUGGING TECHNIQUES (SUSSMAN)

III) PROGRAM TRANSFORMATION TECHNIQUESA) DARLINGTON'S & BURSTALL'S WORKB) JIM LOW'S WORK

IV) LEARNING SYSTEMSV) UNDERSTANDING SYSTEMSVI) PROGRAMMER'S AID

B, EXPERIMENTAL AND COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY(The following is Perry Thorndyke's outline, ]

I. Perception(Information sources: Neisser, COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

Norman* MEMORY AND ATTENTIONLindsay ft Norman, HUMAN INFORMATION PROCESSING

"

"

"

09:33 THU 20 NOV 75 Page 1.4 <AVRON>AI.OUTLINE;2

Haber* INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACHES TOVISUAL

PERCEPTIONHtbtr* CONTEMPORARY THEORY AND RESEARCH IN VISUAL

PERCEPTIONChase* VISUAL INFORMATION PROCESSING

A, Attention1, Selective attention; Cocktail Party phenomenon?, Filter mqdels

B, Visual Perception: Iconic Storage and Coding1, Transient iconic memory2, Masking3, Verbal coding

C. Pattern Recognition1, Displacement and rotation2, Template matching3, Feature analysis: Pandemonium et al,4. Analysis-by-synthesis

D, Auditory Perception1, Speech perception2. Echoic Memory and auditory attention

E, Applied Perception1, Chess: Simon* and Chase 8, Simon2. Semantic coding of visual percepts: Clark comprehension

mode 1

11, Memory and Learning(Information sources: Lindsay 5 Norman* HUMAN INFORMATION PROCESSING

Kintsch* LEARNING* MEMORY, AND CONCEPTUALPROCESSES

Tulving R Donaldson* ORGANIZATION AND MEMORYNorman, MODELS OF HU W AN MEMORYAnderson & Bower* HUMAN ASSOCIATIVE MEMORYKintsch* THE REPRESENTATION OF MEANING IN MEMORYPaivio* IMAGERY AND VERBAL PROCESSESNorman & Rumelhart, EXPLORATIONS IN COGNITION

A. Structures and processes1, Short-term memory2, Long-term memory3, Rehearsal4, Chunking^5, Recognition6, Ret rleval , recal l7, Inference and question-answering8, Semantic memory vs. episodic memory9, Interference and forgetting

10. Type nodes vs. token nodesB. Memory Models and Knowledge Representations

1, Associative memory modelsSemantic Memory and Teachable Language

Comprehender(Quillian and Collins & Quillian)

b, HAM (Anderson 8. Bower)c. ELINOR (Lindsay, Norman* & Rumelhart)<i. Conceptual Dependency (Schank)t. EPAM

2. Procedural representations<■>, Production systemsb, PLANNER

3. Non-linguistic representations

09:33

"

%

"

THU 20 NOV 75 Page 1.5 <AVRON>AI,OUTLINE;2

a. Imagery and analog representations4t Other representations

a. Frame systems ( v insky, Winograd, et al.)b. Augmented Transition Networks

111, Language Comprehensi on/Psychol l ngui st i cs(Information sources: Fodor, Bever, & Garrett, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF

LANGUAGEAnderson & Bower* HUMAN ASSOCIATIVE MEMORYMinsky, SEMANTIC INFORMATION PROCESSINGSchank & Colby, COMPUTER MODELS OF THCUGHT AND

LANGUAGECarroll & Freedle, LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION AND

THE ACQUISITION OF KNOWLEDGEClark % Clark, PSYCHOLINGUISTICS (forthcoming)

A, Concepts to be coped with1, Competence vs. performance models2, Phonology vs, syntax vs. semantics vs. pragmatics3, Surface structure vs, deep structure4, Taxonomic grammars, generative grammars,

t ransformat ionalgrammars

5. Phrase-structure rules, transformation rules6, Constituents* lexical entries7. Parsing vs, generation8. Ccntext-free vs. Context-sensitive grammars

B, Computational Linguistics: Language understanding systems1, Augmented Transition Networks (Weeds, Kaplan)?, Procedure-based systems (Winograd and descendants)3, Logic-based systems

a, SIR (Raphael)b. Coles' systemC QA3d. STUDENT (Bobrow)

4, Conceptual Dependency (Schank et al,)5, Machine Translation (Wilks)6, Semantic Networks (Simmons, Quillian, ELINOR)7, SCHOLAR; tutorial dialogues

Areas of psychological experimentation1. Acquisition and language development2. Memory for sentences

a. Transformation hypothesis

C.

b, Deep_ st ructure vs, surface structurec. Implications and abstract ideas

3. Comprehension of sentencesa. Negationb. Comparativesc. Actives and passivesd, Markednessc. Ambiguityf, Anamolous sentencesg. Influences of imageryh. Influences of lexical complexity1. Transient memory load (click studies)

4, Semantic memory5, Discourse structure and memory for prose

a. Effects of content variablesb. Effects of structure variablesc. Effects of instructional variables

"

"

"

09;34 THU 20 NOV 75 Page 1,6 <AVRON>AI,OUTLINE;2

IV, Problem Solving(Information sources: Newell * Simon* HUMAN PROBLEM SOLVING

Norman * Rumelhart, EXPLORATIONS IN COGNITIONErnst & Newell* GPSKleinmuntz* PROBLEM SOLVING

A, Modeling Game Playing1, Chess2, Cryptarithmet ic3, Go* Go-mo-ku

B, Solving Logic problemsC, Solving algebra and other mathematical problemsD, Concept formation and identification

V, Behavioral Modeling(Information sources: Schank & Abelson* COMPUTER MODFLS OP THOUGHT AND

LANGUAGEA. Belief Systems and Implication M olecules

(Abel son)B, Conversational Postulates (Grice)C, Tutorial Oialogues (SCHOLAR)D, Parry (The paranoid patient)

C, Game playing1) Checkers

♦outline of Samuel's work2) Chess

a) Shannon's ideasb) Turing's programc) Berstein's Programd) NSS programc) Greenblatt's Programf ) Ber l iner ' s workg) Russian's work (KAISSA)

3) Go and Go-mo-ku4) Kalah

D, Scientific Applications [ideas from Friedland's outline)I) Chemistry

a) Organic synthesis♦Corey* wipke, Gelernter, Ugi

b) Pattern recognitionc) Mass spectrometry

★Dendrald) Protein crystallography

23 Medicinea) MYCINb) DIALOGC) CASNFTd) Pauker MIT .work

3) Psychology and psychiatry♦PARRY* BELIEVED, etc.

i\) Matha) MATHLABb) SAINTETC,

FTC,

09:34

E.

"

F.

#

G,

"

THU 2C NOV 75 Page 1.7 <AVRON>AI.OUTLINE?2

Theorem Proving1) Predicate calculus

[pointer to pc section of knowledge representation)2) Herbrand's theorem33 Resolution

a) Ground resolutionb) General resolutionc) Unification

4) Search strategies and efficiency heuristicsa) Unit preferenceb) Tautalogy eliminationc) Factoringd) Subsumptionc) Hyperresol ut l onf) Set of supportg) SL resolutionETC,

ETC.

Robots1) Locomot l ve ski 11 s

♦Servoing, etc.2) Reasoning

★Planning with uncertainty, etc.3) Perceptual abilities

♦Machine vision work4) Hand-eye coordination

♦Bol l es and Paul , etc,5) Industrial automation6) Robots

a) SHAKEY, SRIb) FRFDDY, Edinburghc) Stanford hand-eyed) MIT hand

Vision [ideas from Arnold's outline)1) Hardware2) Image representation

a) Line descriptionsb) Shape descriptions

3) Scene analysis (could break down into 2D and 3D)a) Edge enhancement, spatial differentiationb) Noise removal, spatial smoothingc) Template matchingd) Region analysisc) Contour fol lowingf) Perspective considerationsg) Stereo visionETC.

4) Mul ti sensory images♦Tenenbaum

53 Percept rons63 Programs

a) Robertsb) Guzmanc) Falkcj) Huffmanc) Clowes

r

09:34

"H,

I."

"

THU 20 NOV 75 Page 1,8 <AVRON>AI,OUTLINE;2

f) Waltzg) Kelleyh) Shirai1) Barrow and PopplestoneJ) Feldman and YaMmovskyETC,

Natural Language Understandingi) Early work

♦M i'nsky's review 1n Semantic Information Processing* ELIZA, etc,23 Syntax

a) Transformational grammarsb3 Augmented transition netsc) Systemic grammarsd 3Context free grammarsc) Context sensitive grammarsETC,

33 Semantic theories♦Schank* Winograd* Simmons* etc.

4) Stories and bel ief♦Charniak* Thorndyke* Levy, McDermott, etc,

5) Translation♦'Mlks

6) Speech understanding♦Reddy, Woods, Walker, Newell, HERESAY, etc.

Others1) M US Ic

♦work at SAIL2) Art