Allen and Greenough; Latin Grammar

8/12/2019 Allen and Greenough; Latin Grammar

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Allen and Greenough's New Latin Grammar

PART SECOND --- SYNTA

!NTROD"CTORY NOTE

SECTION: #268. The study of formal grammar arose at a late period in the historyof language and dealt !ith language as a fully de"eloped produt. $ordingly theterms of Synta% orrespond to the logial ha&its of thought and forms of e%pressionthat had gro!n up at suh a period and ha"e a logial as !ell as a merelygrammatial meaning. 'ut a de"eloped syntatial struture is not essential to thee%pression of thought. $ form of !ords((li)e o puerum pulhrum* oh* &eautiful &oy((e%presses a thought and might e"en &e alled a sentene+ though it does notlogially delare anything and does not stritly spea)ing ma)e !hat is usually

alled a sentene at all.

$t a "ery early period of spo)en language !ord(forms !ere no dou&t signifiant inthemsel"es !ithout infletions and onstituted the !hole of language((,ust as to ahild the name of some familiar o&,et !ill stand for all he an say a&out it. $t asome!hat later stage suh uninfleted !ords put side &y side made a rudimentaryform of proposition: as a hild might say fire &right+ horse run. -ith this &egan thefirst form of logial distintion that of Su&,et and rediate+ &ut as yet there !asno distintion in form &et!een noun and "er& and no fi%ed distintion in funtion. $t a later stage forms !ere differentiated in funtion and((&y "arious proesses ofomposition !hih annot &e fully traed((Infletions !ere de"eloped. These

ser"ed to e%press person tense ase and other grammatial relations and !e ha"etrue arts of Speeh.

Not until language reahed this last stage !as there any fi%ed limit to theassoiation of !ords or any rule presri&ing the manner in !hih they should &eom&ined. 'ut gradually &y usage partiular forms ame to &e limited to speialfuntions /as nouns "er&s ad,eti"es0 and fi%ed ustoms arose of om&ining !ords into !hat !e no! all Sentenes. These ustoms are in part the result ofgeneral la!s or modes of thought /logi0 resulting from our ha&its of mind/1eneral 1rammar0+ and in part are !hat may &e alled 'y(a!s esta&lished &yustom in a gi"en language /artiular 1rammar0 and ma)ing !hat is alled the

Synta% of that language.

In the fully de"eloped methods of e%pression to !hih !e are almost e%lusi"elyaustomed the unit of e%pression is the Sentene: that is the ompletedstatement !ith its distint Su&,et and rediate. Originally sentenes !eresimple. 'ut t!o simple sentene(forms may &e used together !ithout thegrammatial su&ordination of either to e%press a more omple% form of thoughtthan ould &e denoted &y one alone. This is parata%is /arrangement side &y side0.



Sine ho!e"er the t!o sentenes independent in form !ere in fat used toe%press parts of a omple% !hole and !ere therefore mutually dependent the senseof unity found e%pression in on,untions !hih denoted the grammatialsu&ordination of the one to the other. This is hypota%is /arrangement undersu&ordination0. In this !ay through "arious stages of de"elopment !hihorrespond to our ha&itual modes of thought there !ere produed "arious forms ofomple% sentenes. Thus to e%press the omple% idea I &eseeh you to pardon methe t!o simple sentene(forms 3uaeso and ignosas !ere used side &y side 3uaesoignosas+ then the feeling of grammatial su&ordination found e%pression in aon,untion 3uaeso ut ignosas forming a omple% sentene. The results of theseproesses onstitute the su&,et(matter of Synta%.

4 The seond part generally has its usual infletion+ &ut as this )ind of ompositionis in fat older than infletion the ompounded stem sometimes has an infletionof its o!n /as ornien ( inis+ luifer ( feri+ iude% ( diis0 from stems notourring in atin. Espeially do ompound ad,eti"es in atin ta)e the form of i(stems: as animus e%animis+ norma a&normis /see Set: 50. In ompositionstems regularly ha"e their uninfleted form: as igni( spiium di"ining &y fire. 'utin o( and a(stems the final "o!el of the stem appears as i( as in ali(pes /from alastem ala(0+ and i( is so ommon a termination of ompounded stems that it is oftenadded to stems !hih do not properly ha"e it: as flori(omus flo!er(ro!ned/from flos flor(is and oma hair0.

SECTION: #267. $ Sentene is a form of !ords !hih ontains a Statement auestion an E%lamation or a Command.

$ sentene in the form of a Statement is alled a 9elarati"e Sentene: as(( anisurrit the dog runs.

$ sentene in the form of a uestion is alled an Interrogati"e Sentene: as((anisne urrit does the dog run

$ sentene in the form of an E%lamation is alled an E%lamatory Sentene: as((3uam eleriter urrit anis* ho! fast the dog runs*

$ sentene in the form of a Command an E%hortation or an Entreaty is alled anImperati"e Sentene: as((i urre per $lpis go run aross the $lps+ urrat anis

let the dog run.

.Su&,et and .rediate

SECTION: #25;. E"ery sentene onsists of a Su&,et and a rediate.



The Su&,et of a sentene is the person or thing spo)en of. The rediate is that !hih is said of the Su&,et.

Thus in anis urrit the dog runs anis is the su&,et and urrit the prediate.

SECTION: #254. The Su&,et of a sentene is usually a Noun or ronoun or some !ord or group of !ords used as a Noun:

e3uites ad Caesarem "enerunt the a"alry ame to Caesar.

humanum est errare to err is human.

3uaeritur num mors malum sit. the 3uestion is !hether death is an e"il.

'ut in atin the su&,et is often implied in the termination of the "er&:

sede(mus !e sit. urri(tis you run. in3ui(t says he.

SECTION: #252. The rediate of a sentene may &e a <er& /as in anis urrit thedog runs0 or it may onsist of some form of sum and a Noun or $d,eti"e !hihdesri&es or defines the su&,et /as in Caesar onsul erat Caesar !as onsul0.

Suh a noun or ad,eti"e is alled a rediate Noun or $d,eti"e and the "er& sumis alled the Copula /i.e. the onneti"e0.

Thus in the e%ample gi"en Caesar is the su&,et onsul the prediate noun anderat the opula /see Set: 280.

.Transiti"e and Intransiti"e <er&s

SECTION: #25. <er&s are either Transiti"e or Intransiti"e.

4. $ Transiti"e <er& has or re3uires a diret o&,et to omplete its sense /see Set:25=0: as(( fratrem eidit he sle! his &rother.

2. $n Intransiti"e <er& admits of no diret o&,et to omplete its sense:

ado I fall /or am falling0. sol luet the sun shines /or is shining0.



NOTE 4.(($mong transiti"e "er&s >atiti"e <er&s are sometimes distinguished as aseparate lass. These state an at !hih produes the thing e%pressed &y the !ord !hih ompletes their sense. Thus mensam feit he made a ta&le /!hih !as not ine%istene &efore0 is distinguished from mensam perussit he stru) a ta&le /!hihalready e%isted0.

NOTE 2.(($ transiti"e "er& may often &e used a&solutely i.e. !ithout any o&,ete%pressed: as(( arat he is ploughing !here the "er& does not ease to &e transiti"e &eause the o&,et is left indefinite as !e see &y adding(( 3uid !hat agrumsuum his land.

NOTE .((Transiti"e and Intransiti"e <er&s are often alled $ti"e and Neuter <er&s respeti"ely.

.O&,et

SECTION: #25=. The person or thing immediately affeted &y the ation of a "er& isalled the 9iret O&,et.

$ person or thing indiretly affeted &y the ation of a "er& is alled the IndiretO&,et.

Only transiti"e "er&s an ha"e a 9iret O&,et+ &ut an Indiret O&,et may &e used !ith &oth transiti"e and intransiti"e "er&s /Set: 62 660:

pater "oat filium /diret o&,et0 the father alls his son.

mihi /ind. o&,.0 agrum /dir. o&,.0 ostendit he sho!ed me a field.

mihi /ind. o&,.0 plaet it is pleasing to me.

NOTE.((The distintion &et!een transiti"e and intransiti"e "er&s is not a fi%ed distintion for most transiti"e "er&s may &e used intransiti"ely and many "er&susually intransiti"e may ta)e a diret o&,et and so &eome transiti"e /Set: 88. a0.

-ith ertain "er&s the 1eniti"e 9ati"e or $&lati"e is used !here the Englishfrom a differene in meaning re3uires the diret o&,et /O&,eti"e0:

hominem "ideo I see the man /$usati"e0.

homini ser"io I ser"e the man /9ati"e see Set: 650.

hominis misereor I pity the man /1eniti"e see Set: ?=. a0.



homine amio utor I treat the man as a friend /$&lati"e see Set: =4;0.

@any "er&s transiti"e in atin are rendered into English &y an intransiti"e "er& !ith a preposition:

petit aprum he aims at the &oar.laudem affetat he stri"es after praise.

urat "aletudinem he ta)es are of his health.

meum asum doluerunt they grie"ed at my misfortune.

ridet nostram amentiam /uint. ??0 he laughs at our stupidity.

SECTION: #25?. -hen a transiti"e "er& is hanged from the $ti"e to the assi"e "oie the 9iret O&,et &eomes the Su&,et and is put in the Nominati"e ase:

$ti"e: pater filium "oat the father alls his son.

assi"e: filius a patre "oatur the son is alled &y his father.

$ti"e: lunam et stellas "idemus !e see the moon and the stars.

assi"e: luna et stellae "identur the moon and stars are seen /appear0.

.@odifiation

SECTION: #256. $ Su&,et or a rediate may &e modified &y a single !ord or &y agroup of !ords /a phrase or a lause0.

The modifying !ord or group of !ords may itself &e modified in the same !ay.

$ single modifying !ord may &e an ad,eti"e an ad"er& an appositi"e /Set: 2820or the o&li3ue ase of a noun.

Thus in the sentene "ir fortis patienter fert a &ra"e man endures patiently thead,eti"e fortis &ra"e modifies the su&,et "ir man and the ad"er& patienterpatiently modifies the prediate fert endures.

The modifying !ord is in some ases said to limit the !ord to !hih it &elongs.



Thus in the sentene pueri patrem "ideo I see the &oyAs father the geniti"e puerilimits patrem /&y e%luding any other father0.

SECTION: #255. $ hrase is a group of !ords !ithout su&,et or prediate of itso!n !hih may &e used as an $d,eti"e or an $d"er&.

Thus in the sentene "ir fuit summa no&ilitate he !as a man of the highestno&ility the !ords summa no&ilitate of the highest no&ility are used for thead,eti"e no&ilis no&le /or no&ilissimus "ery no&le0 and are alled an $d,eti"ehrase.

So in the sentene magna eleritate "enit he ame !ith great speed the !ordsmagna eleritate !ith great speed are used for the ad"er& eleriter 3ui)ly /orelerrime "ery 3ui)ly0 and are alled an $d"er&ial hrase.

.Clauses and Sentenes

SECTION: #258. Sentenes are either Simple or Compound.

4. $ sentene ontaining a single statement is alled a Simple Sentene.

2. $ sentene ontaining more than one statement is alled a Compound Senteneand eah single statement in it is alled a Clause.

If one statement is simply added to another the lauses are said to &e Coordinate.They are usually onneted &y a Coordinate Con,untion /Set: 22. a0+ &ut this issometimes omitted:

di"ide et impera di"ide and ontrol. 'ut((

"eni "idi "ii I ame I sa! I on3uered.

If one statement modifies another in any !ay the modifying lause is said to &eSu&ordinate and the lause modified is alled the @ain Clause.

This su&ordination is indiated &y some onneting !ord either a Su&ordinateCon,untion /Set: 22. &0 or a Belati"e:

oderint dum metuant let them hate so long as they fear.

ser"um misit 3uem seum ha&e&at he sent the sla"e !hom he had !ith him.



$ sentene ontaining one or more su&ordinate lauses is sometimes alledComple%.

NOTE.(($ su&ordinate lause may itself &e modified &y other su&ordinate lauses.

SECTION: #257. Su&ordinate Clauses are of "arious )inds.

$ lause introdued &y a Belati"e ronoun or Belati"e $d"er& is alled a Belati"eClause:

@osa profluit e% monte <osego 3ui est in fini&us ingonum /'. 1. =.4;0 the@euse rises in the <osges mountains !hih are on the &orders of the ingones.

>or Belati"e ronouns /or Belati"e $d"er&s0 ser"ing to onnet independentsentenes see Set: ;8. f.

$ lause introdued &y an $d"er& of Time is alled a Temporal Clause:

um taent lamant /Cat. 4.240 !hile they are silent they ry aloud.

homines aegri mor&o gra"i um iatantur aestu fe&ri3ue si a3uam gelidam &i&erint primo rele"ari "identur / id. 4.40 men suffering !ith a se"ere si)ness !hen they are tossing !ith the heat of fe"er if they drin) old !ater seem at firstto &e relie"ed.

$ lause ontaining a Condition introdued &y si if /or some e3ui"alente%pression0 is alled a Conditional Clause. $ sentene ontaining a onditionallause is alled a Conditional Sentene.

Thus si a3uam gelidam &i&erint primo rele"ari "identur /in & a&o"e0 is aConditional Sentene and si ... &i&erint is a Conditional Clause.

$ lause e%pressing the urpose of an ation is alled a >inal Clause:

edo ut "i"am I eat to li"e /that I may li"e0.

misit legatos 3ui dierent he sent am&assadors to say /!ho should say0.

$ lause e%pressing the Besult of an ation is alled a Conseuti"e Clause:

tam longe a&eram ut non "iderem I !as too far a!ay to see /so far a!ay that I didnot see0.

.$1BEE@ENT



SECTION: #28;. $ !ord is said to agree !ith another !hen it is re3uired &y usageto &e in the same 1ender Num&er Case or erson.

The follo!ing are the general forms of agreement sometimes alled the >ourConords:

4. The agreement of the Noun in $pposition or as rediate /Set: 284(28=0.

2. The agreement of the $d,eti"e !ith its Noun /Set: 2860.

. The agreement of the Belati"e !ith its $nteedent /Set: ;?0.

=. The agreement of the >inite <er& !ith its Su&,et /Set: 460.

$ !ord sometimes ta)es the gender or num&er not of the !ord !ith !hih itshould regularly agree &ut of some other !ord implied in that !ord.

This use is alled Synesis or onstrutio ad sensum /onstrution aording tosense0.

.$1BEE@ENT O> NONS

SECTION: #284. $ noun used to desri&e another and denoting the same personor thing agrees !ith it in Case.

The desripti"e noun may &e either an $ppositi"e /Set: 2820 or a rediate noun/Set: 280.

$pposition

SECTION: #282. $ noun used to desri&e another and standing in the same part ofthe sentene !ith the noun desri&ed is alled an $ppositi"e and is said to &e inapposition:

e%ternus timor ma%imum onordiae "inulum iunge&at animos /i". 2.70 fearof the foreigner the hief &ond of harmony united their hearts. Dere theappositi"e &elongs to the su&,et.F

3uattuor hi primum omen e3uos "idi+ / $en. .?50 I sa! here four horses thefirst omen. Dere &oth nouns are in the prediate.F



litteras 1raeas sene% didii+ /Cat. @. 260 I learned 1ree) !hen an old man. Deresene% though in apposition !ith the su&,et of didii really states somethingfurther: "iG. the time ondition et. of the at /rediate $pposition0.F

-ords e%pressing parts may &e in apposition !ith a !ord inluding the parts or

"ie "ersa /artiti"e $pposition0:Ne . opilius ne3ue . @etellus larissimi "iri at3ue amplissimi "imtri&uniiam sustinere potuerunt /Clu. 7?0 neither u&lius opilius nor uintus@etellus D&oth of themF distinguished and honora&le men ould !ithstand thepo!er of the tri&unes.

1naeus et u&lius Sipiones Cneius and u&lius Sipio /the Sipios0.

$n $d,eti"e may &e used as an appositi"e:

ea Se%. Bosium inopem reepit /Bos. $m. 250 she reei"ed Se%tus Bosius in hispo"erty /needy0.

$n appositi"e generally agrees !ith its noun in 1ender and Num&er !hen it an:

se3uuntur naturam optimam duem /ael. 470 they follo! nature the &est guide.

omnium dotrinarum in"entries $thenas /9e Or. 4.40 $thens diso"erer of alllearning.

NOTE.(('ut suh agreement is often impossi&le: as(( olim trunus eram fiulnusinutile lignum /or. S. 4.8.40 I one !as a fig(tree trun) a useless log.

$ ommon noun in apposition !ith a oati"e /Set: =250 is put in the $&lati"e !ith or !ithout the preposition in:

$ntiohiae ele&ri 3uondam ur&e /$rh. =0 at $ntioh one a famous ity.

$l&ae onstiterunt in ur&e munita+ / hil. =.60 they halted at $l&a a fortified to!n.

>or a 1eniti"e in apposition !ith a ossessi"e ronoun or an $d,eti"e see Set:;2.

>or the so(alled $ppositional 1eniti"e see Set: =. d.

>or the onstrution !ith nomen est see Set: 5. a.

.rediate Noun or $d,eti"e



SECTION: #28. -ith sum and a fe! other intransiti"e or passi"e "er&s a noun oran ad,eti"e desri&ing or defining the su&,et may stand in the prediate. This isalled a rediate Noun or $d,eti"e.

The "er& sum is espeially ommon in this onstrution and !hen so used is alled

the opula /i.e. onneti"e0.Other "er&s !hih ta)e a prediate noun or ad,eti"e are the soalled opulati"e "er&s signifying to &eome to &e made to &e named to appear and the li)e.

SECTION: #28=. $ rediate Noun or $d,eti"e after the opula sum or aopulati"e "er& is in the same ase as the Su&,et:

pais semper autor fui+ / ig. 280 I ha"e al!ays &een an ad"iser of peae.

3uae pertinaia 3ui&usdam eadem aliis onstantia "ideri potest /@ar. 40 !hatmay seem o&stinay to some may seem to others onsisteny.

eiius mortis sedetis ultores /@il. 570 you sit as a"engers of his death.

ha&eatur "ir egregius aulus /Cat. =.240 let aulus &e regarded as an e%traordinaryman.

ego patronus e%stiti+ / Bos. $m. ?0 I ha"e ome for!ard as an ad"oate.

diit non omnis &onos esse &eatos he says that not all good men are happy.

$ prediate noun referring to t!o or more singular nouns is in the plural:

onsules reantur Caesar et Ser"ilius /'. C. .40 Caesar and Ser"ilius are eletedonsuls.

Sum in the sense of e%ist ma)es a omplete prediate !ithout a prediate noun orad,eti"e. It is then alled the su&stanti"e "er&:

sunt "iri fortes there are /e%ist0 &ra"e men. DCf. "i%ere fortes ante $gamemnona/ or. Od. =.7.2?0 &ra"e men li"ed &efore $gamemnon.F

>or rediate $usati"e and rediate $&lati"e see Set: 72 =4?. N.

.$1BEE@ENT O> .$9HECTI<ES

$ttri&uti"e and rediate $d,eti"es



SECTION: #28?. $d,eti"es are either $ttri&uti"e or rediate.

4. $n $ttri&uti"e $d,eti"e simply 3ualifies its noun !ithout the inter"ention of a

"er& or partiiple e%pressed or implied: as (( &onus imperator a goodommander+ stellae luidae &right stars+ "er&um 1raeum a 1ree) !ord.

2. $ll other ad,eti"es are alled rediate $d,eti"es:

stellae luidae erant the stars !ere &right.

sit Sipio larus /Cat. =.240 let Sipio &e illustrious.

homines mitis reddidit /In". 4.20 has rendered men mild.

tria praedia Capitoni propria traduntur /Bos. $m. 240 three farms are handedo"er to Capito as his o!n.

onsilium eperunt plenum seleris / id. 280 they formed a plan full of "illany.

NOTE.(($ prediate ad,eti"e may &e used !ith sum or a opulati"e "er& /Set:280+ it may ha"e the onstrution of a prediate ausati"e after a "er& of namingalling or the li)e /Set: 7. N.0+ or it may &e used in apposition li)e a noun /Set:282. &0.

Bules of $greement

SECTION: #286. $d,eti"es $d,eti"e ronouns and artiiples agree !ith theirnouns in 1ender Num&er and Case:

"ir fortis a &ra"e man.

illa mulier that !oman.

ur&ium magnarum of great ities.

um duentis militi&us !ith t!o hundred soldiers.

imperator "itus est the general !as &eaten.

seutae sunt tempestates storms follo!ed.

NOTE.(($ll rules for the agreement of ad,eti"es apply also to ad,eti"e pronounsand to partiiples.



-ith t!o or more nouns the ad,eti"e is regularly plural &ut often agrees !ith thenearest /espeially !hen attri&uti"e0:

Nisus et Euryalus primi /$en. ?.27=0 Nisus and Euryalus first.

Caesaris omni et gratia et opi&us fruor />am. 4.7.240 I en,oy all CaesarAs fa"or andresoures.

NOTE.(($n ad,eti"e referring to t!o nouns onneted &y the preposition um isoasionally plural /synesis Set: 28;. a0: as(( Iu&a um a&ieno apti /'. $fr. ?20Hu&a and a&ienus !ere ta)en.

$ olleti"e noun may ta)e an ad,eti"e of a different gender and num&er agreeing !ith the gender and num&er of the indi"iduals implied /synesis Set: 28;. a0:

pars ertare parati /$en. ?.4;80 a part ready to ontend.

oloniae ali3uot dedutae risi atini appellati /i". 4.0 se"eral olonies !ereplanted /led out0 Dof menF alled Old atins.

multitudo on"iti sunt /Ta. $nn. 4?.==0 a multitude !ere on"ited.

magna pars raptae / id. 4.70 a large part Dof the !omenF !ere seiGed.

NOTE.(($ superlati"e in the prediate rarely ta)es the gender of a partiti"e geniti"e &y !hih it is limited: as(( "eloissimum animalium delphinus est /lin. N. .7.2;0 the dolphin is the s!iftest DreatureF of reatures.

SECTION: #285. One ad,eti"e may &elong in sense to t!o or more nouns ofdifferent genders. In suh ases:pJ

4. $n $ttri&uti"e $d,eti"e agrees !ith the nearest noun:

multae operae a la&oris of muh trou&le and toil.

"ita mores3ue mei my life and harater.

si res si "ir si tempus ullum dignum fuit /@il. 470 if any thing if any man if anytime !as fit.

2. $ rediate $d,eti"e may agree !ith the nearest noun if the Nouns form oneonneted idea:

fatus est strepitus et admurmuratio+ / <err. 4.=?0 a noise of assent !as made/noise and murmur0.



NOTE.((This is only !hen the opula agrees !ith the nearest su&,et /Set: 45. 0.

. 'ut generally a rediate $d,eti"e !ill &e masuline if nouns of differentgenders mean li"ing &eings+ neuter if things !ithout life:

u%or deinde a li&eri ample%i /i". 2.=;0 then his !ife and hildren em&raed him.la&or /@.0 "oluptas 3ue />.0 soietate 3uadam inter se naturali sunt iunta /N.0 / id.?.=0 la&or and delight are &ound together &y a ertain natural alliane.

=. If nouns of different genders inlude &oth li"ing &eings and things !ithout life arediate $d,eti"e is sometimes masuline /or feminine0 sometimes neuter andsometimes agrees in gender !ith the nearest if that is plural:

re% regia3ue lassis una profeti /i". 24.?;0 the )ing and the royal fleet set outtogether.

natura inimia sunt li&era i"itas et re% / id. ==.2=0 &y nature a free state and a)ing are hostile.

legatos sortes3ue orauli e%spetandas / id. ?.4?0 that the am&assadors and thereplies of the orale should &e !aited for.

T!o or more a&strat nouns of the same gender may ha"e a rediate $d,eti"e inthe neuter plural /f. Set: 287. 0:

stultitia et temeritas et iniustitia ... sunt fugienda />in. .70 foliy rashness andin,ustie are DthingsF to &e shunned.

$d,eti"es used Su&stanti"ely

SECTION: #288. $d,eti"es are often used as Nouns /su&stanti"ely0 the masulineusually to denote men or people in general of that )ind the feminine !omen andthe neuter things:

omnes all men /e"ery&ody0. omnia all things /e"erything0.

maiores anestors. minores desendants.

Bomani Bomans. &ar&ari &ar&arians.

li&erta a freed!oman. Sa&inae the Sa&ine !i"es.

sapiens a sage /philosopher0. amius a friend.



&oni the good /good people0. &ona goods property.

NOTE.((The plural of ad,eti"es pronouns and partiiples is "ery ommon in thisuse. The singular is omparati"ely rare e%ept in the neuter /Set: 287. a 0 and in !ords that ha"e &eome pratially nouns.

Certain ad,eti"es ha"e &eome pratially nouns and are often modified &y otherad,eti"es or &y the possessi"e geniti"e:

tuus "iinus pro%imus your ne%t(door neigh&or.

propin3ui eteri his other relati"es.

meus ae3ualis a man of my o!n age.

eiius familiaris Catilina /ar. Besp. ?0 his intimate friend Catiline.

eptae nostri familiarissimus />am. 7.4.20 a "ery lose friend of our friend epta.

-hen am&iguity !ould arise from the su&stanti"e use of an ad,eti"e a noun must &e added:

&oni the good+ omnia e"erything /all things0+ &ut((

potentia omnium rerum po!er o"er e"erything.

@any ad,eti"es are used su&stanti"ely either in the singular or the plural !ith theadded meaning of some noun !hih is understood from onstant assoiation:

afrius D "entusF the south!est !ind+ Ianuarius D mensisF Hanuary+ "itulinaD aroF "eal /alfAs flesh0+ fera D &estiaF a !ild &east+ patria D terraF the fatherland+1allia D terraF 1aul /the land of the 1alli0+ hi&erna D astraF !inter 3uarters+triremis D na"isF a three(&an)ed galley trireme+ argentarius D fa&erF a sil"ersmith+regia D domusF the palae+ atinae D feriaeF the atin festi"al.

NOTE.((These ad,eti"es are speifi in meaning not generi li)e those in Set:288. They inlude the names of !inds and months /Set: 40.

>or Nouns used as $d,eti"es see Set: 24. .

>or $d"er&s used li)e $d,eti"es see Set: 24. d.

SECTION: #287. Neuter $d,eti"es are used su&stanti"ely in the follo!ing speialsenses:



The neuter singular may denote either a single o&,et or an a&strat 3uality:

rapto "i"ere to li"e &y plunder. in arido on dry ground.

honestum an honora&le at or "irtue /as a 3uality0.

opus est maturato there is need of haste. DCf. impersonal passi"es Set: 2;8. d.F

The neuter plural is used to signify o&,ets in general ha"ing the 3uality denotedand hene may stand for the a&strat idea:

honesta honora&le deeds /in general0. praeterita the past /lit. &ygones0.

omnes fortia laudant all men praise &ra"ery /&ra"e things0.

$ neuter ad,eti"e may &e used as an appositi"e or prediate noun !ith a noun ofdifferent gender /f. Set: 285. a0:

triste lupus sta&ulis /El. .8;0 the !olf DisF a grie"ous thing for the fold.

"arium et muta&ile semper femina /$en. =.?670 !oman is e"er a hanging andfi)le thing.

malum mihi "idetur esse mors /Tus. 4.70 death seems to me to &e an e"il.

$ neuter ad,eti"e may &e used as an attri&uti"e or a prediate ad,eti"e !ith aninfiniti"e or a su&stanti"e lause:

istu ipsum non esse /Tus. 4.420 that "ery Knot to &e.K

humanum est errare to err is human.

aliud est errare Caesarem nolle aliud nolle misereri+ / ig. 460 it is one thing to &eun!illing that Caesar should err another to &e un!illing that he should pity.

$d,eti"es !ith $d"er&ial >ore

SECTION: #27;. $n ad,eti"e agreeing !ith the su&,et or o&,et is often used to3ualify the ation of the "er& and so has the fore of an ad"er&:

primus "enit he !as the first to ome /ame first0.

nullus du&ito I no !ay dou&t.

laeti audiere they !ere glad to hear.



erat Bomae fre3uens /Bos. $m. 460 he !as often at Bome.

serus in aelum redeas /or. Od. 4.2.=?0 mayst thou return late to hea"en.

.Comparati"es and Superlati"es

SECTION: #274. 'esides their regular signifiation /as in English0 the forms ofomparison are used as follo!s:

The Comparati"e denotes a onsidera&le or e%essi"e degree of a 3uality: as(( &re"ior rather short+ audaior too &old.

The Superlati"e /of eminene0 often denotes a "ery high degree of a 3uality !ithout

implying a distint omparison: as(( mons altissimus a "ery high mountain.NOTE.((The Superlati"e of Eminene is muh used in omplimentary referenes topersons and may often &e translated &y the simple positi"e.

-ith 3uam "el or unus the Superlati"e denotes the highest possi&le degree:

3uam plurimi as many as possi&le.

3uam ma%ime potest / ma%ime 3uam potest0 as muh as an &e.

"el minimus the "ery least. "ir unus dotissimus the one most learned man.

NOTE 4.(($ high degree of a 3uality is also denoted &y suh ad"er&s as admodum "alde "ery or &y per or prae in omposition /Set: 265. d. 40: as(( "alde malus "ery &adL pessimus+ permagnus "ery great+ praealtus "ery high /or deep0.

NOTE 2.(($ lo! degree of a 3uality is indiated &y su& in omposition: as((su&rustius rather lo!nish or &y minus not "ery+ minime not at all+ parum notenough+ non satis not muh.

NOTE .((The omparati"e maiores /for maiores natu greater &y &irth0 has thespeial signifiation of anestors+ so minores often means desendants.

>or the Superlati"e !ith 3uis3ue see Set: 4. &. >or the onstrution of asu&stanti"e after a Comparati"e see Set: =;6 =;5+ for that of a lause see Set:??. ?54. a. >or the $&lati"e of 9egree of 9ifferene !ith a Comparati"e / multoet.0 see Set: =4=.



SECTION: #272. -hen t!o 3ualities of an o&,et are ompared &oth ad,eti"es arein the Comparati"e:

longior 3uam latior aies erat /i". 25.=80 the line !as longer than it !as &road/or rather long than &road0.

"erior 3uam gratior / id. 22.80 more true than agreea&le.

NOTE.((So also !ith ad"er&s: as(( li&entius 3uam "erius /@il. 580 !ith morefreedom than truth.

-here magis is used &oth ad,eti"es are in the positi"e:

disertus magis 3uam sapiens /$tt. 4;.4.=0 elo3uent rather than !ise.

lari magis 3uam honesti /Iug. 80 more reno!ned than honora&le.

NOTE.(($ omparati"e and a positi"e or e"en t!o positi"es are sometimesonneted &y 3uam. This use is rarer and less elegant than those &efore notied:

laris maiori&us 3uam "etustis /Ta. $nn. =.640 of a family more famous than old.

"ehementius 3uam aute /Ta. $gr. =0 !ith more fury than good heed.

SECTION: #27. Superlati"es /and more rarely Comparati"es0 denoting order andsuession((also medius D eterusF reli3uus((usually designate not !hat o&,et &ut !hat part of it is meant:

summus mons the top of the hill.

in ultima platea at the end of the plae.

prior atio the earlier part of an ation.

reli3ui apti"i the rest of the prisoners.

in olle medio /'. 1. 4.2=0 half !ay up the hill /on the middle of the hill0.

inter eteram planitiem /Iug. 720 in a region else!here le"el.

NOTE.(($ similar use is found in sera / multa0 note late at night and the li)e. 'utmedium "iae the middle of the !ay+ multum diei muh of the day also our.



4 O&ser"e that the lasses defined in a(e are not mutually e%lusi"e &ut that asingle lause may &elong to se"eral of them at one. Thus a relati"e lause is usuallysu&ordinate and may &e at the same time temporal or onditional: andsu&ordinate lauses may &e oordinate !ith eah other

.BONONS

SECTION: #27=. $ ronoun indiates some person or thing !ithout either namingor desri&ing it. ronouns are deri"ed from a distint lass of roots !hih seem toha"e denoted only ideas of plae and diretion /Set: 228. 20 and from !hihnouns or "er&s an "ery rarely &e formed. They may therefore stand for Nouns !hen the person or thing &eing already present to the senses or imagination needsonly to &e pointed out not named.

Some pronouns indiate the o&,et in itself !ithout referene to its lass and ha"eno distintion of gender. These are ersonal ronouns. They stand syntatially forNouns and ha"e the same onstrution as nouns.

Other pronouns designate a partiular o&,et of a lass and ta)e the gender of theindi"iduals of that lass. These are alled $d,eti"e ronouns. They stand for $d,eti"es and ha"e the same onstrution as ad,eti"es.

Others are used in &oth !ays+ and though alled ad,eti"e pronouns may also &etreated as personal ta)ing ho!e"er the gender of the o&,et indiated.

In aordane !ith their meanings and uses ronouns are lassified as follo!s:

ersonal ronouns /Set: 27?0. Interrogati"e ronouns /Set: 0.

9emonstrati"e ronouns /Set: 2760. Belati"e ronouns /Set: ;0.

Befle%i"e ronouns /Set: 2770. Indefinite ronouns /Set: ;70.

ossessi"e ronouns /Set: ;20.

.ersonal ronouns

SECTION: #27?. The ersonal ronouns ha"e in general the same onstrutionsas nouns.



The personal pronouns are not e%pressed as su&,ets e%ept for distintion oremphasis:

te "oo I all you. 'ut((

3uis me "oat ego te "oo !ho is alling me I /emphati0 am alling you.The personal pronouns ha"e t!o forms for the geniti"e plural that in (um &eingused partiti"ely /Set: =60 and that in ( i oftenest o&,eti"ely /Set: =80:

maior "estrum the elder of you.

ha&etis duem memorem "estri o&litum sui+ / Cat. =.470 you ha"e a leader !hothin)s /is mindful0 of you and forgets /is forgetful of0 himself.

pars nostrum a part /i.e. some0 of us.

NOTE 4.((The geniti"es nostrum "estrum are oasionally used o&,eti"ely /Set:=80: as(( upidus "estrum /<err. .22=0 fond of you+ ustos "estrum /Cat. .270 the guardian of you /your guardian0.

NOTE 2.((KOne of themsel"esKis e%pressed &y unus e% suis or ipsis /rarely e% se0 orunus suorum.

The atin has no personal pronouns of the third person e%ept the refle%i"e se. The !ant is supplied &y a 9emonstrati"e or Belati"e /Set: 276. 2 ;8. f0

9emonstrati"e ronouns

SECTION: #276. 9emonstrati"e ronouns are used either ad,eti"ely orsu&stanti"ely.

4. $s ad,eti"es they follo! the rules for the agreement of ad,eti"es and are alled $d,eti"e ronouns or ronominal $d,eti"es /Set: 286 2850:

ho proelio fato after this &attle !as fought /this &attle ha"ing &een fought0.

eodem proelio in the same &attle.

e% eis aedifiiis out of those &uildings.

2. $s su&stanti"es they are e3ui"alent to personal pronouns. This use is regular inthe o&li3ue ases espeially of is:



Caesar et e%eritus eiius Caesar and his army /not suus0. D'ut Caesar e%eritumsuum dimisit Caesar dis&anded his Do!nF army.F

si o&sides a& eis dentur /'. 1. 4.4=0 if hostages should &e gi"en &y them /persons ,ust spo)en of0.

hi sunt e%tra pro"iniam trans Bhodanum primi+ / id. 4.4;0 they /those ,ustmentioned0 are the first Dinha&itantsF aross the Bhone.

ille minimum propter adulesentiam poterat / id. 4.2;0 he /emphati0 had "erylittle po!er on aount of his youth.

$n ad,eti"e pronoun usually agrees !ith an appositi"e or prediate noun if there &e one rather than !ith the !ord to !hih it refers /f. Set: ;60:

hi lous est unus 3uo perfugiant+ hi portus hae ar% hae ara soiorum /<err.?.4260 this is the only plae to !hih they an flee for refuge+ this is the ha"en thisthe itadel this the altar of the allies.

rerum aput ho erat hi fons /or. Ep. 4.45.=?0 this !as the head of things thisthe soure.

eam sapientiam interpretantur 3uam adhu mortalis nemo est onseutus D forid. .. 3uodF /ael. 480 they e%plain that DthingF to &e !isdom !hih no man e"er yet attained.

SECTION: #275. The main uses of hi ille iste and is are the follo!ing:

i is used of !hat is near the spea)er /in time plae or thought0. It is henealled the demonstrati"e of the first person.

It is sometimes used of the spea)er himself+ sometimes for Kthe latterKof t!opersons or things mentioned in speeh or !riting+ more rarely for Kthe formerK !hen that though more remote on the !ritten page is nearer the spea)er in timeplae or thought. Often it refers to that !hih has ,ust &een mentioned.

Ille is used of !hat is remote /in time et.0+ and is hene alled the demonstrati"e

of the third person.

It is sometimes used to mean Kthe formerM+ also /usually follo!ing its noun0 of !hat is famous or !ell()no!n+ often /espeially the neuter illud0 to mean Kthefollo!ing.M

Iste is used of !hat is &et!een the t!o others in remoteness: often in allusion to theperson addressed((hene alled the demonstrati"e of the seond person.



It espeially refers to oneAs opponent /in ourt et.0 and fre3uently impliesantagonism or ontempt.

Is is a !ea)er demonstrati"e than the others and is espeially ommon as apersonal pronoun. It does not denote any speial o&,et &ut refers to one ,ust

mentioned or to &e after!ards e%plained &y a relati"e. Often it is merely aorrelati"e to the relati"e 3ui:

"enit mihi o&"iam tuus puer is mihi litteras a&s te reddidit /$tt. 2.4.40 your &oymet me he deli"ered to me a letter from you.

eum 3uem one !hom.

eum onsulem 3ui non du&itet /Cat. =.2=0 a onsul !ho !ill not hesitate.

The pronouns hi ille and is are used to point in either diretion &a) tosomething ,ust mentioned or for!ard to something a&out to &e mentioned.

The neuter forms often refer to a lause phrase or idea:

est illud 3uidem "el ma%imum animum "idere /Tus. 4.?20 that is in truth a "erygreat thing((to see the soul.

The demonstrati"es are sometimes used as pronouns of referene to indiate !ithemphasis a noun or phrase ,ust mentioned:

nullam "irtus aliam meredem desiderat praeter han laudis /$rh. 280 "irtue !ants no other re!ard e%ept that D,ust mentionedF of praise.

NOTE.(('ut the ordinary English use of that of is hardly )no!n in atin.Commonly the geniti"e onstrution is ontinued !ithout a pronoun or some otheronstrution is preferred:

um ei Simonides artem memoriae pollieretur: o&li"ionis in3uit mallem />in.2.4;=0 !hen Simonides promised him the art of memory KI should preferK saidhe KDthatF of forgetfulness.M

Caesaris e%eritus ompeiianos ad harsalum "iit the army of Caesar defeatedthat of ompey /the ompeians0 at harsalus.

SECTION: #278. The main uses of .idem and .ipse are as follo!s:

-hen a 3uality or at is asri&ed !ith emphasis to a person or thing alreadynamed is or idem /often !ith the onessi"e 3uidem0 is used to indiate thatperson or thing:



per unum ser"um et eum e% gladiatorio ludo+ / $tt. 4.46.?0 &y means of a singlesla"e and that too one from the gladiatorial shool.

"inula et ea sempiterna /Cat. =.50 imprisonment and that perpetual.

Ti. 1rahus regnum oupare onatus est "el regna"it is 3uidem pauos mensis/ael. =40 Ti&erius 1rahus tried to usurp royal po!er or rather he atuallyreigned a fe! months.

NOTE.((So rarely !ith ille: as(( nun de%tra ingeminans itus nun ille sinistra/$en. ?.=?50 no! dealing redou&led &lo!s !ith his right hand no! /he0 !ith hisleft. DIn imitation of the omeri ho ge: f. $en. ?.=+ 7.576.F

Idem the same is often used !here the English re3uires an ad"er& or ad"er&ialphrase /also too yet at the same time0:

oratio splendida et grandis et eadem in primis faeta /'rut. 250 an oration &rilliant a&le and "ery !itty too.

um D haeF diat negat idem esse in 9eo gratiam /N. 9. 4.4240 !hen he says thishe denies also that there is mery !ith 1od /he the same man0.

NOTE.((This is really the same use as in a a&o"e &ut in this ase the pronounannot &e represented &y a pronoun in English.

The intensi"e ipse self is used !ith any of the other pronouns !ith a noun or !itha temporal ad"er& for the sa)e of emphasis:

turpe mihi ipsi "ide&atur /hil. 4.70 e"en to me /to me myself0 it seemeddisgraeful.

id ipsum that "ery thing+ 3uod ipsum !hih of itself alone.

in eum ipsum loum to that "ery plae.

tum ipsum /Off. 2.6;0 at that "ery time.

NOTE 4.((The emphasis of ipse is often e%pressed in English &y ,ust "ery mereet.

NOTE 2.((In English the pronouns himself et. are used &oth intensi"ely /as he !ill ome himself0 and refle%i"ely /as he !ill )ill himself0: in atin the former !ould &e translated &y ipse the latter &y se or sese.

Ipse is often used alone su&stanti"ely as follo!s:

4. $s an emphati pronoun of the third person:



id3ue rei pu&liae praelarum ipsis gloriosum /hil. 2.250 and this !as splendidfor the state glorious for themsel"es.

omnes &oni 3uantum in ipsis fuit / id. 2.270 all good men so far as !as in theirpo!er /in themsel"es0.

di apiti ipsius generi3ue reser"ent /$en. 8.=8=0 may the gods hold in reser"eDsuh a fateF to fall on his o!n and his son(in(la!As head.

2. To emphasiGe an omitted su&,et of the first or seond person:

"o&isum ipsi reordamini+ / hil. 2.40 remem&er in your o!n minds /yoursel"es !ith yoursel"es0.

. To distinguish the prinipal personage from su&ordinate persons:

ipse di%it /f. autos epha0 he /the @aster0 said it.

Nomentanus erat super ipsum /or. S. 2.8.20 Nomentanus !as a&o"e Dthe hostFhimself Dat ta&leF.

Ipse is often /is rarely0 used instead of a refle%i"e /see Set: ;;. &0.

Ipse usually agrees !ith the su&,et e"en !hen the real emphasis in English is on arefle%i"e in the prediate:

me ipse onsolor /ael. 4;0 I onsole myself. DNot me ipsum as the English !ouldlead us to e%pet.F

.Befle%i"e ronouns

SECTION: #277. The Befle%i"e ronoun / se0 and usually its orrespondingpossessi"e / suus0 are used in the prediate to refer to the su&,et of the senteneor lause:

se e% na"i proieit /'. 1. =.2?0 he thre! himself from the ship.

9umnorigem ad se "oat / id. 4.2;0 he alls 9umnori% to him.

sese astris tene&ant / id. .2=0 they )ept themsel"es in amp.

ontemni se putant /Cat. @. 6?0 they thin) they are despised.

Caesar suas opias su&duit /'. 1. 4.220 Caesar leads up his troops.



Caesar statuit si&i Bhenum esse transeundum / id. =.460 Caesar deided that hemust ross the Bhine /the Bhine must &e rossed &y himself0.

>or refle%i"es of the first and seond persons the o&li3ue ases of the personalpronouns / mei tui et.0 and the orresponding possessi"es / meus tuus et.0 are

used:morti me o&tuli+ / @il. 7=0 I ha"e e%posed myself to death.

hin te reginae ad limina perfer /$en. 4.870 do you go /&ear yourself0 hene tothe 3ueenAs threshold.

3uid est 3uod tantis nos in la&ori&us e%ereamus /$rh. 280 !hat reason is there !hy !e should e%ert oursel"es in so great toils

singulis "o&is no"enos e% turmis manipulis3ue "estri similes eligite /i". 24.?=0 foreah of you pi) out from the s3uadrons and maniples nine li)e yoursel"es.

SECTION: #;;. In a su&ordinate lause of a omple% sentene there is a dou&leuse of Befle%i"es.

4. The refle%i"e may al!ays &e used to refer to the su&,et of its o!n lause /9iretBefle%i"e0:

iudiari potest 3uantum ha&eat in se &oni onstantia /'. 1. 4.=;0 it an &edetermined ho! muh good firmness possesses /has in itself0.

D CaesarF noluit eum loum "aare ne 1ermani e suis fini&us transirent / id. 4.280Caesar did not !ish this plae to lie "aant for fear the 1ermans !ould ross o"erfrom their territories.

si 3ua signifiatio "irtutis elueat ad 3uam se similis animus adpliet et adiungat/ael. =80 if any sign of "irtue shine forth to !hih a similar disposition mayattah itself.

2. If the su&ordinate lause e%presses the !ords or thought of the su&,et of themain lause the refle%i"e is regularly used to refer to that su&,et /Indiret

Befle%i"e0:

petierunt ut si&i lieret /'. 1. 4.;0 they &egged that it might &e allo!ed them /thepetitioners0.

Iius nuntium mittit nisi su&sidium si&i su&mittatur / id. 2.60 Iius sends amessage that unless relief &e furnished him et.



deima legio ei gratias egit 3uod de se optimum iudiium feisset / id. 4.=40 thetenth legion than)ed him &eause Dthey saidF he had e%pressed a high opinion ofthem.

si o&sides a& eis /the el"etians0 si&i /Caesar !ho is the spea)er0 dentur se

/Caesar0 um eis paem esse faturum / id. 4.4=0 DCaesar said thatF if hostages !eregi"en him &y them he !ould ma)e peae !ith them.

NOTE.((Sometimes the person or thing to !hih the refle%i"e refers is not thegrammatial su&,et of the main lause though it is in effet the su&,et ofdisourse: Thus(( um ipsi deo nihil minus gratum futurum sit 3uam non omni&uspatere ad se plaandum "iam /egg. 2.2?0 sine to 1od himself nothing !ill &e lesspleasing than that the !ay to appease him should not &e open to all men.

If the su&ordinate lause does not e%press the !ords or thought of the mainsu&,et the refle%i"e is not regularly used though it is oasionally found:

sunt ita multi ut eos arer apere non possit /Cat. 2.220 they are so many that theprison annot hold them. Dere se ould not &e used+ so also in the e%amplefollo!ing.F

i&i in pro%imis "illis ita &ipartito fuerunt ut Ti&eris inter eos et pons interesset / id..?0 there they stationed themsel"es in the nearest farmhouses in t!o di"isions insuh a manner that the Ti&er and the &ridge !ere &et!een them /the di"isions0.

non fuit eo ontentus 3uod ei praeter spem aiderat /@anil. 2?0 he !as notontent !ith that !hih had happened to him &eyond his hope.

Compare: 3ui fit @aeenas ut nemo 3uam si&i sortem seu ratio dederit seu forso&ieerit illa ontentus "i"at /or. S. 4.4.40 ho! omes it @Kenas that no&odyli"es ontented !ith that lot !hih hoie has assigned him or hane has thro!nin his !ay Dere si&i is used to put the thought into the mind of the disontentedman.F

Ipse is often /is rarely0 used instead of an indiret refle%i"e either to a"oidam&iguity or from arelessness+ and in later !riters is sometimes found instead ofthe diret refle%i"e:

ur de sua "irtute aut de ipsius diligentia desperarent /'. 1. 4.=;0 !hy /he as)ed0

should they despair of their o!n ourage or his diligene

omnia aut ipsos aut hostes populatos /. C. .?.60 Dthey said thatF either theythemsel"es or the enemy had laid all !aste. D9iret refle%i"e.F

3ui se e% his minus timidos e%istimari "ole&ant non se hostem "ereri sedangustias itineris et magnitudinem sil"arum 3uae interederent inter ipsos /thepersons referred to &y se a&o"e0 at3ue $rio"istum ... timere die&ant /'. 1. 4.70



those of them !ho !ished to &e thought less timid said they did not fear the enemy &ut !ere afraid of the narro!s and the "ast e%tent of the forests !hih !ere &et!een themsel"es and $rio"istus.

audistis nuper diere legatos Tyndaritanos @erurium 3ui saris anni"ersariis

apud eos oleretur esse su&latum /<err. =.8=0 you ha"e ,ust heard theam&assadors from Tyndaris say that the statue of @erury !hih !as !orshipped !ith annual rites among them !as ta)en a!ay. Dere Ciero !a"ers &et!een apudeos ole&atur a remar) of his o!n and apud se oleretur the !ords of theam&assadors. eos does not stritly refer to the am&assadors &ut to the people((theTyndaritani.F

SECTION: #;4. Speial uses of the Befle%i"e are the follo!ing:

The refle%i"e in a su&ordinate lause sometimes refers to the su&,et of asuppressed main lause:

aetus omnis li&ros 3uos frater suus reli3uisset mihi dona"it /$tt. 2.40 Ktus ga"eme all the &oo)s !hih /as he said in the at of donation0 his &rother had left him.

The refle%i"e may refer to any noun or pronoun in its o!n lause !hih is soemphasiGed as to &eome the su&,et of disourse:

Soratem i"es sui interfeerunt Sorates !as put to death &y his o!nfello!itiGens.

3ui poterat salus sua ui3uam non pro&ari+ / @il. 840 ho! an any one fail toappro"e his o!n safety DIn this and the preeding e%ample the emphasis ispreser"ed in English &y the hange of "oie.F

hun si seuti erunt sui omites /Cat. 2.4;0 this man if his ompanions follo!him.

NOTE.((Oasionally the lause to !hih the refle%i"e really &elongs is a&sor&ed:as(( studeo sanare si&i ipsos /Cat. 2.450 I am an%ious to ure these men for theiro!n &enefit /i.e. ut sani si&i sint0.

Suus is used for oneAs o!n as emphatially opposed to that of others in any part ofthe sentene and !ith referene to any !ord in it:

suis flammis delete >idenas /i". =.0 destroy >idenK !ith its o!n fires /the fires)indled &y that ity figurati"ely0. DCf. Cat. 4.2.F

The refle%i"e may depend upon a "er&al noun or ad,eti"e:



sui laus self(praise.

ha&etis duem memorem "estri o&litum sui /Cat. =.470 you ha"e a leader mindfulof you forgetful of himself.

perditi homines um sui simili&us ser"is /hil. 4.?0 a&andoned men !ith sla"esli)e themsel"es.

The refle%i"e may refer to the su&,et implied in an infiniti"e or "er&al a&stratused indefinitely:

ontentum suis re&us esse ma%imae sunt di"itiae /ar. ?40 the greatest !ealth is to &e ontent !ith oneAs o!n.

ui proposita sit onser"atio sui />in. ?.50 one !hose aim is self(preser"ation.

Inter se / nos "os0 among themsel"es /oursel"es yoursel"es0 is egularly used toe%press reiproal ation or relation:

inter se onfligunt /Cat. 4.2?0 ontend !ith eah other.

inter se ontinentur /$rh. 20 are ,oined to eah other.

.ossessi"e ronouns

SECTION: #;2. The ossessi"e ronouns are deri"ati"e ad,eti"es !hih ta)e thegender num&er and ase of the noun to !hih they &elong not those of thepossessor:

hae ornamenta sunt mea /<al. =.=0 these are my ,e!els. D mea is neuter pluralthough the spea)er is a !oman.F

mei sunt ordines mea disriptio+ /Cat. @. ?70 mine are the ro!s mine thearrangement. D mea is feminine though the spea)er is Cyrus.F

multa in nostro ollegio praelara / id. 6=0 Dthere areF many fine things in ourollege. D nostro is neuter singular though men are referred to.F

1ermani suas opias astris edu%erunt /'. 1. 4.?40 the 1ermans led their troopsout of the amp.

To e%press possession and similar ideas the possessi"e pronouns are regularlyused not the geniti"e of the personal or refle%i"e pronouns /Set: =. a0:



domus mea my house. DNot domus mei.F

pater noster our father. DNot pater nostri.F

patrimonium tuum your inheritane. DNot tui.F

NOTE 4.((E%eptions are rare in lassi atin ommon in later !riters. >or the useof a possessi"e pronoun instead of an O&,eti"e 1eniti"e see Set: =8. a.

NOTE 2.((The Interrogati"e ossessi"e uius ( a (um ours in poetry and earlyatin: as(( uium peus /El. .40 !hose flo) The geniti"e uius is generallyused instead.

The possessi"es ha"e often the a3uired meaning of peuliar to fa"ora&le orpropitious to!ards the person or thing spo)en of:

D petereF ut sua lementia a mansuetudine utatur /'. 1. 2.4=0 they as)ed /theysaid0 that he !ould sho! his D!ontedF lemeny and humanity.

ignoranti 3uem portum petat nullus suus "entus est /Sen. Ep. 54.0 to him !ho)no!s not !hat port he is &ound to no !ind is fair /his o!n0.

tempore tuo pugnasti+ / i". 8.=?.4;0 did you fight at a fit time

NOTE.((This use is merely a natural de"elopment of the meaning of the possessi"eand the pronoun may often &e rendered literally.

The possessi"es are regularly omitted /li)e other pronouns0 !hen they are plainlyimplied in the onte%t:

soium frauda"it he heated his partner. D soium suum !ould &e distinti"e hispartner /and not anotherAs0+ suum soium emphati his o!n partner.F

ossessi"e pronouns and ad,eti"es implying possession are often usedsu&stanti"ely to denote some speial lass or relation:

nostri our ountrymen or men of our party.

suos ontine&at /'. 1. 4.4?0 he held his men in he).

flamma e%trema meorum /$en. 2.=40 last flames of my ountrymen.

Sullani the "eterans of SullaAs army+ ompeiiani the partisans of ompey.

NOTE.((There is no reason to suppose an ellipsis here. The ad,eti"e &eomes anoun li)e other ad,eti"es /see Set: 2880.



$ possessi"e pronoun or an ad,eti"e implying possession may ta)e an appositi"ein the geniti"e ase agreeing in gender num&er and ase !ith an implied noun orpronoun:

mea solius ausa+ / Ter. eaut. 4270 for my sa)e only.

in nostro omnium fletu+ / @il. 720 amid the tears of us all.

e% $nniana @ilonis domo+ / $tt. =..0 out of $nnius @iloAs house. DE3ui"alent toe% $nni @ilonis domo.F

nostra omnium patria the ountry of us all.

suum ipsius regnum his o!n )ingdom.

>or the speial refle%i"e use of the possessi"e suus see Set: 277 ;;.

.Belati"e ronouns

SECTION: #;. $ Belati"e ronoun agrees !ith some !ord e%pressed or impliedeither in its o!n lause or /often0 in the anteedent /demonstrati"e0 lause. In thefullest onstrution the anteedent is e%pressed in &oth lauses !ith moreommonly a orresponding demonstrati"e to !hih the relati"e refers: as(( iter inea loa faere oepit 3ui&us in lois esse 1ermanos audie&at /'. 1. =.50 he &eganto marh into those $CES in !hih $CES he heard the 1ermans !ere. 'utone of these nouns is ommonly omitted.

The anteedent is in atin "ery fre3uently /rarely in English0 found in the relati"elause &ut more ommonly in the anteedent lause.

Thus relati"es ser"e t!o uses at the same time:

4. $s Nouns /or $d,eti"es0 in their o!n lause: as(( ei 3ui $lesiae o&side&antur /'.1. 5.550 those !ho !ere &esieged at $lesia.

2. $s Conneti"es: as((T. 'al"entius 3ui superiore anno primum pilum du%erat/ id. ?.?0 Titus 'al"entius !ho the year &efore had &een a enturion of the firstran).

-hen the anteedent is in a different sentene the relati"e is often e3ui"alent to ademonstrati"e !ith a on,untion: as(( 3uae um ita sint /L et um ea ita sint0DandF sine this is so.



The su&ordinating fore did not &elong to the relati"e originally &ut !as de"elopedfrom an interrogati"e or indefinite meaning speialiGed &y use. 'ut thesu&ordinating and the later onneti"e fore !ere a3uired &y 3ui at suh an earlyperiod that the steps of the proess annot no! &e traed.

SECTION: #;=. $ Belati"e ronoun indiates a relation &et!een its o!n lauseand some su&stanti"e. This su&stanti"e is alled the $nteedent of the relati"e.

Thus in the sentene((

eum nihil deleta&at 3uod fas esset /@il. =0 nothing pleased him !hih !as right

the relati"e 3uod onnets its anteedent nihil !ith the prediate fas essetindiating a relation &et!een the t!o.

SECTION: #;?. $ Belati"e agrees !ith its $nteedent in 1ender and Num&er+ &utits Case depends on its onstrution in the lause in !hih it stands:

ea dies 3uam onstituerat "enit /'. 1. 4.80 that day !hih he had appointed ame.

pontem 3ui erat ad 1ena"am iu&et resindi+ / id. 4.50 he orders the &ridge !hih !as near 1ene"a to &e ut do!n.

$duatui de 3ui&us supra di%imus domum re"erterunt / id. 2.270 the $duatui of !hom !e ha"e spo)en a&o"e returned home.

NOTE.((This rule applies to all relati"e !ords so far as they are "aria&le in form: as3ualis 3uantus 3uium3ue et.

If a relati"e has t!o or more anteedents it follo!s the rules for the agreement ofprediate ad,eti"es /Set: 286 2850:

filium et filiam 3uos "alde dile%it uno tempore amisit he lost at the same time ason and a daughter !hom he dearly lo"ed.

grandes natu matres et par"uli li&eri 3uorum utrorum3ue aetas miserior diamnostram re3uirit /<err. ?.4270 aged matrons and little hildren !hose time of lifein eah ase demands our ompassion.

otium at3ue di"itiae 3uae prima mortales putant / Sall. Cat. 60 idleness and !ealth !hih men ount the first /o&,ets of desire0.



eae fruges et frutus 3uos terra gignit /N. 9. 2.50 those fruits and rops !hih theearth produes.

>or the erson of the "er& agreeing !ith the Belati"e see Set: 46. a.

SECTION: #;6. $ Belati"e generally agrees in gender and num&er !ith anappositi"e or prediate noun in its o!n lause rather than !ith an anteedent ofdifferent gender or num&er /f. Set: 276. a0:

mare etiam 3uem Neptunum esse die&as /N. 9. .?20 the sea too !hih you said !as Neptune. DNot 3uod.F

The&ae ipsae 3uod 'oeotiae aput est /i". =2.==0 e"en The&es !hih is the hiefity of 'oeotia.

NOTE.((This rule is oasionally "iolated: as(( flumen 3uod appellatur Tamesis /'.1. ?.440 a ri"er !hih is alled the Thames.

$ relati"e oasionally agrees !ith its anteedent in ase /&y attration0:

si ali3uid aga eorum 3uorum onsuesti+ />am. ?.4=0 if you should do something of !hat you are used to do. D>or eorum 3uae.F

NOTE.((Oasionally the anteedent is attrated into the ase of the relati"e:ur&em 3uam statuo "estra est /$en. 4.?50 the ity !hih I am founding is yours.Nauratem 3uem on"enire "olui in na"i non erat /l. $m. 4;;70 Naurates !hom I !ished to meet !as not on &oard the ship.

$ relati"e may agree in gender and num&er !ith an implied anteedent:

3uartum genus ... 3ui in "etere aere alieno "aillant /Cat. 2.240 a fourth lass !hoare staggering under old de&ts.

unus e% eo numero 3ui parati erant /Iug. ?0 one of the num&er Dof thoseF !ho !ere ready.

oniura"ere paui de 3ua D i. e. oniurationeF diam / Sall. Cat. 480 a fe! ha"e

onspired of !hih DonspirayF I !ill spea).

NOTE.((So regularly !hen the anteedent is implied in a possessi"e pronoun: as ((nostra ata 3uos tyrannos "oas /<at. 270 the deeds of us !hom you all tyrants.Dere 3uos agrees !ith the nostrum /geniti"e plural0 implied in nostra.F

$nteedent of the Belati"e



SECTION: #;5. The $nteedent Noun sometimes appears in &oth lauses &utusually only in the one that preedes. Sometimes it is !holly omitted.

The anteedent noun may &e repeated in the relati"e lause:loi natura erat hae 3uem loum nostri delegerant /'. 1. 2.480 the nature of theground !hih our men had hosen !as this.

The anteedent noun may appear only in the relati"e lause agreeing !ith therelati"e in ase:

3uas res in onsulatu nostro gessimus attigit hi "ersi&us /$rh. 280 he hastouhed in "erse the things !hih I did in my onsulship.

3uae prima innoentis mihi defensio est o&lata susepi+ / Sull. 720 I undertoo) thefirst defene of an innoent man that !as offered me.

NOTE.((In this ase the relati"e lause usually omes first /f. Set: ;8. d0 and alemonstrati"e usually stands in the anteedent lause:

3uae pars i"itatis alamitatem populo Bomano intulerat ea prineps poenaspersol"it /'. 1. 4.420 that part of the state !hih had &rought disaster on theBoman people !as the first to pay the penalty.

3uae gratia urrum fuit "i"is eadem se3uitur /$en. 6.6?0 the same pleasure thatthey too) in hariots in their lifetime follo!s them /after death0.

3ui fit ut nemo 3uam si&i sortem ratio dederit illa ontentus "i"at /f. or. S.4.4.40 ho! does it happen that no one li"es ontented !ith the lot !hih hoie hasassigned him

The anteedent may &e omitted espeially if it is indefinite:

3ui deimae legionis a3uilam fere&at /'. 1. =.2?0 Dthe manF !ho &ore the eagle ofthe tenth legion.

3ui ognoserent misit / id. 4.240 he sent DmenF to reonnoitre.

The phrase id 3uod or 3uae res may &e used /instead of 3uod alone0 to refer to agroup of !ords or an idea:

D o&tretatum estF 1a&inio diam anne ompeiio an utri3ue((id 3uod est "erius/ @anil. ?50 an affront has &een offered((shall I say to 1a&inius or to ompey or(( !hih is truer((to &oth



multum sunt in "enationi&us 3uae res "ires alit /'. 1. =.40 they spend muh timein hunting !hih DpratieF inreases their strength.

NOTE.(('ut 3uod alone often ours: as((Cassius noster 3uod mihi magnae "oluptati fuit hostem reiieerat />am. 2.4;0 our friend Cassius((!hih !as a great

satisfation to me((had dri"en &a) the enemy.The anteedent noun !hen in apposition !ith the main lause or !ith some !ordof it is put in the relati"e lause:

firmi D amiiF uius generis est magna penuria /ael. 620 steadfast friends a lassof !hih there is great la) /of !hih lass there is et.0.

$ prediate ad,eti"e /espeially a superlati"e0 &elonging to the anteedent maystand in the relati"e lause:

"asa ea 3uae pulherrima apud eum "iderat /<err. =.60 those most &eautiful "essels !hih he had seen at his house. DNearly e3ui"alent to the "essels of !hihhe had seen some "ery &eautiful ones.F

SECTION: #;8. In the use of Belati"es the follo!ing points are to &e o&ser"ed:

The relati"e is ne"er omitted in atin as it often is in English:

li&er 3uem mihi dedisti the &oo) you ga"e me.

is sum 3ui semper fui I am the same man I al!ays !as.

eo in loo est de 3uo ti&i loutus sum he is in the plae I told you of.

-hen t!o relati"e lauses are onneted &y a opulati"e on,untion a relati"epronoun sometimes stands in the first and a demonstrati"e in the last:

erat profetus o&"iam legioni&us @aedoniis 3uattuor 3uas si&i oniliarepeunia ogita&at eas3ue ad ur&em adduere />am. 42.2.20 he had set out tomeet four legions from @aedonia !hih he thought to !in o"er to himself &y agift of money and to lead /them0 to the ity.

$ relati"e lause in atin often ta)es the plae of some other onstrution inEnglish((partiularly of a partiiple an appositi"e or a noun of ageny:

leges 3uae nun sunt the e%isting la!s /the la!s !hih no! e%ist0.

Caesar 3ui 1alliam "iit Caesar the on3ueror of 1aul.



iusta gloria 3ui est frutus "irtutis /ison. ?50 true glory D!hih isF the fruit of "irtue.

ille 3ui petit the plaintiff /he !ho sues0.

3ui legit a reader /one !ho reads0.In formal or emphati disourse the relati"e lause usually omes first oftenontaining the anteedent noun /f. Set: ;5. &0:

3uae pars i"itatis el"etiae insignem alamitatem populo Bomano intulerat eaprineps poenas persol"it /'. 1. 4.420 the portion of the el"etian state !hih had &rought a serious disaster on the Boman people !as the first to pay the penalty.

NOTE.((In ollo3uial language the relati"e lause in suh ases often ontains aredundant demonstrati"e pronoun !hih logially &elongs in the anteedentlause: as(( ille 3ui onsulte a"et diutine uti &ene liet partum &ene /laut. Bud.42=;0 he !ho is on his guard he may long en,oy !hat he has !ell o&tained.

The relati"e !ith an a&strat noun may &e used in a parenthetial lause toharateriGe a person li)e the English suh:

3uae "estra prudentia est /Cael. =?0 suh is your !isdom. DE3ui"alent

to pro "estra prudentia.F

audisses omoedos "el letorem "el lyristen "el 3uae mea li&eralitas omnes /lin.Ep. 4.4?0 you !ould ha"e listened to omedians or a reader or a lyre(player or((suh is my li&erality((to all of them.

$ relati"e pronoun /or ad"er&0 often stands at the &eginning of an independentsentene or lause ser"ing to onnet it !ith the sentene or lause that preedes:

Caesar statuit e%spetandam lassem+ 3uae u&i on"enit /'. 1. .4=0 Caesardeided that he must !ait for the fleet+ and !hen this had ome together et.

3uae 3ui audie&ant and those !ho heard this /!hih things0.

3uae um ita sint and sine this is so.

3uorum 3uod simile fatum /Cat. =.40 !hat deed of theirs li)e this

3uo um "enisset and !hen he had ome there /!hither !hen he had ome0.

NOTE.((This arrangement is ommon e"en !hen another relati"e or aninterrogati"e follo!s. The relati"e may usually &e translated &y an Englishdemonstrati"e !ith or !ithout and.



$ relati"e ad"er& is regularly used in referring to an anteedent in the oati"ease+ so often to e%press any relation of plae instead of the formal relati"epronoun:

mortuus Cumis 3uo se ontulerat /i". 2.240 ha"ing died at Cum K !hither he

had retired. Dere in 3uam ur&em might &e used &ut not in 3uas.Flous 3uo aditus non erat a plae to !hih /!hither0 there !as no aess.

regna unde genus duis /$en. ?.8;40 the )ingdom from !hih you deri"e yourrae.

unde petitur the defendant /he from !hom something is demanded0.

The relati"es 3ui 3ualis 3uantus 3uot et. are often rendered simply &y as inEnglish:

idem 3uod semper the same as al!ays.

um esset talis 3ualem te esse "ideo+ / @ur. 20 sine he !as suh a man as I see you are.

tanta dimiatio 3uanta num3uam fuit /$tt. 5.4.20 suh a fight as ne"er !as &efore.

tot mala 3uot sidera /O". Tr. 4.?.=50 as many trou&les as stars in the s)y.

The general onstrution of relati"es is found in lauses introdued &y relati"ead"er&s: as u&i 3uo unde um 3uare.

.Indefinite ronouns

SECTION: #;7. The Indefinite ronouns are used to indiate that some person orthing is meant !ithout designating !hat one.

SECTION: #4;. uis 3uispiam ali3uis 3uidam are partiular indefinitesmeaning some a ertain any. Of these 3uis any one is least definite and 3uidama ertain one most definite+ ali3uis and 3uispiam some one stand &et!een thet!o:

di%erit 3uis / 3uispiam0 some one may say.



ali3ui philosophi ita putant some philosophers thin) so. D 3uidam !ould meanertain persons defined to the spea)erAs mind though not named.F

ha&itant hi 3uaedam mulieres pauperulae /Ter. $d. 6=50 some poor !omen li"ehere Di.e. some !omen he )no!s of+ some !omen or other !ould &e ali3uae or

nesio 3uaeF.The indefinite 3uis is rare e%ept in the om&inations si 3uis if any+ nisi 3uis if any... not+ ne 3uis lest any in order that none+ num 3uis / e3uis0 !hether any+ and inrelati"e lauses.

The ompounds 3uispiam and ali3uis are often used instead of 3uis after si nisine and num and are rather more emphati:

3uid si ho 3uispiam "oluit deus /Ter. Eun. 85?0 !hat if some god had desiredthis

nisi aliui suorum negotium daret /Nep. 9ion. 8.20 unless he should employ someone of his friends.

a"e&at ompeiius omnia ne ali3uid "os timeretis /@il. 660 ompey too) e"erypreaution so that you might ha"e no fear.

SECTION: #44. In a partiular negati"e ali3uis / ali3ui0 some one /some0 isregularly used !here in a uni"ersal negati"e 3uis3uam any one or ullus any !ould &e re3uired:

iustitia num3uam noet ui3uam />in. 4.?;0 ,ustie ne"er does harm to any&ody. Daliui !ould mean to some&ody !ho possesses it.F

non sine ali3uo metu not !ithout some fear. 'ut(( sine ullo metu !ithout anyfear.

um ali3uid non ha&eas /Tus. 4.880 !hen there is something you ha"e not.

NOTE.((The same distintion holds &et!een 3uis and ali3uis on the one hand and3uis3uam / ullus0 on the other in onditional and other sentenes !hen a negati"e

is e%pressed or suggested:

si 3uis3uam ille sapiens fuit /ael. 70 if any man !as /e"er0 a sage he !as.

dum praesidia ulla fuerunt /Bos. $m. 4260 !hile there !ere any armed fores.

si 3uid in te pea"i+ / $tt. .4?.=0 if I ha"e done !rong to!ards you Din anypartiular ase /see Set: 4;0F.



uis3ue is idiomatially used !ith superlati"es and !ith ordinal numerals:

no&ilissimus 3uis3ue all the no&lest /one after the other in the order of theirno&ility0.

primo 3uo3ue tempore /Bos. $m. 60 at the "ery first opportunity.anti3uissimum 3uod3ue tempus /'. 1. 4.=?0 the most anient times.

deimus 3uis3ue / id. ?.?20 one in ten.

NOTE 4.((T!o superlati"es !ith 3uis3ue imply a proportion: as(( sapientissimus3uis3ue ae3uissimo animo moritur /Cat. @. 80 the !isest men die !ith thegreatest e3uanimity.

NOTE 2.(( uotus 3uis3ue has the signifiation of ho! many pray often in adisparaging sense /ho! fe!0:

3uotus enim 3uis3ue disertus 3uotus 3uis3ue iuris peritus est /lan. 620 for ho!fe! are elo3uent* ho! fe! are learned in the la!*

3uotus enim istud 3uis3ue feisset /ig. 260 for ho! many !ould ha"e done thisDi.e. sarely any&ody !ould ha"e done itF.

SECTION: #4=. Nemo no one is used of persons only:pJ

4. $s a su&stanti"e:

neminem ausat he auses no one.

2. $s an ad,eti"e pronoun instead of nullus:

"ir nemo &onus /egg. 2.=40 no good man.

NOTE.((E"en !hen used as a su&stanti"e nemo may ta)e a noun in apposition:as(( nemo sriptor no&ody D!ho isF a !riter.

Nullus no is ommonly an ad,eti"e+ &ut in the geniti"e and a&lati"e singular it isregularly used instead of the orresponding ases of nemo and in the plural it may &e either an ad,eti"e or a su&stanti"e:

nullum mittitur telum /'. C. 2.40 not a missile is thro!n.

nullo hoste prohi&ente /'. 1. .60 !ithout opposition from the enemy.



nullius insetor alamitatem /hil. 2.780 I perseute the misfortune of no one.

nullo adiu"ante / id. 4;.=0 !ith the help of no one /no one helping0.

nulli erant praedones />la. 280 there !ere no pirates.

nulli e%imentur /ison. 7=0 none shall &e ta)en a!ay.

>or non nemo non nullus / non nulli0 see Set: 26. a.

.$lius and $lter

SECTION: #4?. $lius means simply other another /of an indefinite num&er0+

alter the other /of t!o0 often the seond in a series+ eteri and reli3ui all the restthe others+ alteruter one of the t!o:

propterea 3uod aliud iter ha&erent nullum /'. 1. 4.50 &eause /as they said0 theyhad no other !ay.

uni epistulae respondi "enio ad alteram />am. 2.45.60 one letter I ha"e ans!eredI ome to the other.

alterum genus /Cat. 2.470 the seond lass.

ieissem ipse me potius in profundum ut eteros onser"arem /Sest. =?0 I shouldha"e rather thro!n myself into the deep to sa"e the rest.

Ser"ilius onsul reli3ui3ue magistratus /'. C. .240 Ser"ilius the onsul and therest of the magistrates.

um sit neesse alterum utrum "inere />am. 6.0 sine it must &e that one of thet!o should pre"ail.

NOTE.(($lter is often used espeially !ith negati"es in referene to an indefinitenum&er !here one is opposed to all the rest ta)en singly:

dum ne sit te ditior alter /or. S. 4.4.=;0 so long as another is not riher than you/lit. the other there &eing at the moment only t!o persons onsidered0.

non ut magis alter amius / id. 4.?.0 a friend suh that no other is more so.

The e%pressions alter ... alter the one ... the other alius ... alius one ... anothermay &e used in pairs to denote either di"ision of a group or reiproity of ation:



alteri dimiant alteri "itorem timent />am. 6.0 one party fights the other fearsthe "itor.

alteram alteri praesidio esse iusserat /'. C. .870 he had ordered eah /of the t!olegions0 to support the other.

alii gladiis adoriuntur alii fragmentis saeptorum /Sest. 570 some ma)e an atta) !ith s!ords others !ith fragments of the railings.

alius e% alio ausam 3uaerit /'. 1. 6.50 they as) eah other the reason.

alius alium perontamur /l. Stih. 5;0 !e )eep as)ing eah other.

$lius and alter are often used to e%press one as !ell as another /the other0 of theo&,ets referred to:

alter onsulum one of the Dt!oF onsuls.

aliud est malediere aliud ausare /Cael. 60 it is one thing to slander another toause.

$lius repeated in another ase or !ith an ad"er& from the same stem e%presses &riefly a dou&le statement:

alius aliud petit one man see)s one thing another another /another see)s anotherthing0.

iussit alios ali&i fodere /i". ==.0 he ordered different persons to dig in differentplaes.

alii alio loo resiste&ant /'. C. 2.70 some halted in one plae some in another.

<EB'S

.$greement of <er& and Su&,et

SECTION: #46. $ >inite <er& agrees !ith its Su&,et in Num&er and erson:

ego statuo I resol"e. senatus dere"it the senate ordered.

silent leges inter arma /@il. 440 the la!s are dum& in time of !ar.

NOTE.((In "er&(forms ontaining a partiiple the partiiple agrees !ith the su&,etin gender and num&er /Set: 2860:



oratio est ha&ita the plea !as deli"ered. &ellum e%ortum est a !ar arose.

$ "er& ha"ing a relati"e as its su&,et ta)es the person of the e%pressed or impliedanteedent:

adsum 3ui fei /$en. 7.=250 here am I !ho did it.tu 3ui sis omnem diligentiam adhi&e&is /$tt. ?.2.0 you !ho )no! !ill use alldiligene.

"idete 3uam despiiamur omnes 3ui sumus e muniipiis /hil. .4?0 see ho! all ofus are sorned !ho are from the free to!ns.

$ "er& sometimes agrees in num&er /and a partiiple in the "er&form in num&erand gender0 !ith an appositi"e or prediate noun:

amantium irae amoris integratio est /Ter. $nd. ???0 the 3uarrels of lo"ers are therene!al of lo"e.

non omnis error stultitia dienda est /9i". 2.7;0 not e"ery error should &e alledfolly.

Corinthus lumen 1raeiae e%stintum est /f. @anil. 440 Corinth the light of1reee is put out.

.9ou&le or .Colleti"e Su&,et

SECTION: #45. T!o or more Singular Su&,ets ta)e a "er& in the lural:

pater et a"us mortui sunt his father and grandfather are dead.

NOTE.((So rarely /&y synesis Set: 28;. a0 !hen to a singular su&,et is attahedan a&lati"e !ith um: as(( du% um ali3uot prinipi&us apiuntur /i". 24.6;0 thegeneral and se"eral leading men are ta)en.

-hen su&,ets are of different persons the "er& is usually in the first person ratherthan the seond and in the seond rather than the third:

si tu et Tullia "aletis ego et Ciero "alemus />am. 4=.?0 if you and Tullia are !ellCiero and I are !ell. DNotie that the first person is also first in order not last as &y ourtesy in English.F

NOTE.((In ase of different genders a partiiple in a "er&(form follo!s the rule forprediate ad,eti"es /see Set: 285. 2(=0.



If the su&,ets are onneted &y dis,unti"es /Set: 22. a0 or if they are onsideredas a single !hole the "er& is usually singular:

3uem ne3ue fides ne3ue ius iurandum ne3ue illum miseriordia repressit /Ter. $d.;60 not faith nor oath nay nor mery he)ed him.

senatus populus3ue Bomanus intellegit />am. ?.80 the Boman senate and peopleunderstand. D'ut ne3ue Caesar ne3ue ego ha&iti essemus / id. 44.2;0 neitherCaesar nor I should ha"e &een onsidered.F

fama et "ita innoentis defenditur /Bos. $m. 4?0 the reputation and life of aninnoent man are defended.

est in eo "irtus et pro&itas et summum offiium summa3ue o&ser"antia / >am.4.28$. 20 in him are to &e found !orth uprightness the highest sense of dutyand the greatest de"otion.

NOTE.((So almost al!ays !hen the su&,ets are a&strat nouns.

-hen a "er& &elongs to t!o or more su&,ets separately it often agrees !ith oneand is understood !ith the others:

interedit @. $ntonius . Cassius tri&uni ple&is /'. C. 4.20 @ar) $ntony anduintus Cassius tri&unes of the people interpose.

ho mihi et eripatetii et "etus $ademia onedit /$ad. 2.440 this &oth theeripateti philosophers and the Old $ademy grant me.

$ olleti"e noun ommonly ta)es a "er& in the singular+ &ut the plural is oftenfound !ith olleti"e nouns !hen indi"iduals are thought of /Set: 28;. a0:

/40 senatus hae intellegit /Cat. 4.20 the senate is a!are of this.

ad hi&erna e%eritus redit /i". 24.220 the army returns to !inter(3uarters.

ple&es a patri&us seessit / Sall. Cat. 0 the ple&s seeded from the patriians.

/20 pars praedas age&ant /Iug. 20 a part &rought in &ooty.

um tanta multitudo lapides onierent /'. 1. 2.60 !hen suh a ro!d !erethro!ing stones.

NOTE 4.((The point of "ie! may hange in the ourse of a sentene: as(( e3uitatumomnem ... 3uem ha&e&at praemittit 3ui "ideant /'. 1. 4.4?0 he sent ahead all thea"alry he had to see /!ho should see0.



NOTE 2.((The singular of a noun regularly denoting an indi"idual is sometimesused olleti"ely to denote a group: as oenus the Carthaginians+ miles thesoldiery+ e3ues the a"alry.

uis3ue eah and unus 3uis3ue e"ery single one ha"e "ery often a plural "er&

&ut may &e onsidered as in partiti"e apposition !ith a plural su&,et implied /f.Set: 282. a0:

si&i 3uis3ue ha&eant 3uod suum est /l. Cur. 48;0 let e"ery one )eep his o!n /letthem )eep e"ery man his o!n0.

NOTE.((So also uter3ue eah /of t!o0 and the reiproal phrases alius ... aliumalter ... alterum /Set: 4?. a0.

.Omission of Su&,et or <er&

SECTION: #48. The Su&,et of the <er& is sometimes omitted:

$ ersonal pronoun as su&,et is usually omitted unless emphati:

lo3uor I spea). 'ut ego lo3uor it is I that spea).

$n indefinite su&,et is often omitted: rederes you !ould ha"e supposed+putamus !e /people0 thin)+ diunt ferunt perhi&ent they say.

$ passi"e "er& is often used impersonally !ithout a su&,et e%pressed orunderstood /Set: 2;8. d0:

diu at3ue ariter pugnatum est /'. 1. 4.260 they fought long and "igorously.

SECTION: #47. The "er& is sometimes omitted:

9io faio ago and other ommon "er&s are often omitted in familiar phrases:

3uorsum hae D spetantF !hat does this aim at

e% ungue leonem D ognosesF you !ill )no! a lion &y his la!.

3uid multa !hat need of many !ords /!hy should I say muh0

3uid 3uod !hat of this that ... /!hat shall I say of this that ... 0 D$ form oftransition.F



$eolus hae ontra+ / $en. 4.560 $eolus thus Dspo)eF in reply.

tum Cotta D in3uitF then said Cotta.

di meliora DduintF* /Cat. @. =50 ea"en forfend /may the gods grant &etter things0*

unde D "enisF et 3uo D tendisF / or. S. 2.=.40 !here from and !hither &ound DCf.id. 4.7.62for the full form.F

The opula sum is "ery ommonly omitted in the present india ti"e and presentinfiniti"e rarely /e%ept &y late authors0 in the su& ,unti"e:

tu oniun% /$en. =.440 you DareF his !ife.

3uid ergo audaissimus ego e% omni&us /Bos. $m. 20 !hat then am I the &oldest of all

omnia praelara rara /ael. 570 all the &est things are rare.

potest inidere saepe ontentio et omparatio de duo&us honestis utrum honestius/Off. 4.4?20 there may often our a omparison of t!o honora&le ations as to !hih is the more honora&le. Dere if any opula !ere e%pressed it !ould &e sit &ut the diret 3uestion !ould &e omplete !ithout any.F

aipe 3uae peragenda prius /$en. 6.460 hear !hat is first to &e aomplished.D9iret: 3uae peragenda priusF

4 That is it does not stand first in its lause.

2 $s in ta)ing things one &y one off a pile eah thing is uppermost !hen you ta)eit.

.$9<EB'S

SECTION: #2;. The proper funtion of $d"er&s as petrified ase(forms is tomodify <er&s: as((eleriter ire to go !ith speed. It is from this use that they deri"etheir name / ad"er&ium from ad to and "er&um "er&+ see Set: 2=4. &0. They alsomodify ad,eti"es sho!ing in !hat manner or degree the 3uality desri&ed ismanifested: as splendide menda% gloriously false. @ore rarely they modify otherad"er&s: as nimis gra"iter too se"erely. @any ad"er&s espeially relati"e ad"er&sser"e as onneti"es and are hardly to &e distinguished from on,untions /seeSet: 2;. g. N.0.



SECTION: #24. $d"er&s are used to modify <er&s $d,eti"es and other $d"er&s.

$ 9emonstrati"e or Belati"e ad"er& is often e3ui"alent to the orrespondingronoun !ith a preposition /see Set: ;8. g0:

eo D L in eaF imponit "asa /Iug. 5?0 upon them /thither thereon on the &easts0 heputs the amp(utensils.

eo milites imponere /'. 1. 4.=20 to put soldiers upon them /the horses0.

apud eos 3uo D L ad 3uosF se ontulit /<err. =.80 among those to !hom /!hither0he resorted.

3ui eum neasset unde D L 3uoF ipse natus esset /Bos. $m. 540 one !ho shouldha"e )illed his o!n father /him !hene he had his &irth0.

o ondiiones miseras administrandarum pro"iniarum u&i D L in 3ui&usF se"eritasperiulosa est />la. 850 O* !rethed terms of managing the pro"ines !herestritness is dangerous.

The partiiples ditum and fatum !hen used as nouns are regularly modified &yad"er&s rather than &y ad,eti"es+ so oasionally other perfet partiiples:

praelare fata /Nep. Timoth. 40 glorious deeds /things gloriously done0.

multa faete dita /Off. 4.4;=0 many !itty sayings.

$ noun is sometimes used as an ad,eti"e and may then &e modified &y an ad"er&:

"itor e%eritus the "itorious army.

admodum puer 3uite a &oy /young0.

magis "ir more of a man /more manly0.

populum late regem /$en. 4.240 a people ruling far and !ide.

NOTE.((<ery rarely ad"er&s are used !ith nouns !hih ha"e no ad,eti"e fore &at !hih ontain a "er&al idea:

hin a&itio+ /laut. Bud. ?;0 a going a!ay from here.

3uid ogitem de o&"iarr itione /$tt. 4.?;0 !hat I thin) a&out going to meet /him0.Derhaps felt as a ompound.F

$ fe! ad"er&s appear to &e used li)e ad,eti"es. Suh are o&"iam palamsometimes ontra and oasionally others:



fit o&"iam Clodio+ / @il. 270 he falls in !ith /&eomes in the !ay of0 Clodius. DCf.the ad,eti"e o&"ius: as(( si ille o&"ius ei futurus non erat / id. =50 if he !as notli)ely to fall in !ith him.F

hae ommemoro 3uae sunt palam /ison. 440 I mention these fats !hih are

!ell()no!n.alia pro&a&ilia ontra alia diimus /Off. 2.50 !e all some things pro&a&le othersthe opposite /not pro&a&le0. DIn this use ontra ontradits a pre"ious ad,eti"eand so in a manner repeats it.F

eri semper lenitas /Ter. $nd. 45?0 my masterAs onstant /al!ays0 gentleness. D$nimitation of a 1ree) onstrution.F

NOTE.((In some ases one an hardly say !hether the ad"er& is treated as anad,eti"e modifying the noun or the noun modified is treated as an ad,eti"e /as in a&o"e0.

>or propius pridie palam and other ad"er&s used as prepositions see Set: =2.

SECTION: #22. The follo!ing ad"er&s re3uire speial notie:

Etiam / et iam0 also e"en is stronger than 3uo3ue also and usually preedes theemphati !ord !hile 3uo3ue follo!s it:

non "er&is solum sed etiam "i+ / <err. 2.6=0 not only &y !ords &ut also &y fore.

ho 3uo3ue malefiium /Bos. $m. 4450 this rime too.

Nunmeans definitely no! in the immediate present and is rarely used of theimmediate past.

Iam means no! already at length presently and inludes a referene to pre"ioustime through !hih the state of things desri&ed has &een or !ill &e reahed. It may &e used of any time. -ith negati"es iam means /no0 longer.

Tum then is orrelati"e to um !hen and may &e used of any time. Tun then at

that time is a strengthened form of tum / tum(e f. nun0:

ut iam antea di%i as I ha"e already said &efore.

si iam satis aetatis at3ue ro&oris ha&eret /Bos. $m. 4=70 if he had attained asuita&le age and strength /lit. if he no! had as he !ill ha"e &y and &y0.

non est iam lenitati lous there is no longer room for mery.



.CONHNCTIONS

4 >or the deri"ation and lassifiation of ad"er&s see Set: 24=(245.

2 >or num(e+ f. tun /for Ptum(e0.

>or the lassifiation of on,untions see Set: 22 22=.

SECTION: #2. Copulati"e and 9is,unti"e Con,untions onnet similaronstrutions and are regularly follo!ed &y the same ase or mood that preedesthem:

sriptum senatui et populo+ / Cat. .4;0 !ritten to the senate and people.

ut eas D partisF sanares et onfirmares /@il. 680 that you might ure andstrengthen those parts.

ne3ue mea prudentia ne3ue humanis onsiliis fretus /Cat. 2.270 relying neither onmy o!n foresight nor on human !isdom.

Con,untions of Comparison /as ut 3uam tam3uam 3uasi0 also ommonlyonnet similar onstrutions:

his igitur 3uam physiis potius redendum e%istimas /9i". 2.50 do you thin)these are more to &e trusted than the natural philosophers

hominem allidiorem "idi neminem 3uam hormionem /Ter. h. ?740 a shre!derman I ne"er sa! than hormio /f. Set: =;50.

ut non omne "inum si non omnis natura "etustate oaesit /Cat. @. 6?0 as e"ery !ine does not sour !ith age so DdoesF not e"ery nature.

in me 3uasi in tyrannum /hil. 4=.4?0 against me as against a tyrant.

T!o or more oordinate !ords phrases or sentenes are often put together !ithout the use of on,untions /$syndeton Set: 6;4. 0:

omnes di homines all gods and men.

summi medii infimi the highest the middle lass and the lo!est.

iura leges agros li&ertatem no&is reli3uerunt /'. 1. 5.550 they ha"e left us ourrights our la!s our fields our li&erty.



%%%%

4. -here there are more than t!o oordinate !ords et. a on,untion if used isordinarily used !ith all /or all e%ept the first0:

aut aere alieno aut magnitudine tri&utorum aut iniuria potentiorum /'. 1. 6.40 &y de&t e%essi"e ta%ation or oppression on the part of the po!erful.

at sunt morosi et an%ii et iraundi et diffiiles senes /Cat. @. 6?0 &ut /you say0 oldmen are apriious soliitous holeri and fussy.

2. 'ut !ords are often so di"ided into groups that the mem&ers of the groups omitthe on,untion /or e%press it0 !hile the groups themsel"es e%press theon,untion /or omit it0:

propudium illud et portentum . $ntonius insigne odium omnium hominum /hil.4=.80 that !reth and monster uius $ntonius the a&omination of all men.

utrum3ue egit gra"iter autoritate et offensione animi non aer&a+ /ael. 550 heated in &oth ases !ith dignity !ithout loss of authority and !ith no &itterness offeeling.

. The enliti ( 3ue is sometimes used !ith the last mem&er of a series e"en !henthere is no grouping apparent:

"oe "oltu motu3ue /'rut. 44;0 &y "oie e%pression and gesture.

uram onsilium "igilantiam3ue /hil. 5.2;0 are !isdom and "igilane.

3uorum autoritatem dignitatem "oluntatem3ue defenderas />am. 4.5.20 !hosedignity honor and !ishes you had defended.

T!o ad,eti"es &elonging to the same noun are regularly onneted &y aon,untion:

multae et gra"es ausae many !eighty reasons.

"ir li&er a fortis /Bep. 2.=0 a free and &ra"e man.

Often the same on,untion is repeated in t!o oordinate lauses:

et ... et /( 3ue ... ( 3ue0 &oth ... and.

aut ... aut either ... or.

"el ... "el either ... or. DE%amples in Set: 2=. e.F



si"e / seu0 ... si"e / seu0 !hether ... or. DE%amples in Set: 2=. f.F

@any ad"er&s are similarly used in pairs as on,untions partly or !holly losingtheir ad"er&ial fore:

nun ... nun tum ... tum iam ... iam no! ... no!.modo ... modo no! ... no!.

simul ... simul at the same time ... at the same time.

3ua ... 3ua no! ... no! &oth ... and ali)e DthisF and DthatF.

modo ait modo negat /Ter. Eun. 54=0 no! he says yes no! no.

simul gratias agit simul gratulatur /. C. 6.5.4?0 he than)s him and at the sametime ongratulates him.

erumpunt saepe "itia amiorum tum in ipsos amios tum in alienos /ael. 560 thefaults of friends sometimes &rea) out no! against their friends themsel"es no!against strangers.

3ua maris 3ua feminas /l. @il. 4440 &oth males and females.

Certain relati"e and demonstrati"e ad"er&s are used orrela ti"ely as on,untions:

ut /rel.0 ... ita si / dem.0 as /!hile0 ... so /yet0.

tam / dem.0 ... 3uam /rel.0 so /as0 ... as.

um /rel.0 ... tum / dem.0 !hile ... so also+ not only ... &ut also.

SECTION: #2=. The follo!ing Con,untions re3uire notie:

Et and simply onnets !ords or lauses+ ( 3ue om&ines more losely into oneonneted !hole. ( 3ue is al!ays enliti to the !ord onneted or to the first orseond of t!o or more !ords onneted:

um oniugi&us et li&eris !ith DtheirF !i"es and hildren.

ferro igni 3ue !ith fire and s!ord. DNot as separate things &ut as the om&inedmeans of de"astation.F

a3ua et igni interditus for&idden the use of !ater and fire. DIn a legal formula !here they are onsidered separately.F



$t3ue / a0 and adds !ith some emphasis or !ith some implied refletion on the !ord added. ene it is often e3ui"alent to and so and yet and &esides and then.'ut these distintions depend "ery muh upon the feeling of the spea)er and areoften untranslata&le:

omnia honesta at3ue inhonesta e"erything honora&le and dishonora&le /too !ithout the slightest distintion0.

usus at3ue disiplina pratie and theory &eside /the more important or lesse%peted0.

at3ue ego redo and yet I &elie"e /for my part0.

$t3ue / a0 in the sense of as than is also used after !ords of omparison andli)eness:

simul at3ue as soon as.

non seus / non aliter0 a si not other!ise than if.

pro eo a de&ui as !as my duty /in aordane as I ought0.

ae3ue a tu as muh as you.

haud minus a iussi faiunt they do ,ust as they are ordered.

>or and not see Set: 28. a.

Sed and the more emphati "erum or "ero &ut are used to introdue something inopposition to !hat preedes espeially after negati"es /not this ... &ut somethingelse0. $t /old form ast0 introdues !ith emphasis a ne! point in an argument &ut isalso used li)e the others+ sometimes it means at least. $t enim is almost al!aysused to introdue a supposed o&,etion !hih is presently to &e o"erthro!n. $t ismore rarely used alone in this sense.

$utem ho!e"er no! is the !ea)est of the ad"ersati"es and often mar)s a meretransition and has hardly any ad"ersati"e fore perepti&le. $t3ui ho!e"er no!sometimes introdues an o&,etion and sometimes a fresh step in the reasoning.uod si &ut if and if no! if is used to ontinue an argument.

NOTE.((Et ( 3ue and at3ue / a0 are sometimes used !here the English idiom !ould suggest &ut espeially !hen a negati"e lause is follo!ed &y an affirmati"elause ontinuing the same thought: as(( impetum hostes ferre non potuerunt aterga "erterunt /'. 1. =.?0 the enemy ould not stand the onset &ut turned their &a)s.



$ut or e%ludes the alternati"e+ "el /an old imperati"e of "olo0 and ( "e gi"e ahoie &et!een t!o alternati"es. 'ut this distintion is not al!ays o&ser"ed:

sed 3uis ego sum aut 3uae est in me faultas /ael. 450 &ut !ho am I or !hatspeial apaity ha"e I Dere "el ould not &e used &eause in fat a negati"e is

implied and &oth alternati"es are e%luded.Faut &i&at aut a&eat /Tus. ?.4480 let him drin) or /if he !onAt do that then let him03uit. Dere "el !ould mean let him do either as he hooses.F

"ita talis fuit "el fortuna "el gloria+ /ael. 420 his life !as suh either in respet tofortune or fame /!hihe"er !ay you loo) at it0.

si propin3uos ha&eant im&eilliores "el animo "el fortuna+ / id. 5;0 if they ha"erelati"es &eneath them either in spirit or in fortune /in either respet for e%ampleor in &oth0.

aut deorum aut regum filii+ / id. 5;0 sons either of gods or of )ings. Dere one ase !ould e%lude the other.F

impliate Q "el usu diuturno "el etiam offiiis / id. 8?0 entangled either &y loseintimay or e"en &y o&ligations. Dere the seond ase might e%lude the first.F

Si"e / seu0 is properly used in dis,unti"e onditions /if either ... or if0 &ut also !ithalternati"e !ords and lauses espeially !ith t!o names for the same thing:

si"e inridens si"e 3uod ita putaret /9e Or. 4.740 either laughingly or &eause hereally thought so.

si"e deae seu sint "olures /$en. .2620 !hether they /the arpies0 are goddessesor &irds.

<el e"en for instane is often used as an intensi"e partile !ith no alternati"efore: as(( "el minimus the "ery least.

Nam and nam3ue for usually introdue a real reason formally e%pressed for apre"ious statement+ enim /al!ays postpositi"e0 a less important e%planatoryirumstane put in &y the !ay+ etenim /for you see+ for you )no!+ for mind you0and its negati"e ne3ue enim introdue something self(e"ident or needing no proof.

/ ea "ita0 3uae est sola "ita nominanda. nam dum sumus inlusi in his ompagi&usorporis munere 3uodam neessitatis et gra"i opere perfungimur+ est enim animusaelestis et. /Cat. @. 550 /that life0 !hih alone deser"es to &e alled life+ for solong as !e are onfined &y the &odyAs frame !e perform a sort of neessaryfuntion and hea"y tas). >or the soul is from hea"en.



harum trium sententiarum nulli prorsus adsentior. ne enim illa prima "era est/ael. ?50 for of ourse that first one is nAt true.

Ergo therefore is used of things pro"ed formally &ut often has a !ea)ened fore.Igitur then aordingly is !ea)er than ergo and is used in passing from one stage

of an argument to another. Ita3ue therefore aordingly and so is used in proofsor inferenes from the nature of things rather than in formal logial proof. $ll ofthese are often used merely to resume a train of thought &ro)en &y a digression orparenthesis. Idiro for this reason on this aount is regularly follo!ed /orpreeded0 &y a orrelati"e /as 3uia 3uod si ut ne0 and refers to the speial pointintrodued &y the orrelati"e.

malum mihi "idetur esse mors. est miserum igitur 3uoniam malum. erte. ergo etei 3ui&us e"enit iam ut morerentur et ei 3ui&us e"enturum est miseri. mihi ita "idetur. nemo ergo non miser. /Tus. 4.7.0 9eath seems to me to &e an e"il. MRItis !rethed then sine it is an e"il.M Certainly. MRTherefore all those !hoha"e already died and !ho are to die hereafter are !rethed.M So it appears tome. MRThere is no one therefore !ho is not !rethed.M

3uia natura mutari non potest idiro "erae amiitiae sempiternae sunt /ael. 20 &eause nature annot &e hanged for this reason true friendships are eternal.

$utem enim and "ero are postpositi"e+ so generally igitur and often tamen.

T!o on,untions of similar meaning are often used together for the sa)e ofemphasis or to &ind a sentene more losely to !hat preedes: as at "eroJ &ut intruth &ut surely still ho!e"er+ ita3ue ergo aordingly then+ nam3ue for+ et(enim for you see for of ourse /Set: 2=. h0.

>or Con,untions introduing Su&ordinate Clauses see Synta%.

.Negati"e artiles

SECTION: #2?. In the use of the Negati"e artiles the follo!ing points are to &eo&ser"ed:

SECTION: #26. T!o negati"es are e3ui"alent to an affirmati"e:

nemo non audiet e"ery one !ill hear /no&ody !ill not hear0.



non possum non onfiteri+ / >am. 7.4=.40 I must onfess.

ut ... ne non timere 3uidem sine ali3uo timore possimus /@il. 20 so that !e annote"en &e relie"ed of fear !ithout some fear.

@any ompounds or phrases of !hih non is the first part e%press an indefiniteaffirmati"e:

non nullus some+ non nulli+ /L ali3ui0 some fe!.

non nihil /L ali3uid0 something.

non nemo+ /Lali3uot0 sundry persons.

non num3uam /L ali3uotiens0 sometimes.

T!o negati"es of !hih the seond is non /&elonging to the prediate0 e%press auni"ersal affirmati"e:

nemo non nullus non no&ody DdoesF not i.e. e"ery&ody DdoesF. DCf. non nemo notno&ody i.e. some&ody.F

nihil non e"erything. DCf. non nihil something.F

num3uam non ne"er not i.e. al!ays. DCf. non num3uam sometimes.F

$ statement is often made emphati &y denying its ontrary /itotes Set: 6=40:

non semel /L saepissime0 often enough /not one only0.

non hae sine numine di"om e"eniunt /$en. 2.5550 these things do not our !ithout the !ill of the gods.

hae non nimis e%3uiro+ / $tt. 5.48.0 not "ery muh i.e. "ery little.

NOTE.((Compare non nullus non nemo et. in a a&o"e.

SECTION: #25. $ general negation is not destroyed:pJ

4. 'y a follo!ing ne ... 3uidem not e"en or non modo not only:

num3uam tu non modo otium sed ne &ellum 3uidem nisi nefarium onupisti+/ Cat. 4.2?0 not only ha"e you ne"er desired repose &ut you ha"e ne"er desired any !ar e%ept one !hih !as infamous.



2. 'y sueeding negati"es eah introduing a separate su&ordinate mem&er:

ea3ue nesie&ant ne u&i ne 3ualia essent /Tus. .=0 they )ne! not !here or of !hat )ind these things !ere.

. 'y ne3ue introduing a oordinate mem&er:ne3ueo satis mirari ne3ue oniere /Ter. Eun. ?=50 I annot !onder enough noron,eture.

SECTION: #28. The negati"e is fre3uently ,oined !ith a on,untion or !ith anindefinite pronoun or ad"er&. ene the forms of negation in atin differ fromthose in English in many e%pressions:

nulli / neutri0 redo /not non redo ulli0 I do not &elie"e either /I &elie"e neither0.

sine ullo periulo+ /less ommonly um nullo0 !ith no danger /!ithout anydanger0.

nihil um3uam audi"i iuundius I ne"er heard anything more amusing.

Cf. nego hae esse "era /not dio non esse0 I say this is not true /I deny et.0

In the seond of t!o onneted ideas and not is regularly e%pressed &y ne3ue/ ne0 not &y et non:

hostes terga "erterunt ne3ue prius fugere destiterunt /'. 1. 4.?0 the enemyturned and fled and did not stop fleeing until et.

NOTE.((Similarly ne 3uis3uam is regularly used for et nemo+ ne3ue ullus for etnullus+ ne um3uam for et num3uam+ ne"e /neu0 for et ne.

SECTION: #27. The partile immo nay is used to ontradit some part of apreeding statement or 3uestion or its form+ in the latter ase the same statementis often repeated in a stronger form so that immo &eomes nearly e3ui"alent to yes/nay &ut nay rather0:

ausa igitur non &ona est immo optima /$tt. 7.5.=0 is the ause then not a goodone on the ontrary the &est.

@inus less /espeially !ith si if 3uo in order that0 and minime least often ha"ea negati"e fore:



si minus possunt if they annot. D>or 3uo minus see Set: ??8. &.F

audaissimus ego e% omni&us minime /Bos. $m. 20 am I the &oldest of them all &y no means /not at all0.

.ESTIONS

>orms of Interrogation

4 That is they do not stand first in their lause.

2 >or a list of Negati"e artiles see Set: 245. e.

SECTION: #;. uestions are either 9iret or Indiret.4. $ 9iret uestion gi"es the e%at !ords of the spea)er:

3uid est !hat is it u&i sum !here am I

2. $n Indiret uestion gi"es the su&stane of the 3uestion adapted to the form ofthe sentene in !hih it is 3uoted. It depends on a "er& or other e%pression ofas)ing dou&ting )no!ing or the li)e:

roga"it 3uid esset he as)ed !hat it !as. D9iret: 3uid est !hat is itF

nesio u&i sim I )no! not !here I am. D9iret: u&i sum !here am IF

SECTION: #4. uestions in atin are introdued &y speial interrogati"e !ordsand are not distinguished &y the order of !ords as in English.

NOTE.((The form of Indiret uestions /in English introdued &y !hether or &yan interrogati"e pronoun or ad"er&0 is in atin the same as that of 9iret+ thedifferene &eing only in the "er& !hih in indiret 3uestions is regularly in theSu&,unti"e /Set: ?5=0.

SECTION: #2. $ 3uestion of simple fat re3uiring the ans!er yes or no isformed &y adding the enliti ( ne to the emphati !ord:

tune id "eritus es /. >r. 4..40 did you fear that



hiine "ir us3uam nisi in patria morietur /@il. 4;=0 shall this man die any!here &ut in his nati"e land

is ti&i mortemne "idetur aut dolorem timere /Tus. ?.880 does he seem to you tofear death or pain

The interrogati"e partile ( ne is sometimes omitted:

patere tua onsilia non sentis /Cat. 4.40 do you not see that your shemes aremanifest /you do not see eh0

NOTE.((In suh ases as no sign of interrogation appears it is often dou&tful !hether the sentene is a 3uestion or an ironial statement.

-hen the enliti ( ne is added to a negati"e !ord as in nonne an affirmati"eans!er is e%peted. The partile num suggests a negati"e ans!er:

nonne animad"ertis /N. 9. .870 do you not o&ser"e

num du&ium est /Bos. $m. 4;50 there is no dou&t is there

NOTE.((In Indiret uestions num ommonly loses its peuliar fore and meanssimply !hether.

The partile ( ne often !hen added to the "er& less ommonly !hen added to someother !ord has the fore of nonne:

meministine me in senatu diere /Cat. 4.50 donAt you remem&er my saying in theSenate

retene interpretor sententiam tuam /Tus. .50 do I not rightly interpret yourmeaning

NOTE 4.((This !as e"idently the original meaning of ( ne+ &ut in most ases thenegati"e fore !as lost and ( ne !as used merely to e%press a 3uestion. So theEnglish interrogati"e no shades off into eh

NOTE 2.((The enliti ( ne is sometimes added to other interrogati"e !ords: asutrumne !hether anne or+ 3uantane /or. S. 2..450 ho! &ig 3uone malo / id.

2..27?0 &y !hat urse

SECTION: #. $ 3uestion onerning some speial irumstane is formed &yprefi%ing to the sentene an interrogati"e pronoun or ad"er& as in English /Set:4?20:



3uid e%spetas /Cat. 2.480 !hat are you loo)ing for!ard to

3uo igitur hae spetant />am. 6.6.440 !hither then is all this tending

I are u&i es /O". @. 8.220 Iarus !here are you

3uod "etigal "o&is tutum fuit 3uem soium defendistis ui praesidio lassi&us "estris fuistis / @anil. 20 !hat re"enue has &een safe for you !hat ally ha"e youdefended !hom ha"e you guarded !ith your fleets

NOTE.(($ 3uestion of this form &eomes an e%lamation &y hanging the tone ofthe "oie: as((

3ualis "ir erat* !hat a man he !as*

3uot alamitates passi sumus* ho! many misfortunes !e ha"e suffered*

3uo studio onsentiunt /Cat. =.4?0 !ith !hat Geal they unite*

The partiles ( nam /enliti0 and tandem may &e added to interrogati"e pronounsand ad"er&s for the sa)e of emphasis:

3uisnam est pray !ho is it D 3uis tandem est !ould &e stronger.F

u&inam gentium sumus /Cat. 4.70 !here in the !orld are !e

in 3ua tandem ur&e ho disputant /@il. 50 in !hat ity pray do they maintainthis

NOTE((Tandem is sometimes added to "er&s:

ain tandem />am. 7.240 you donAt say so* /say you so pray0

itane tandem u%orem du%it $ntipho+ / Ter. h. 240 so then eh $ntiphoAs gotmarried.

.9ou&le uestions

SECTION: #=. $ 9ou&le or $lternati"e uestion is an in3uiry as to !hih of t!oor more supposed ases is the true one.



SECTION: #?. In 9ou&le or $lternati"e uestions utrum or ( ne !hetherstands in the first mem&er+ an anne or annon nene or not in the seond+ andusually an in the third if there &e one:

utrum nesis an pro nihilo id putas />am. 4;.260 is it that you donAt )no! or do

you thin) nothing of it "os ne . 9omitium an "os 9omitius deseruit /'. C. 2.20 did you desert uius9omitius or did 9omitius desert you

3uaero ser"os ne an li&eros /Bos. $m. 5=0 I as) !hether sla"es or free.

utrum hostem an "os an fortunam utrius3ue populi ignoratis /i". 24.4;0 is it theenemy or yoursel"es or the fortune of the t!o peoples that you do not )no!

NOTE.(($nne for an is rare. Nene is rare in diret 3uestions &ut in indiret3uestions it is ommoner than annon. In poetry ( ne ... ( ne sometimes ours.

The interrogati"e partile is often omitted in the first mem&er+ in !hih ase an or (ne / anne nene0 may stand in the seond:

1a&inio diam anne ompeiio an utri3ue /@anil. ?50 shall I say to 1a&inius or toompey or to &oth

sunt hae tua "er&a nene /Tus. .=40 are these your !ords or not

3uaesi"i a Catilina in on"entu apud @. aeam fuisset nene /Cat. 2.40 I as)edCatiline !hether he had &een at the meeting at @arus aeaAs or not.

Sometimes the first mem&er is omitted or implied and an / anne0 alone as)s the3uestion((usually !ith indignation or surprise:

an tu miseros putas illos /Tus. 4.40 !hat* do you thin) those men !rethed

an iste um3uam de se &onam spem ha&uisset nisi de "o&is malam opinionemanimo im&i&isset /<err. 4.=20 !ould he e"er ha"e had good hopes a&out himselfunless he had onei"ed an e"il opinion of you

Sometimes the seond mem&er is omitted or implied and utrum may as) a

3uestion to !hih there is no alternati"e:

utrum est in larissimis i"i&us is 3uem ... />la. =?0 is he among the no&lestitiGens !hom et.

The follo!ing ta&le e%hi&its the "arious forms of alternati"e 3uestions:

utrum ... an ... an



utrum ... annon / nene see Set: ?. N.0

... an / anne0

( ne ... an

... ( ne nene

( ne ... nene

( ne ... ( ne

NOTE.((>rom dou&le /alternati"e0 3uestions must &e distinguished those !hihare in themsel"es single &ut of !hih some detail is alternati"e. These ha"e theommon dis,unti"e partiles aut or "el /( "e0. Thus(( 3uaero num iniuste autimpro&e feerit /Off. .?=0 I as) !hether he ated un,ustly or e"en dishonestly.ere there is no dou&le 3uestion. The only in3uiry is !hether the man did either ofthe t!o things supposed not !hih of the t!o he did.

uestion and $ns!er

SECTION: #6. There is no one atin !ord in ommon use meaning simply yes orno. In ans!ering a 3uestion affirmati"ely the "er& or some other emphati !ord isgenerally repeated+ in ans!ering negati"ely the "er& et. !ith non or a similarnegati"e:

"aletne is he !ell "alet yes /he is !ell0.

eratne teum !as he !ith you non erat no /he !as not0.

num 3uidnam no"i there is nothing ne! is there nihil sane oh* nothing.

$n intensi"e or negati"e partile a phrase or a lause is sometimes used to ans!era diret 3uestion:

4. >or ES:

"ero in truth true no dou&t yes. ita "ero ertainly /so in truth0 et.

etiam e"en so yes et. sane 3uidem yes no dou&t et.

ita so true et. ita est it is so true et.

sane surely no dou&t dou&tless et.



erte ertainly un3uestiona&ly et.

fatum true itAs a fat youAre right et. /lit. it !as done0.

2. >or NO:

non not so. nullo modo &y no means.

minime not at all /lit. in the smallest degree f. Set: 27. a0.

minime "ero no not &y any means+ oh* no et.

non 3uidem !hy no+ ertainly not et.

non herle "ero !hy graious no* /ertainly not &y erules*0

E%amples are:

3uidnam an laudationes ita !hy !hat is it eulogies ,ust so.

aut etiam aut non respondere /$ad. 2.4;=0 to ans!er /ategorially0 yes or no.

estne ut fertur forma sane /Ter. Eun. 640 is she as handsome as they say she is/is her &eauty as it is said0 oh* yes.

miser ergo $rhelaus erte si iniustus /Tus. ?.?0 !as $rhelaus !rethed thenertainly if he !as un,ust.

an hae ontemnitis minime /9e Or. 2.27?0 do you despise these things not atall.

"oluri&usne et feris minime "ero /Tus. 4.4;=0 to the &irds and &easts !hy ofourse not.

e% tui animi sententia tu u%orem ha&es non herle e% mei animi sententia+ /9eOr. 2.26;0 ord* no et.

SECTION: #5. In ans!ering a dou&le 3uestion one mem&er of the alternati"e orsome part of it must &e repeated:

"idisti an de audito nuntias(( egomet "idi+ /laut. @er. 7;20 did you see it or are you repeating something you ha"e heard((I sa! it myself.

CONSTBCTION O> .C$SES



$ noun in the nominati"e in apposition !ith the su&,et of the imperati"e mood issometimes used instead of the "oati"e:

audi tu populus $l&anus /i". 4.2=0 hear thou people of $l&a.

The "oati"e of an ad,eti"e is sometimes used in poetry instead of the nominati"e !here the "er& is in the seond person:

3uo moriture ruis /$en. 4;.8440 !hither art thou rushing to thy doom

ensorem tra&eate salutas /ers. .270 ro&ed you salute the ensor.

The "oati"e mate is used as a prediate in the phrase mate esto / "irtute0suess attend your /"alor0:

iu&erem te mate "irtute esse /i". 2.420 I should &id you go on and prosper in your "alor.

mate no"a "irtute puer /$en. 7.6=40 suess attend your "alor &oy*

NOTE.(($s the original 3uantity of the final e in mate is not determina&le it may &e that the !ord !as an ad"er& as in &ene est and the li)e.

.1ENITI<E C$SE

SECTION: #=4. The 1eniti"e is regularly used to e%press the relation of one nounto another. ene it is sometimes alled the ad,eti"e ase to distinguish it fromthe 9ati"e and the $&lati"e !hih may &e alled ad"er&ial ases.

The uses of the 1eniti"e may &e lassified as follo!s:

I. 1eniti"e !ith Nouns: 4. Of ossession /Set: =0.

2. Of @aterial /Set: ==0.

. Of uality /Set: =?0.

=. Of the -hole after !ords designating a art /artiti"e Set: =60.

?. -ith Nouns of $tion and >eeling /Set: =80.

II. 1eniti"e !ith $d,eti"es: 4. $fter Belati"e $d,eti"es /or <er&als0 /Set: =70.

2. Of Speifiation /later use0 /Set: =7. d0.



III. 1eniti"e !ith <er&s: 4. Of @emory >eeling et. /Set: ?; ?4 ?=0.

2. Of $using et. /Charge or enalty0 /Set: ?20.

1ENITI<E -IT NONS

SECTION: #=2. $ noun used to limit or define another and not meaning the sameperson or thing is put in the 1eniti"e.

This relation is most fre3uently e%pressed in English &y the preposition ofsometimes &y the English geniti"e /or possessi"e0 ase:

li&ri Cieronis the &oo)s of Ciero or CieroAs &oo)s.

inimii Caesaris CaesarAs enemies or the enemies of Caesar.

talentum auri a talent of gold.

"ir summae "irtutis a man of the greatest ourage.

'ut o&ser"e the follo!ing e3ui"alents:

"aatio la&oris a respite >BO@ toil.

petitio onsulatus andiday >OB the onsulship.

regnum i"itatis royal po!er O<EB the state.

ossessi"e 1eniti"e

SECTION: #=. The ossessi"e 1eniti"e denotes the person or thing to !hih ano&,et 3uality feeling or ation &elongs:

$le%andri anis $le%anderAs dog.

potentia ompeii / Sall. Cat. 470 ompeyAs po!er.

$rio"isti mors /'. 1. ?.270 the death of $rio"istus.

perditorum temeritas /@il. 220 the re)lessness of desperate men.

NOTE 4.((The ossessi"e 1eniti"e may denote /40 the atual o!ner /as in $le%anderAs dog0 or author /as in CieroAs !ritings0 or /20 the person or thing that



possesses some feeling or 3uality or does some at /as in CieroAs elo3uene thestrength of the &ridge CatilineAs e"il deeds0. In the latter use it is sometimes alledthe Su&,eti"e 1eniti"e+ &ut this term properly inludes the possessi"e geniti"e andse"eral other geniti"e onstrutions /nearly all in fat e%ept the O&,eti"e1eniti"e Set: =50.

NOTE 2.((The noun limited is understood in a fe! e%pressions:

ad Castoris D aedesF /uint. 450 at the D templeF of Castor. DCf. St. aulAs.F

>laus Claudi >laus Dsla"eF of Claudius.

etoris $ndromahe+ /$en. .470 etorAs D!ifeF $ndromahe.

>or the geniti"e of possession a possessi"e or deri"ati"e ad,eti"e is often used((regularly for the possessi"e geniti"e of the personal pronouns /Set: ;2. a0:

li&er meus my &oo). DNot li&er mei.F

aliena periula other menAs dangers. D'ut also aliorum.F

Sullana tempora the times of Sulla. DOftener Sullae.F

The possessi"e geniti"e often stands in the prediate onneted !ith its noun &y a "er& /rediate 1eniti"e0:

hae domus est patris mei this house is my fatherAs.

iam me ompeii totum esse sis />am. 2.40 you )no! I am no! all for ompey/all ompeyAs0.

summa laus et tua et 'ruti est />am. 42.=.20 the highest praise is due &oth to youand to 'rutus /is &oth yours and 'rutusAs0.

ompendi faere to sa"e /ma)e of sa"ing0.

luri faere to get the &enefit of /ma)e of profit0.

NOTE.((These geniti"es &ear the same relation to the e%amples in Set: = that aprediate noun &ears to an appositi"e /Set: 282 280.

$n infiniti"e or a lause !hen used as a noun is often limited &y a geniti"e in theprediate:

ne3ue sui iudii D eratF disernere /'. C. 4.?0 nor !as it for his ,udgment to deide/nor did it &elong to his ,udgment0.



uius"is hominis est errare /hil. 42.?0 it is any manAs Dlia&ilityF to err.

nega"it moris esse 1raeorum ut in on"i"io "irorum aum&erent mulieres /<err.2.4.660 he said it !as not the ustom of the 1ree)s for !omen to appear as guests/reline0 at the &an3uets of men.

sed timidi est optare neem /O". @. =.44?0 &utAt is the o!ardAs part to !ish fordeath.

stulti erat sperare suadere impudentis /hil. 2.20 it !as folly /the part of a fool0to hope effrontery to urge.

sapientis est paua lo3ui it is !ise /the part of a !ise man0 to say little. DNotsapiens /neuter0 est et.F

NOTE 4.((This onstrution is regular !ith ad,eti"es of the third delensioninstead of the neuter nominati"e /see the last t!o e%amples0.

NOTE 2.(($ deri"ati"e or possessi"e ad,eti"e may &e used for the geniti"e in thisonstrution and must &e used for the geniti"e of a personal pronoun:

mentiri non est meum Dnot meiF it is not for me to lie.

humanum Dfor hominisF est errare it is manAs nature to err /to err is human0.

$ limiting geniti"e is sometimes used instead of a noun in apposition /$ppositional1eniti"e0 /Set: 2820:

nomen insaniae /for nomen insania0 the !ord madness.

oppidum $ntiohiae /for oppidum $ntiohia the regular form0 the ity of $ntioh.

4 Some of the endings ho!e"er !hih in atin are assigned to the dati"e anda&lati"e are dou&tless of loati"e or instrumental origin /see p. = footnote0.

2 The e("oati"e of the seond delension is a form of the stem /Set: =?. 0.

ossessi"e 1eniti"e

SECTION: #==. The 1eniti"e may denote the Su&stane or @aterial of !hih athing onsists /f. Set: =;0:

talentum auri a talent of gold. flumina latis ri"ers of mil).

1eniti"e of uality



SECTION: #=?. The 1eniti"e is used to denote uality &ut only !hen the 3ualityis modified &y an ad,eti"e:

"ir summae "irtutis a man of the highest ourage. D'ut not "ir "irtutis.Fmagnae est deli&erationis it is an affair of great deli&eration.

magni formia la&oris /or. S. 4.4.0 the ant Da reatureF of great toil.

ille autem sui iudii /Nep. $tt. 70 &ut he Da manF of independent /his o!n0 ,udgment.

NOTE.((Compare $&lati"e of uality /Set: =4?0. In e%pressions of 3uality thegeniti"e or the a&lati"e may often &e used indifferently: as praestanti prudentia "ira man of surpassing !isdom+ ma%imi animi homo a man of the greatest ourage.In lassi prose ho!e"er the geniti"e of 3uality is muh less ommon than thea&lati"e+ it is pratially onfined to e%pressions of measure or num&er to a phrase !ith eiius and to nouns modified &y magnus ma%imus summus or tantus. Ingeneral the 1eniti"e is used rather of essential the $&lati"e of speial or inidentalharateristis.

The geniti"e of 3uality is found in the ad,eti"e phrases eiius modi uius modi/e3ui"alent to talis suh+ 3ualis of !hat sort0:

eiius modi sunt tempestates onseutae uti+ / '. 1. .270 suh storms follo!edthat et.

The geniti"e of 3uality !ith numerals is used to define measures of length depthet. /1eniti"e of @easure0:

fossa trium pedum a trenh of three feet Din depthF.

murus sedeim pedum a !all of si%teen feet DhighF.

>or the 1eniti"e of uality used to e%press indefinite "alue see Set: =45.

artiti"e 1eniti"e

SECTION: #=6. -ords denoting a art are follo!ed &y the 1eniti"e of the -holeto !hih the part &elongs.

artiti"e !ords follo!ed &y the geniti"e are:pJ



4. Nouns or ronouns /f. also&elo!0:

pars militum part of the soldiers. 3uis nostrum !hih of us

nihil erat reli3ui there !as nothing left.

nemo eorum /'. 1. 5.660 not a man of them.

magnam partem eorum interfeerunt / id. 2.20 they )illed a large part of them.

2. Numerals Comparati"es Superlati"es and ronominal !ords li)e alius alternullus et.:

unus tri&unorum one of the tri&unes /see &elo!0.

sapientum ota"us /or. S. 2..2760 the eighth of the !ise men.

milia passuum sesenta /'. 1. =.0 si% hundred miles /thousands of paes0.

maior fratrum the elder of the &rothers.

animalium fortiora the stronger DofF animals.

Sue&orum gens est longe ma%ima et &elliosissima 1ermanorum omnium /'. 1.=.40 the tri&e of the Sue"i is far the largest and most !arli)e of all the 1ermans.

alter onsulum one of the Dt!oF onsuls.

nulla earum /'.1. =.280 not one of them /the ships0.

. Neuter $d,eti"es and ronouns used as nouns:

tantum spati so muh DofF spae.

ali3uid nummorum a fe! pene /something of oins0.

id loi /or loorum0 that spot of ground+ id temporis at that time /V W 75. a0.

plana ur&is the le"el parts of the to!n.

3uid no"i !hat ne!s /!hat of ne!0

paulum frumenti /'. C. 4.580 a little grain.

plus doloris /'. 1. 4.2;0 more grief.

sui ali3uid timoris /'. C. 2.270 some fear of his o!n /something of his o!n fear0.



NOTE 4.((In lassi prose neuter ad,eti"es /not pronominal0 seldom ta)e apartiti"e geniti"e e%ept multum tantum 3uantum and similar !ords.

NOTE 2.((The geniti"e of ad,eti"es of the third delension is rarely usedpartiti"ely: nihil no"i /geniti"e0 nothing ne!+ &ut(( nihil memora&ile

/nominati"e0 nothing !orth mention /not nihil memora&ilis0.=. $d"er&s espeially those of uantity and of lae:

parum oti not muh ease /too little of ease0.

satis peuniae money enough /enough of money0.

plurimum totius 1alliae e3uitatu "alet /'. 1. ?.0 is strongest of all 1aul ina"alry.

u&inam gentium sumus /Cat. 4.70 !here in the !orld are !e /!here of nations0

u&ium3ue terrarum et gentium /<err. ?.4=0 !here"er in the !hole !orld.

res erat eo iam loi ut /Sest. 680 the &usiness had no! reahed suh a point thatet.

eo miseriarum /Iug. 4=.0 to that DpithF of misery.

inde loi ne%t in order /thene of plae0. Doetial.F

The poets and later !riters often use the partiti"e geniti"e after ad,eti"es insteadof a noun in its proper ase:

se3uimur te sante deorum /$en. =.?560 !e follo! thee O holy deity. D>or santedeus /Set: =7. g. N.0F

nigrae lanarum /lin. . N. 8.470 &la) !ools. D>or nigrae lanae.F

e%pediti militum /i". ;.70 light(armed soldiers. D>or e%pediti milites.F

hominum untos /O". @. =.640 all men. D>or untos homines+ f. e.F

Cardinal numerals /e%ept milia0 regularly ta)e the $&lati"e !ith e / e%0 or deinstead of the artiti"e 1eniti"e. So also 3uidam a ertain one ommonly andother !ords oasionally:

unus e% tri&unis one of the tri&unes. D'ut also unus tri&unorum /f. a. 20.F

minumus e% illis /Iug. 440 the youngest of them.



medius e% tri&us /i&.0 the middle one of the three.

3uidam e% militi&us ertain of the soldiers.

unus de multis />in. 2.660 one of the many.

paui de nostris adunt /'. 1. 4.4?0 a fe! of our men fall.

hominem de omiti&us meis a man of my ompanions.

ter3ue &oth /properly eah0 and 3uis3ue eah !ith Nouns are regularly used asad,eti"es in agreement &ut !ith ronouns ta)e a partiti"e geniti"e:

uter3ue onsul &oth the onsuls+ &ut uter3ue nostrum &oth of us.

unus 3uis3ue "estrum eah one of you.

utra3ue astra &oth amps.

Num&ers and !ords of 3uantity inluding the !hole of any thing ta)e a ase inagreement and not the partiti"e geniti"e. So also !ords denoting a part !hen onlythat part is thought of:

nos omnes all of us /!e all0. DNot omnes nostrum.F

3uot sunt hostes ho! many of the enemy are there

a"e inimios 3ui multi sunt &e!are of your enemies !ho are many.

multi milites many of the soldiers.

nemo Bomanus not one Boman.

O&,eti"e 1eniti"e

SECTION: #=5. The O&,eti"e 1eniti"e is used !ith Nouns $d,eti"es and <er&s.

SECTION: #=8. Nouns of ation ageny and feeling go"ern the 1eniti"e of theO&,et:

aritas tui affetion for you. desiderium oti longing for rest.

"aatio muneris relief from duty. gratia &enefii gratitude for )indness.



fuga malorum refuge from disaster. preatio deorum prayer to the gods.

ontentio honorum struggle for offie. opinio "irtutis reputation for "alor.

NOTE.((This usage is an e%tension of the idea of &elonging to /ossessi"e 1eniti"e0.

Thus in the phrase odium Caesaris hate of Caesar the hate in a passi"e sense &elongs to Caesar as odium though in its ati"e sense he is the o&,et of it as hate/f. a0. The distintion &et!een the ossessi"e /su&,eti"e0 and the O&,eti"e1eniti"e is "ery unsta&le and is often lost sight of. It is illustrated &y the follo!inge%ample: the phrase amor patris lo"e of a father may mean lo"e felt &y a father afatherAs lo"e /su&,eti"e geniti"e0 or lo"e to!ards a father /o&,eti"e geniti"e0.

The o&,eti"e geniti"e is sometimes replaed &y a possessi"e pronoun or otherderi"ati"e ad,eti"e:

mea in"idia my unpopularity /the disli)e of !hih I am the o&,et0. DCf. odium mei/ar. Besp. ?0 hatred of me.F

laudator meus /$tt. 4.46.?0 my eulogist /one !ho praises me0. DCf. nostri laudator /id. 4.4=.60.F

Clodianum rimen /@il. 520 the murder of Clodius /the Clodian harge0. D$s !esay the Nathan murder.F

metus hostilis /Iug. =40 fear of the enemy /hostile fear0.

ea 3uae faie&at tua se fiduia faere die&at /<err. ?.4560 !hat he !as doing hesaid he did relying on you /!ith your reliane0.

ne3ue neglegentia tua ne3ue id odio feit tuo /Ter. h. 4;460 he did this neitherfrom neglet nor from hatred of you.

Barely the o&,eti"e geniti"e is used !ith a noun already limited &y anothergeniti"e:

animi multarum rerum perursio+ /Tus. =.40 the mindAs tra"ersing of manythings.

$ noun !ith a preposition is often used instead of the o&,eti"e geniti"e:

odium in $ntonium />am. 4;.?.0 hate of $ntony.

merita erga me / id. 4.4.40 ser"ies to me.

meam in te pietatem / id. 4.7.40 my de"otion to you.

impetus in ur&em /hil. 42.270 an atta) on the ity.



e%essus e "ita />in. .6;0 departure from life. D$lso e%essus "itae Tus. 4.25.F

adoptio in 9omitium /Ta. $nn. 42.2?0 the adoption of 9omitius. D$ late and &olde%tension of this onstrution.F

NOTE.((So also in late !riters the dati"e of referene /f. V W 66. &0: as(( longo &ello materia /Ta. . 4.870 resoures for a long !ar.

1ENITI<E -IT $9HECTI<ES

SECTION: #=7. $d,eti"es re3uiring an o&,et of referene go"ern the O&,eti"e1eniti"e.

$d,eti"es denoting desire )no!ledge memory fulness po!er sharing guilt andtheir opposites go"ern the geniti"e:

a"idi laudis /@anil. 50 greedy of praise.

fastidiosus litterarum disdaining letters.

iuris peritus s)illed in la!. DSo also the a&lati"e iure f. Set: =48.F

memorem "estri o&litum sui /Cat. =.470 mindful of you forgetful of himself.

rationis et orationis e%pertes /Off. 4.?;0 de"oid of sense and speeh.

nostrae onsuetudinis imperiti+ / '. 1. =.220 una3uainted !ith our ustoms.

plenus fidei full of good faith.

omnis spei egenam /Ta. $nn. 4.?0 destitute of all hope.

tempestatum potentem /$en. 4.8;0 ha"ing s!ay o"er the storms.

impotens irae /i". 27.7.70 ungo"erna&le in anger.

oniurationis partiipes /Cat. .4=0 sharing in the onspiray.

affinis rei apitalis /<err. 2.2.7=0 in"ol"ed in a apital rime.

insons ulpae /i". 22.=70 innoent of guilt.

artiiples in (ns go"ern the geniti"e !hen they are used as ad,eti"es i.e. !henthey denote a onstant disposition and not a partiular at:



si 3uem tui amantiorem ogno"isti+ / . >r. 4.4.4?0 if you ha"e &eome a3uainted !ith any one more fond of you.

multitudo insolens &elli /'. C. 2.60 a ro!d unused to !ar.

erat Iugurtha appetens gloriae militaris /Iug. 50 Hugurtha !as eager for militaryglory.

NOTE 4.((artiiples in (ns !hen used as partiiples ta)e the ase regularlygo"erned &y the "er& to !hih they &elong: as((Sp. @aelium regnum appetenteminteremit /Cat. @. ?60 he put to death Spurius @aelius !ho !as aspiring to royalpo!er.

NOTE 2.((Oasionally partiipial forms in (ns are treated as partiiples /see note40 e"en !hen they e%press a disposition or harater: as(( "irtus 3uam alii ipsamtemperantiam diunt esse alii o&temperantem temperantiae praeeptis et eamsu&se3uentem /Tus. =.;0 o&ser"ant of the teahings of temperane ando&edient to her.

<er&als in (a% /Set: 2?40 go"ern the geniti"e in poetry and later atin:

iustum et tenaem propositi "irum /or. Od. .0 a man ,ust and steadfast to hispurpose.

irus apa% populi /O". $. $. 4.460 a irus &ig enough to hold the people.

i&i "ini3ue apaissimus /i". 7.46.40 a "ery great eater and drin)er /"ery a&le toontain food and !ine0.

The poets and later !riters use the geniti"e !ith almost any ad,eti"e to denotethat !ith referene to !hih the 3uality e%ists /1eniti"e of Speifiation0:

allidus rei militaris /Ta. . 2.20 s)illed in soldiership.

pauper a3uae /or. Od. .;.440 sant of !ater.

notus animi paterni / id. 2.2.60 famed for a paternal spirit.

fessi rerum /$en. 4.4580 !eary of toil.

integer "itae seleris 3ue purus /or. Od. 4.22.40 upright in life and unstained &yguilt.

NOTE.((The 1eniti"e of Speifiation is only an e%tension of the onstrution !ithad,eti"es re3uiring an o&,et of referene /Set: =70. Thus allidus denotes)no!ledge+ pauper !ant+ purus innoene+ and so these !ords in a manner &elong to the lasses under a.



>or the $&lati"e of Speifiation the prose onstrution see Set: =48. >or $d,eti"es of li)eness et. !ith the 1eniti"e apparently O&,eti"e see Set: 8?. .>or $d,eti"es !ith animi /loati"e in origin0 see Set: ?8.

1ENITI<E -IT <EB'S

<er&s of Bemem&ering and >orgetting

SECTION: #?;. <er&s of remem&ering and forgetting ta)e either the $usati"eor the 1eniti"e of the o&,et:

@emini ta)es the $usati"e !hen it has the literal sense of retaining in the mind !hat one has seen heard or learned. ene the ausati"e is used of persons !hom one remem&ers as a3uaintanes or of things !hih one has e%periened.

So o&li"isor in the opposite sense((to forget literally to lose all memory of a thing/"ery rarely of a person0.

Cinnam memini+ / hil. ?.450 I remem&er Cinna.

utinam a"um tuum meminisses / id. 4.=0 oh* that you ould remem&er yourgrandfather* /&ut he died &efore you !ere &orn0.

ostumium uius statuam in Isthmo meminisse te diis /$tt. 4.20 ostumius !hose statue you say you remem&er /to ha"e seen0 on the Isthmus.

omnia meminit Siron Epiuri dogmata /$ad. 2.4;60 Siron remem&ers all thedotrines of Epiurus.

multa a& aliis audita meminerunt /9e Or. 2.??0 they remem&er many things thatthey ha"e heard from others.

totam ausam o&litus est /'rut. 2450 he forgot the !hole ase.

hin iam o&li"isere 1raios /$en. 2.4=80 from heneforth forget the 1ree)s /i.e.not merely disregard them &ut &anish them from your mind as if you had ne"er)no!n them0.

@emini ta)es the 1eniti"e !hen it means to &e mindful or regardful of a person orthing to thin) of some&ody or something /often !ith speial interest or !armth offeeling0.

So o&li"isor in the opposite sense((to disregard or dismiss from the mind((andthe ad,eti"e o&litus areless or regardless.



ipse sui meminerat /<err. 2.460 he !as mindful of himself /of his o!n interests0.

faiam ut huius loi di ei 3ue m ei 3ue semper memineris / Ter. Eun. 8;40 I !illma)e you remem&er this plae and this day and me as long as you li"e.

ne me meminisse pige&it Elissae dum memor ipse mei+ / $en. =.?0 nor shall Ifeel regret at the thought of Elissa so long as I remem&er myself.

meminerint "ereundiae /Off. 4.4220 let them herish modesty.

humanae infirmitatis memini+ / i". ;.4.60 I remem&er human !ea)ness.

o&li"isi temporum meorum meminisse ationum />am. 4.7.80 to disregard myo!n interests to &e mindful of the matters at issue.

ne tamen Epiuri liet o&li"isi+ />in. ?.0 and yet I must not forget Epiurus.

o&li"isere aedis at3ue inendiorum /Cat. 4.60 turn your mind from slaughter andonflagrations /dismiss them from your thoughts0.

NOTE 4.((-ith &oth memini and o&li"isor the personal and refle%i"e pronouns areregularly in the 1eniti"e+ neuter pronouns and ad,eti"es used su&stanti"ely areregularly in the $usati"e+ a&strat nouns are often in the 1eniti"e. These usesome in eah instane from the natural meaning of the "er&s /as defined a&o"e0.

NOTE 2.(( @emini in the sense of mention ta)es the 1eniti"e: as(( eundem $hillam uius supra meminimus /'. C. .4;80 that same $hillas !hom Imentioned a&o"e.

Beminisor is rare. It ta)es the $usati"e in the literal sense of all to mindreollet+ the 1eniti"e in the more figurati"e sense of &e mindful of:

dulis moriens reminisitur $rgos /$en. 4;.5820 as he dies he alls to mind his &elo"ed $rgos.

reminiseretur et "eteris inommodi populi Bomani et pristinae "irtutisel"etiorum /'. 1. 4.40 let him remem&er &oth the former disomfiture of theBoman people and the anient "alor of the el"etians. D$ !arning(( let him &ear itin mind /and &e!are0*F

Beordor reollet reall regularly ta)es the $usati"e:

reordare onsensum illum theatri+ / hil. 4.;0 reall that unanimous agreementof the Daudiene in theF theatre.

reordamini omnis i"ilis dissensiones /Cat. .2=0 all to mind all the i"il !ars.



NOTE.(( Beordor ta)es the geniti"e one /ison. 420+ it is ne"er used !ith apersonal o&,et &ut may &e follo!ed &y de !ith the a&lati"e of the person or thing/f. Set: ?4. N.0:

de te reordor /Saur. =70 I remem&er a&out you.

de illis / larimis0 reordor /lan. 4;=0 I am reminded of those tears.

<er&s of Beminding

SECTION: #?4. <er&s of reminding ta)e !ith the $usati"e of the person a1eniti"e of the thing+ e%ept in the ase of a neuter pronoun !hih is put in theausati"e /f. Set: 7;. 0.

So admoneo ommoneo ommonefaio ommonefio. 'ut moneo !ith thegeniti"e is found in late !riters only.

Catilina admone&at alium egestatis alium upiditatis suae / Sall. Cat. 240 Catilinereminded one of his po"erty another of his upidity.

eos ho moneo+ / Cat. 2.2;0 I gi"e them this !arning.

3uod "os le% ommonet /<err. .=;0 that !hih the la! reminds you of.

NOTE.(($ll these "er&s often ta)e de !ith the a&lati"e and the ausati"e of nounsas !ell as of pronouns is sometimes used !ith them:

saepius te admoneo de syngrapha Sittiana+ / >am. 8.=.?0 I remind you again andagain of SittiusAs &ond.

offiium "ostrum ut "os malo ogatis ommonerier /laut. s. 4?;0 that you may &y misfortune fore yoursel"es to &e reminded of your duty.

<er&s of $using Condemning and $3uitting

SECTION: #?2. <er&s of ausing ondemning and a3uitting ta)e the 1eniti"eof the Charge or enalty:

arguit me furti he auses me of theft.

peulatus damnatus / peuniae pu&liae damnatus0 / >la. =0 ondemned forem&eGGlement.



"ideo non te a&solutum esse impro&itatis sed illos damnatos esse aedis /<err.2.4.520 I see not that you !ere a3uitted of outrage &ut that they !ereondemned for homiide.

euliar geniti"es under this onstrution are((

apitis as in damnare apitis to sentene to death.

maiestatis D laesaeF treason /rime against the dignity of the state0.

repetundarum D rerumF e%tortion /lit. of an ation for relaiming money0.

"oti damnatus /or reus0 &ound Dto the paymentF of oneAs "o! i.e. suessful inoneAs effort.

peuniae / damnare iudiare see note0.

dupli et. as in dupli ondemnare ondemn to pay t!ofold.

NOTE.((The origin of these geniti"e onstrutions is pointed at &y peuniaedamnare /1el. 2;.4.80 to ondemn to pay money in a ase of in,ury to theperson+ 3uantae peuniae iudiati essent / id.%%.4.=50 ho! muh money they !eread,udged to pay in a mere suit for de&t+ onfessi aeris a de&iti iudiati / id.%%.4.=20 ad,udged to o!e an admitted sum due. These e%pressions sho! that thegeniti"e of the penalty omes from the use of the geniti"e of "alue to e%press a sumof money due either as a de&t or as a fine. Sine in early i"iliGations all offenesould &e ompounded &y the payment of fines the geniti"e ame to &e used ofother punishments not peuniary. >rom this to the geniti"e of the atual rime isan easy transition inasmuh as there is al!ays a onfusion &et!een rime andpenalty /f. Eng. guilty of death0. It is 3uite unneessary to assume an ellipsis ofrimine or iudiio.

SECTION: #?. Other onstrutions for the Charge or enalty are:pJ

4. The $&lati"e of rie: regularly of a definite amount of fine and often ofindefinite penalties /f. Set: =460:

>rusinates tertia parte agri damnati+ / i". 4;.40 the people of >rusino ondemnedDto forfeitF a third part of their land.

2. The $&lati"e !ith de or the $usati"e !ith inter in idiomatie e%pressions:

de alea for gam&ling+ de am&itu for &ri&ery.

de peuniis repetundis of e%tortion /f. Set: ?2. a0.



inter siarios /Bos. $m. 7;0 as an assassin /among the assassins0.

de "i et maiestatis damnati+ / hil. 4.240 on"ited of assault and treason.

NOTE.((The ausati"e !ith ad and in ours in later !riters to e%press the

penalty: as(( ad mortem /Ta. $nn. 46.240 to death+ ad / in0 metalla to the mines. <er&s of .>eeling

SECTION: #?=. @any "er&s of feeling ta)e the 1eniti"e of the o&,et !hih e%itesthe feeling.

<er&s of pity as misereor and misereso ta)e the geniti"e:

miseremini familiae iudies miseremini patris miseremini fili />la. 4;60 ha"epity on the family et.

miserere animi non digna ferentis /$en. 2.4==0 pity a soul that endures un!orthythings.

miseresite regis / id. 8.?50 pity the )ing. Doetial.F

NOTE.(('ut miseror ommiseror &e!ail ta)e the ausati"e: as(( ommunemondiionem miserari /@ur. ??0 &e!ail the ommon lot.

$s impersonals miseret paenitet piget pudet taedet /or pertaesum est0 ta)e thegeniti"e of the ause of the feeling and the ausati"e of the person affeted:

3uos infamiae suae ne3ue pudet ne3ue taedet /<err. 4.?0 !ho are neitherashamed nor !eary of their dishonor.

me miseret parietum ipsorum /hil. 2.670 I pity the "ery !alls.

me i"itatis morum piget taedet3ue /Iug. =0 I am si) and tired of the !ays of thestate.

deem"irorum "os pertaesum est /i". .650 you &eame tired of the deem"irs.

-ith miseret paenitet et. the ause of the feeling may &e e%pressed &y aninfiniti"e or a lause:

ne3ue me paenitet mortalis inimiitias ha&ere /Ba&. ost. 20 nor am I sorry toha"e deadly enmities.



non dedisse istun pudet+ me 3uia non aepi piget /l. seud. 2820 he is ashamednot to ha"e gi"en+ I am sorry &eause I ha"e not reei"ed.

NOTE.(( @iseret et. are sometimes used personally !ith a neuter pronoun assu&,et: as(( non te hae pudent /Ter. $d. 5?=0 do not these things shame you

.Interest and .Befert

SECTION: #??. The impersonals interest and refert ta)e the 1eniti"e of theperson /rarely of the thing0 affeted.

The su&,et of the "er& is a neuter pronoun or a su&stanti"e lause:

Clodi intererat @ilonem perire /f. @il. ?60 it !as the interest of Clodius that @iloshould die.

ali3uid 3uod illorum magis 3uam sua retulisse "ideretur /Iug. 4440 something !hih seemed to &e more for their interest than his o!n.

"ideo enim 3uid mea intersit 3uid utrius3ue nostrum />am. 5.2.=0 forsee !hat isfor my good and for the good of us &oth.

Instead of the geniti"e of a personal pronoun the orresponding possessi"e is usedin the a&lati"e singular feminine after interest or refert:

3uid tua id refert magni+ / Ter. h. 520 ho! does that onern you muh. DSeealso the last t!o e%amples a&o"e.F

"ehementer intererat "estra 3ui patres estis /lin. Ep. =.4.=0 it !ould &e "erymuh to your ad"antage you !ho are fathers.

NOTE.((This is the only onstrution !ith refert in lassi prose e%ept in onepassage in Sallust /see e%ample a&o"e0.

The ausati"e !ith ad is used !ith interest and refert to e%press the thing !ithreferene to !hih one is interested:

magni ad honorem nostrum interest />am. 46.40 it is of great onse3uene to ourhonor.

refert etiam ad frutus /<arr. B. B. 4.46.60 it ma)es a differene as to the rop.

NOTE 4.((<ery rarely the person is e%pressed &y ad and the ausati"e or /!ithrefert0 &y the dati"e /pro&a&ly a popular orruption0:



3uid id ad me aut ad meam rem refert /l. er. ?40 !hat differene does thatma)e to me or to my interests

3uid referat intra naturae finis "i"enti /or. S. 4.4.=70 !hat differene does itma)e to me !ho li"e !ithin the limits of natural desire

non referre dedeori /Ta. $nu. 4?.6?0 that it ma)es no differene as to thedisgrae.

NOTE 2.((The degree of interest is e%pressed &y a geniti"e of "alue an ad"er& oran ad"er&ial ausati"e.

<er&s of lenty and -ant

SECTION: #?6. <er&s of lenty and -ant sometimes go"ern the geniti"e /f. Set:=;7. a. N.0:

on"i"ium "iinorum ompleo+ /Cat. @. =6 in the mouth of Cato0 I fill up the &an3uet !ith my neigh&ors.

implentur "eteris 'ahi pinguis3ue ferinae /$en. 4.24?0 they fill themsel"es !ithold !ine and fat "enison.

ne 3uis au%ili egeat /'. 1. 6.440 lest any re3uire aid.

3uid est 3uod defensionis indigeat /Bos. $m. =0 !hat is there that needsdefene

3uae ad onsolandum maioris ingeni et ad ferendum singularis "irtutis indigent/ >am. 6.=.20 Dsorro!sF !hih for their omforting need more a&ility and forendurane unusual ourage.

NOTE.((<er&s of plenty and !ant more ommonly ta)e the a&lati"e /see Set: =;7.a U

J;40 e%ept egeo !hih ta)es either ase and indigeo. 'ut the geniti"e is &y a1ree) idiom often used in poetry instead of the a&lati"e !ith all !ords denoting

separation and !ant /f. Set: ?5. &. 0:

a&stineto irarum /or. Od. .25.670 refrain from !rath.

operum solutis / id. .45.460 free from toils.

desine mollium 3uerellarum / id. 2.7.450 ha"e done !ith !ea) omplaints.



1eniti"e !ith Speial <er&s

SECTION: #?5. The 1eniti"e is used !ith ertain speial "er&s.

The geniti"e sometimes follo!s potior get possession of+ as al!ays in the phrasepotiri rerum to &e master of affairs:

illius regni potiri+ / >am. 4.5.?0 to &eome master of that )ingdom.

Cleanthes solem dominari et rerum potiri putat /$ad. 2.4260 Cleanthes thin)s thesun holds s!ay and is lord of the uni"erse.

NOTE.(('ut potior usually ta)es the a&lati"e /see Set: =4;0.

Some other "er&s rarely ta)e the geniti"e:pJ

4. 'y analogy !ith those mentioned in Set: ?=:

ne3ue huius sis "eritus feminae primariae /Ter. h. 7540 and you had no respetfor this high(&orn lady.

2. $s a)in to ad,eti"es !hih ta)e the geniti"e:

fastidit mei /laut. $ul. 2=?0 he disdains me. DCf. fastidiosus.F

studet tui /3uoted N. 9. .520 he is Gealous for you. DCf. studiosus.F

. In imitation of the 1ree):

iustitiae ne prius mirer &elline la&orum /$en. 44.4260 shall I rather admire his ,ustie or his toils in !ar

ne3ue ille sepositi ieris ne longae in"idit a"enae /or. S. 2.6.8=0 nor did hegrudge his garnered peas et. D'ut f. in"idus parus.F

la&orum deipitur /or. Od. 2.4.80 he is &eguiled of his !oes.

me la&orum le"as /l. Bud. 2=50 you relie"e me of my trou&les.

SECTION: #?8. The apparent 1eniti"e animi /really oati"e0 is used !ith a fe! "er&s and ad,eti"es of feeling and the li)e:



$ntipho me e%ruiat animi /Ter. h. 4850 $ntipho tortures my mind /me in mymind0.

3ui pendet animi /Tus. =.?0 !ho is in suspense.

me animi fallit /ur. 4.7220 my mind deei"es me.So &y analogy desipie&am mentis /l. Epid. 480 I !as out of my head.

aeger animi si) at heart+ onfusus animi distur&ed in spirit.

sanus mentis aut animi /l. Trin. =?=0 sound in mind or heart.

.ECI$B 1ENITI<ES

SECTION: #?7. euliar 1eniti"e onstrutions are the follo!ing:

$ poetial geniti"e ours rarely in e%lamations in imitation of the 1ree)/1eniti"e of E%lamation0:

di immortales merimoni lepidi+ / l. @ost. 7420 good hea"ens* !hat a harming &argain*

foederis heu taiti+ / rop. =.5.240 alas for the unspo)en agreement*

The geniti"e is often used !ith the a&lati"es ausa gratia for the sa)e of+ ergo &eause of+ and the indelina&le instar li)e+ also !ith pridie the day &efore+postridie the day after+ tenus as far as:

honoris ausa !ith due respet /for the sa)e of honor0.

"er&i gratia for e%ample.

eiius legis ergo on aount of this la!.

e3uus instar montis /$en. 2.4?0 a horse huge as a mountain /the image of amountain0.

laterum tenus / id. 4;.24;0 as far as the sides.

NOTE 4.((Of these the geniti"e !ith ausa is a de"elopment from the possessi"egeniti"e and resem&les that in nomen insaniae /Set: =.d0. The others are of "arious origin.



2. Of $geny /!ith 1erundi"e0 /Set: 5=0.

. Of Beferene / dati"us ommodi0 /Set: 56(840.

=. Of urpose or End /prediate use0 /Set: 820.

?. Of >itness et. /!ith $d,eti"es0 /Set: 8 8=0.

IN9IBECT O'HECT

SECTION: #64. The 9ati"e is used to denote the o&,et indiretly affeted &y anation.

This is alled the Indiret O&,et /Set: 25=0. It is usually denoted in English &y theo&,eti"e !ith to:

edite tempori yield to the oasion.

pro"inia Cieroni o&tigit the pro"ine fell &y lot to Ciero.

inimiis non redimus !e do not trust DtoF our enemies.

IN9IBECT O'HECT -IT TB$NSITI<ES

SECTION: #62. The 9ati"e of the Indiret O&,et !ith the $usati"e of the 9iretmay &e used !ith any transiti"e "er& !hose meaning allo!s /see Set: 25=0:

do ti&i li&rum I gi"e you a &oo).

illud ti&i affirmo+ / >am. 4.5.?0 this I assure you.

ommendo ti&i eiius omnia negotia / id. 4.0 I put all his affairs in your hands/ommit them to you0.

da&is profeto miseriordiae 3uod iraundiae nega"isti+ / 9eiot. =;0 you !ill surelygrant to mery !hat you refused to !rath.

litteras a te mihi stator tuus reddidit />am. 2.450 your messenger deli"ered to me aletter from you.

@any "er&s ha"e &oth a transiti"e and an intransiti"e use and ta)e either the $usati"e !ith the 9ati"e or the 9ati"e alone:



mihi id aurum redidit /f. laut. $ul. 4?0 he trusted that gold to me.

e3uo ne redite /$en. 2.=80 put not your trust in the horse.

onessit senatus postulationi tuae /@ur. =50 the senate yielded to your demand.

onedere amiis 3uid3uid "elint /ael. 80 to grant to friends all they may !ish.

SECTION: #6. Certain "er&s implying motion "ary in their onstrution &et!eenthe 9ati"e of the Indiret O&,et and the $usati"e of the End of @otion /Set:=26 =250:

4. Some "er&s implying motion ta)e the $usati"e /usually !ith ad or in0 insteadof the Indiret O&,et !hen the idea of motion pre"ails:

litteras 3uas ad ompeiium sripsi+ / $tt. .8.=0 the letter !hih I ha"e !rittenDand sentF to ompey. DCf. non 3uo ha&erem 3uod ti&i sri&erem / id. =.=$0 notthat I had anything to !rite to youF

litterae e%templo Bomam sriptae /i". =4.460 a letter !as immediately !rittenDand sentF to Bome.

hostis in fugam dat /'. 1. ?.?40 he puts the enemy to flight. DCf. ut me dem fugae/$tt. 5.20 to ta)e to flight.F

omnes rem ad ompeiium deferri "olunt />am. 4.40 all !ish the matter to &e put inthe hands of ompey /referred to ompey0.

2. On the other hand many "er&s of motion usually follo!ed &y the $usati"e !ithad or in ta)e the 9ati"e !hen the idea of motion is merged in some other idea:

mihi litteras mittere />am. 5.420 to send me a letter.

eum li&rum ti&i misi+ / id. 5.470 I sent you that &oo).

ne 3ui3uam 3uod non mihi Caesar detulerit / id. =.40 and nothing !hih Caesardid not ommuniate to me.

ures ut mihi "ehantur / id. 8.=.?0 ta)e are that they &e on"eyed to me.

um alius alii su&sidium ferrent /'. 1. 2.260 !hile one lent aid to another.



SECTION: #6=. Certain "er&s may ta)e either the 9ati"e of the person and the $usati"e of the thing or /in a different sense0 the $usati"e of the person andthe $&lati"e of the thing:

donat oronas suis he presents !reaths to his men+ or

donat suos oronis he presents his men !ith !reaths.

"inula e%uere si&i /O". @. 5.5520 to sha)e off the leash /from himself0.

omnis armis e%uit /'. 1. ?.?40 he stripped them all of their arms.

NOTE 4.(( Interdio for&id ta)es either /40 the 9ati"e of the person and the $&lati"e of the thing or /20 in later !riters the 9ati"e of the person and the $usati"e of the thing:

a3ua et igni aliui interdiere to for&id one the use of fire and !ater. DThe regularformula for &anishment.F

interdi%it histrioni&us saenam /Suet. 9om. 50 he for&ade the ators Dto appearonF the stage /he prohi&ited the stage to the ators0.

feminis / dat.0 purpurae usu interdiemus /i". =.50 shall !e for&id !omen the !earing of purple

NOTE 2.((The 9ati"e !ith the $usati"e is used in poetry !ith many "er&s ofpre"enting proteting and the li)e !hih usually ta)e the $usati"e and $&lati"e.Interludo and prohi&eo sometimes ta)e the 9ati"e and $usati"e e"en in prose:

hise omnis aditus ad Sullam interludere /Bos. $m. 44;0 to shut these men offfrom all aess to Sulla /lose to them e"ery approah0. DCf. uti ommeatuCaesarem interluderet /'. 1. 4.=80 to shut Caesar off from supplies.F

hun / oestrum0 are&is peori /1eorg. .4?=0 you shall )eep this a!ay from theflo). DCf. illum aruit 1allia /hil. ?.50 he e%luded him from 1aul.F

solstitium peori defendite /El. 5.=50 )eep the summer heat from the flo). DCf.uti se a ontumeliis inimiorum defenderet /'. C. 4.220 to defend himself from theslanders of his enemies.F

SECTION: #6?. <er&s !hih in the ati"e "oie ta)e the $usati"e and 9ati"eretain the 9ati"e !hen used in the passi"e:

nuntia&antur hae eadem Curioni /'. C. 2.50 these same things !ere announedto Curio. D$ti"e: nuntia&ant / 3uidam0 hae eadem Curioni.F



legatus fratri /@ur. 20 a lieutenant to his &rother /i.e. a man assigned to his &rother0.

ministri seleri&us /Ta. $nn. 6.60 agents of rime. DCf. seditionis ministri / id.4.450 agents of sedition.F

miseriis suis remedium mortem e%spetare / Sall. Cat. =;0 to loo) for death as aure for their miseries. DCf. solus mearum miseriarumst remedium /Ter. $d. 27=0 .F

NOTE.((The ases in a and & differ from the onstrutions of Set: 65. a. N.2 andSet: 55 in that the dati"e is more losely onneted in idea !ith some single !ordto !hih it ser"es as an indiret o&,et.

Indiret O&,et !ith Speial <er&s

SECTION: #65. @any "er&s signifying to fa"or help please trust and theirontraries+ also to &elie"e persuade ommand o&ey ser"e resist en"y threatenpardon and spareta)e the 9ati"e:

ur mihi in"ides !hy do you en"y me

mihi parit at3ue ignosit he spares and pardons me.

ignose patrio dolori /i". .=80 e%use a fatherAs grief.

su&"eni patriae opitulare onlegae />am. 4;.4;.20 ome to the aid of yourountry help your olleague.

mihi non displiet /Clu. 4==0 it does not displease me.

non omni&us ser"io+ / $tt. 4.=70 I am not a ser"ant to e"ery man.

non param operae />am. 4.250 I !ill spare no pains.

si mihi persuasi+ /Cat. @. 580 so I ha"e persuaded myself.

mihi >a&ius de&e&it ignosere si minus eiius famae parere "ide&or 3uam anteaonsului+ / Tull. 0 >a&ius !ill ha"e to pardon me if I seem to spare his reputationless than I ha"e heretofore regarded it.

hui legioni Caesar onfide&at ma%ime+ / '. 1. 4.=;.4?0 in this legion Caesartrusted most.



In these "er&s the atin retains an original intransiti"e meaning. Thus: in"idere toen"y is literally to loo) as)ane at+ ser"ire is to &e a sla"e to+ suadere is to ma)e athing pleasant /s!eet0 to.

Some "er&s apparently of the same meanings ta)e the $usati"e.

Suh are iu"o adiu"o help+ laedo in,ure+ iu&eo order+ defiio fail+ deleto please:

hi pul"is oulum meum laedit this dust hurts my eye. DCf. multa oulis noentmany things are in,urious to the eyes.F

NOTE 4.(( >ido and onfido ta)e also the $&lati"e /Set: =40: as(( multum naturaloi onfide&ant /'. 1. .70 they had great onfidene in the strength of theirposition.

NOTE 2.((Some ommon phrases regularly ta)e the dati"e preisely li)e "er&s ofsimilar meaning. Suh are((praesto esse &e on hand /f. adesse0+ morem gererehumor /f. morigerari0+ gratum faere do a fa"or /f. gratifiari0+ dito audiensesse &e o&edient /f. o&oedire0+ ui fidem ha&e&at /'. 1. 4.470 in !hom he hadonfidene /f. onfide&at0.

So also many phrases !here no orresponding "er& e%ists. Suh are(( &ene /malepulhre aegre et.0 esse &e !ell /ill et.0 off+ iniuriam faere do in,ustie to+ diemdiere &ring to trial /name a day for et.0+ agere gratias e%press oneAs than)s+ha&ere gratiam feel than)ful+ referre gratiam repay a fa"or+ opus esse &eneessary+ damnum dare inflit an in,ury+ aeptum / e%pensum0 ferre / esse0redit /harge0+ honorem ha&ere to pay honor to.

Some "er&s are used transiti"ely !ith the $usati"e or intransiti"ely !ith the9ati"e !ithout perepti&le differene of meaning.

Suh are adulor aemulor despero praestolor medeor:

adulatus est $ntonio /Nep. $tt. 80 he flattered $ntony.

adulari Neronem /Ta. $nn. 46.470 to flatter Nero.

paem non desperas /$tt. 8.4?.0 you do not despair of peae.

saluti desperare "etuit /Clu. 680 he for&ade him to despair of safety.

Some "er&s are used transiti"ely !ith the $usati"e or intransiti"ely !ith the9ati"e !ith a differene of meaning:

parti i"ium onsulunt /Off. 4.8?0 they onsult for a part of the itiGens.

um te onsuluissem />am. 44.270 !hen I had onsulted you.



metuens pueris /laut. $m. 4440 an%ious for the hildren.

ne metuunt deos /Ter. e. 5520 they fear not e"en the gods. DSo also timeo.F

prospiite patriae /Cat. =.0 ha"e regard for the state.

prospiere sedem senetuti+ / i". =.=7.4=0 to pro"ide a ha&itation for old age. DSoalso pro"ideo.F

$ fe! "er&al nouns /as insidiae am&ush+ o&temperatio o&ediene0 rarely ta)e thedati"e li)e the orresponding "er&s:

insidiae onsuli / Sall. Cat. 20 the plot against the onsul /f. insidior0.

o&temperatio legi&us /egg. 4.=20 o&ediene to the la!s /f. o&tempero0.

si&i ipsi responsio+ /9e Or. .2;50 an ans!er to himself /f. respondeo0.

NOTE.((In these ases the dati"e depends immediately upon the "er&al fore of thenoun and not on any omple% idea /f. Set: 66. a &0.

SECTION: #68. The 9ati"e is used:pJ

4. -ith the impersonals li&et /lu&et0 it pleases and liet it is allo!ed:

3uod mihi ma%ime lu&et />am. 4.8.0 !hat most pleases me.

3uasi ti&i non lieret / id. 6.80 as if you !ere not permitted.

2. -ith "er&s ompounded !ith satis &ene and male:

mihi ipse num3uam satisfaio+ / >am. 4.40 I ne"er satisfy myself.

optimo "iro malediere /9eiot. 280 to spea) ill of a most e%ellent man.

pulhrum est &enefaere rei pu&liae / Sall. Cat. 0 it is a glorious thing to &enefitthe state.

NOTE.((These are not real ompounds &ut phrases and !ere apparently felt assuh &y the Bomans. Thus(( satis offiio meo satis illorum "oluntati 3ui a me hopeti"erunt fatum esse ar&itra&or /<err. ?.4;0 I shall onsider that enough has &een done for my duty enough for the !ishes of those !ho as)ed this of me.

. -ith gratifior gratulor nu&o permitto plaudo pro&o studeo supplioe%ello:



ompeiio se gratifiari putant />am. 4.40 they suppose they are doing ompey aser"ie.

gratulor ti&i mi 'al&e / id. 6.420 I ongratulate you my dear 'al&us.

ti&i permitto respondere /N. 9. .=0 I gi"e you lea"e to ans!er.mihi plaudo ipse domi+ / or. S. 4.4.660 I applaud myself at home.

um inimii @. >onteii "o&is a populo Bomano minentur amii a propin3uisupplient "o&is />ont. ?0 !hile the enemies of @arus >onteius are threatening you and the Boman people too !hile his friends and relati"es are &eseehing you.

NOTE.(( @iseo and iungo sometimes ta)e the dati"e /see Set: =4. a. N.0. aereousually ta)es the a&lati"e !ith or !ithout in rarely the dati"e: as(( haerentemapiti oronam /or. S. 4.4;.=70 a !reath linging to the head.

The dati"e is often used &y the poets in onstrutions !hih !ould in prose re3uirea noun !ith a preposition. So espeially !ith "er&s of ontending /Set: =4. &0:

ontendis omero /rop. 4.5.0 you "ie !ith omer. DIn prose: um omero.F

plaitone etiam pugna&is amori /$en. =.80 !ill you struggle e"en against a lo"ethat pleases you

ti&i ertat /El. ?.80 "ies !ith you. Dteum.F

differt sermoni /or. S. 4.=.=80 differs from prose. D a sermone Set: =;4.F

lateri a&didit ensem /$en. 2.??0 &uried the s!ord in his side. D in latere Set:=;.F

>or the 9ati"e instead of ad !ith the $usati"e see Set: =28. h.

SECTION: #67. Some "er&s ordinarily intransiti"e may ha"e an $usati"e of thediret o&,et along !ith the 9ati"e of the indiret /f. Set: 62. a0:

ui um re% ruem minaretur /Tus. 4.4;20 and !hen the )ing threatened him !ith the ross.

Cretensi&us o&sides impera"it /@anil. ?0 he e%ated hostages of the Cretans.

omnia si&i ignosere /<ell. 2.;0 to pardon oneAs self e"erything.



um et 'rutus uili&et duum praeferendus "ideretur et <atinius nulli non essetpostferendus /<ell. 2.670 sine 'rutus seemed !orthy of &eing put &efore any ofthe generals and <atinius deser"ed to &e put after all of them.

In these ases the dati"e depends not on the preposition &ut on the ompound

"er& in its a3uired meaning. ene if the a3uired meaning is not suited to anindiret o&,et the original onstrution of the simple "er& remains.

Thus in on"oat suos he alls his men together the idea of alling is not somodified as to ma)e an indiret o&,et appropriate. So hominem interfiere toma)e !ay !ith a man /)ill him0. 'ut in praefiere imperatorem &ello to put a manas ommander(in(hief in harge of a !ar the idea resulting from the ompositionis suited to an indiret o&,et /see also & Set: 54 88. &0.

NOTE 4.((Some of these "er&s &eing originally transiti"e ta)e also a diret o&,et:as(( ne offeramus nos periulis /Off. 4.80 that !e may not e%pose oursel"es toperils.

NOTE 2.((The onstrution of Set: 5; is not different in its nature from that ofSet: 62 66 and 65+ &ut the ompound "er&s ma)e a on"enient group.

Some ompounds of ad ante o& !ith a fe! others ha"e a3uired a transiti"emeaning and ta)e the ausati"e /f. Set: 88. &0:

nos oppugnat />am. 4.40 he opposes us.

3uis audeat &ene omitatum aggredi+ / hil. 42.2?0 !ho !ould dare enounter aman !ell attended

munus o&ire /ael. 50 to attend to a duty.

The ad,eti"e o&"ius and the ad"er& o&"iam !ith a "er& ta)e the dati"e:

si ille o&"ius ei futurus non erat /@il. =50 if he !as not intending to get in his !ay.

mihi o&"iam "enisti+ / >am. 2.46.0 you ame to meet me.

SECTION: #54. -hen plae or motion is distintly thought of the "er&smentioned in Set: 5; regularly ta)e a noun !ith a preposition:

inhaeret in "iseri&us /Tus. =.2=0 it remains fi%ed in the "itals.

homine oniunto meum /Tull. =0 a man united to me.



um ho onurrit ipse Eumenes /Nep. Eum. =.40 !ith him Eumenes himselfengages in om&at /runs together0.

inserite oulos in uriam />ont. =0 fi% your eyes on the senate(house.

ignis 3ui est o& os offusus /Tim. 4=0 the fire !hih is diffused &efore the sight.o&iitur ontra istorum impetus @aedonia />ont. ==0 @aedonia is set to !ithstand their atta)s. DCf. si 3uis "o&is error o&ietus /Cae. ?0 if any mista)ehas &een aused you.F

in segetem flamma inidit /$en. 2.;=0 the fire falls upon the standing orn.

NOTE.(('ut the usage "aries in different authors in different !ords and often inthe same !ord and the same sense. The e%ion must &e onsulted for eah "er&.

SECTION: #52. Intransiti"e "er&s that go"ern the dati"e are used impersonally inthe passi"e /Set: 2;8. d0. The dati"e is retained /f. Set: 6?0:

ui pari potuit /i". 24.4=0 !ho ould &e spared

non modo non in"idetur illi aetati "erum etiam fa"etur /Off. 2.=?0 that age /youth0not only is not en"ied &ut is e"en fa"ored.

tempori ser"iendum est />am. 7.50 !e must ser"e the e%igeny of the oasion.

NOTE.((In poetry the personal onstrution is sometimes found: as(( ur in"ideor/or. $. . ?60 !hy am I en"ied

4 Suh "er&s are aggredior adeo anteedo anteeo antegredior on"enio ineoo&eo offendo oppugno praeedo su&eo

9ati"e of .ossession

SECTION: #5. The 9ati"e is used !ith esse and similar !ords to denoteossession:

est mihi domi pater /El. .0 I ha"e a father at home /there is to me0.

homini um deo similitudo est /egg. 4.2?0 man has a li)eness to 1od.

3ui&us opes nullae sunt / Sall. Cat. 50 DthoseF !ho ha"e no !ealth.



NOTE.((The 1eniti"e or a ossessi"e !ith esse emphasiGes the possessor+ the9ati"e the fat of possession: as(( li&er est meus the &oo) is @INE /and no oneAselse0: est mihi li&er I $<E a &oo) /among other things0.

-ith nomen est and similar e%pressions the name is often put in the 9ati"e &y a

)ind of apposition !ith the person+ &ut the Nominati"e is also ommon:/40 ui afriano fuit ognomen /i". 2?.20 !hose /to !hom0 surname !as $frianus.

puero a& inopia Egerio inditum nomen / id. 4.=0 the name Egerius !as gi"en the &oy from his po"erty.

/20 puero nomen est @arus the &oyAs name is @arus /to the &oy is et.0.

ui nomen $rethusa /<err. =.4480 Da fountF alled $rethusa.

NOTE.((In early atin the dati"e is usual+ Ciero prefers the nominati"e i"y thedati"e+ Sallust uses the dati"e only. In later atin the geniti"e also ours /f. Set:=. d0: as((. @etello @aedonii nomen inditum est /<ell. 4.440 to uintus@etellus the name of @aedonius !as gi"en.

9esum ta)es the dati"e+ so oasionally a&sum /!hih regularly has the a&lati"e0:

ho unum Caesari defuit /'.1. =.260 this only !as la)ing to Caesar.

3uid hui a&esse poterit /9e Or. 4.=80 !hat an &e !anting to him

9ati"e of the $gent

SECTION: #5=. The 9ati"e of the $gent is used !ith the 1erundi"e to denote theperson on !hom the neessity rests:

hae "o&is pro"inia est defendenda /@anil. 4=0 this pro"ine is for you to defend/to &e defended &y you0.

mihi est pugnandum I ha"e to fight /i.e. the need of fighting is to me: f. mihi estli&er I ha"e a &oo) Set: 5. N.0.

This is the regular !ay of e%pressing the agent !ith the Seond or assi"eeriphrasti Con,ugation /Set: 4760.

NOTE 4.((The $&lati"e of the $gent !ith a& /Set: =;?0 is sometimes used !ith theSeond eriphrasti Con,ugation !hen the 9ati"e !ould &e am&iguous or !hen astronger e%pression is desired:



3ui&us est a "o&is onsulendum /@anil. 60 for !hom you must onsult. Dere t!odati"es 3ui&us and "o&is !ould ha"e &een am&iguous.F

rem a& omni&us "o&is pro"idendam /Ba&. =0 that the matter must &e attended to &y all of you. DThe dati"e might mean for all of you.F

NOTE 2.((The 9ati"e of the $gent is either a speial use of the 9ati"e of ossessionor a de"elopment of the 9ati"e of Beferene /Set: 560.

SECTION: #5?. The 9ati"e of the $gent is ommon !ith perfet partiiples/espeially !hen used in an ad,eti"e sense0 &ut rare !ith other parts of the "er&:

mihi deli&eratum et onstitutum est /eg. $gr. 4.2?0 I ha"e deli&erated andresol"ed /it has &een deli&erated &y me0.

mihi res pro"isa est /<err. =.740 the matter has &een pro"ided for &y me.

si dissimillimis &estiolis ommuniter i&us 3uaeritur /N. 9. 2.420 so &y "erydifferent reatures food is sought in ommon.

The 9ati"e of the $gent is used &y the poets and later !riters !ith almost anypassi"e "er&:

ne3ue ernitur ulli /$en. 4.==;0 nor is seen &y any.

feli% est dita sorori /O". >ast. .4.?750 she !as alled happy &y her sister.

$elia aetina Narisso fo"e&atur /Ta. $nn. 42.40 $elia aetina !as fa"ored &yNarissus.

The dati"e of the person !ho sees or thin)s is regularly used after "ideor seem:

"idetur mihi it seems /or seems good0 to me.

dis aliter "isum D estF /$en. 2.=280 it seemed other!ise to the gods.

"ideor mihi perspiere ipsius animum />am. =.4.?0 I seem /to myself0 to see thesoul of the man himself.

NOTE.((The "er& pro&are appro"e /originally a merantile !ord0 ta)es a 9ati"e ofBeferene /Set: 560 !hih has &eome so firmly attahed that it is often retained !ith the passi"e seemingly as 9ati"e of $gent:

hae sententia et illi et no&is pro&a&atur />am. 4.5.?0 this "ie! met &oth hisappro"al and mine /!as made aepta&le &oth to him and to me0.



ho onsilium pleris3ue non pro&a&atur /'. C. 4.520 this plan !as not appro"ed &ythe ma,ority. D'ut also onsilium a untis pro&a&atur / id. 4.5=0.F

9ati"e of .Beferene

SECTION: #56. The 9ati"e often depends not on any partiular !ord &ut on thegeneral meaning of the sentene /9ati"e of Beferene0.

The dati"e in this onstrution is often alled the 9ati"e of $d"antage or9isad"antageas denoting the person or thing for !hose &enefit or to !hosepre,udie the ation is performed.

ti&i aras /laut. @er. 540 you plough for yourself.

tuas res ti&i ha&eto+ /laut. Trin. 2660 )eep your goods to yourself /formula ofdi"ore0.

lauda"it mihi fratrem he praised my &rother /out of regard for me+ lauda"itfratrem meum !ould imply no suh moti"e0.

meritos mata"it honores taurum Neptuno taurum ti&i pulher $pollo+ / $en..4480 he offered the sarifies due a &ull to Neptune a &ull to thee &eautiful $pollo.

NOTE.((In this onstrution the meaning of the sentene is omplete !ithout thedati"e !hih is not as in the preeding onstrutions losely onneted !ith anysingle !ord. Thus the 9ati"e of Beferene is easily distinguisha&le in mostinstanes e"en !hen the sentene onsists of only t!o !ords as in the firste%ample.

SECTION: #55. The 9ati"e of Beferene is often used to 3ualify a !hole ideainstead of the ossessi"e 1eniti"e modifying a single !ord:

iter oenis "el orpori&us suis o&struere /Cat. @. 5?0 to &lo) the marh of theCarthaginians e"en !ith their o!n &odies /to &lo) et. for the disad"antage of

et.0.

se in onspetum nautis dedit /<err. ?.860 he put himself in sight of the sailors /heput himself to the sailors into sight0.

"ersatur mihi ante oulos / id. ?.420 it omes &efore my eyes /it omes to me &efore the eyes0.



SECTION: #58. The 9ati"e is used of the person from !hose point of "ie! anopinion is stated or a situation or a diretion is defined.

This is often alled the 9ati"e of the erson Hudging&ut is merely a !ea)ened "ariety of the 9ati"e of Beferene. It is used:pJ

4. Of the mental point of "ie! /in my opinion aording to me. et.0:

lato mihi unus instar est entum milium /'rut. 4740 in my opinion /to me0 latoalone is !orth a hundred thousand.

erit ille mihi semper deus /El. 4.50 he !ill al!ays &e a god to me /in my regard0.

3uae est ista ser"itus tam laro homini /ar. =40 !hat is that sla"ery aording tothe "ie! of this distinguished man

2. Of the loal point of "ie! /as you go in et.0. In this use the person is ommonlydenoted indefinitely &y a partiiple in the dati"e plural:

oppidum primum Thessaliae "enienti&us a& Epiro+ / '. C. .8;0 the first to!n ofThessaly as you ome from Epirus /to those oming et.0.

lae"a parte sinum intranti /i". 26.260 on the left as you sail up the gulf /to oneentering0.

est ur&e egressis tumulus /$en. 2.540 there is as you ome out of the ity amound /to those ha"ing ome out0.

NOTE.((The 9ati"e of the erson Hudging is /&y a 1ree) idiom0 rarely modified &y "olens "olens /partiiples of nolo "olo0 or &y some similar !ord:

ut 3ui&us3ue &ellum in"itis aut upienti&us erat /Ta. $nn. 4.?70 as eah mightreei"e the !ar relutantly or gladly.

ut militi&us la&os "olenti&us esset /Iug. 4;;0 that the soldiers might assume thetas) !illingly.

SECTION: #57. The 9ati"e of Beferene is used idiomatially !ithout any "er& inollo3uial 3uestions and e%lamations:

3uo mihi fortunam /or. Ep. 4.?.420 of !hat use to me is fortune

unde mihi lapidem /or. S. 2.5.4460 !here an I get a stone



3uo ti&i Tilli+ / id. 4.6.2=0 !hat use for you Tillius

The dati"e of referene is sometimes used after inter,etions:

ei /hei0 mihi /$en. 2.25=0 ah me*

"ae "itis /i". ?.=80 !oe to the on3uered.

em ti&i there ta)e that /there for you0* DCf. Set: 8;.F

NOTE.((To e%press >OB((meaning instead of in defene of in &ehalf of((thea&lati"e !ith pro is used:

pro patria mori+ / or. Od. .2.40 to die for oneAs ountry.

ego i&o pro te /laut. @ost. 4440 I !ill go instead of you.

4 9ati"us ommodi aut inommodi.

2 9ati"us iudiantis

.Ethial 9ati"e

SECTION: #8;. The 9ati"e of the ersonal ronouns is used to sho! a ertain

interest felt &y the person indiated.This onstrution is alled the Ethial 9ati"e.It is really a faded "ariety of the9ati"e of Beferene.

3uid mihi Celsus agit /or. Ep. 4..4?0 pray !hat is Celsus doing

suo si&i ser"it patri+ /laut. Capt. ?0 he ser"es his o!n father.

at ti&i repente "enit mihi Caninius />am. 7.20 &ut loo) you of a sudden omes tome Caninius.

hem ti&i talentum argenti+ / l. Tru. 6;0 har) ye a talent of sil"er.

3uid ti&i "is !hat !ould you ha"e /!hat do you !ish for yourself0

4 Compare KIAll rhyme you so eight years together.MSha)s.(($s ou i)e It .2.

2 9ati"us ethius.



9ati"e of .Separation

SECTION: #84. @any "er&s of ta)ing a!ay and the li)e ta)e the 9ati"e /espeially

of a person0 instead of the $&lati"e of Separation /Set: =;40.Suh are ompounds of a& de e% and a fe! of ad:

aureum ei detra%it amiulum /N. 9. .80 he too) from him his loa) of gold.

hun mihi terrorem eripe /Cat. 4.480 ta)e from me this terror.

"itam adulesenti&us "is aufert /Cat. @. 540 "iolene depri"es young men of life.

nihil enim ti&i detra%it senatus / >am. 4.?'0 for the senate has ta)en nothing from you.

ne mihi hun errorem e%tor3ueri "olo+ /Cat. @. 8?0 nor do I !ish this error !rested from me.

NOTE.((The 9ati"e of Separation is a "ariety of the 9ati"e of Beferene. Itrepresents the ation as done to the person or thing and is thus more "i"id thanthe $&lati"e

The distint idea of motion re3uires the a&lati"e !ith a preposition((thus generally !ith names of things /Set: =26. 40:

illum e% periulo eripuit /'. 1. =.420 he dragged him out of danger.

NOTE.((Sometimes the dati"e of the person and the a&lati"e of the thing !ith apreposition are &oth used !ith the same "er&: as(( mihi praeda de mani&useripitur /<err. 2.4.4=20 the &ooty is !rested from my hands.

9ati"e of the urpose or End

SECTION: #82. The 9ati"e is used to denote the urpose or End often !ithanother 9ati"e of the person or thing affeted.

This use of the dati"e one apparently general remains in only a fe!onstrutions as follo!s:

4. The dati"e of an a&strat noun is used to sho! that for !hih a thing ser"es or !hih it aomplishes often !ith another dati"e of the person or thing affeted:



rei pu&liae ladi sunt /Iug. 8?.=0 they are ruin to the state /they are for adisaster to the state0.

magno usui nostris fuit /'. 1. =.2?0 it !as of great ser"ie to our men /to our menfor great use0.

tertiam aiem nostris su&sidio misit / id. 4.?20 he sent the third line as a relief toour men.

suis saluti fuit / id. 5.?;0 he !as the sal"ation of his men.

e"enit faile 3uod dis ordi esset /i". 4.70 that ame to pass easily !hih !asdesired &y the gods /!as for a pleasure Dlit. heartF to the gods0.

NOTE 4.((This onstrution is often alled the 9ati"e of Ser"ie or the 9ou&le9ati"e onstrution. The "er& is usually sum. The noun e%pressing the end for !hih is regularly a&strat and singular in num&er and is ne"er modified &y anad,eti"e e%ept one of degree / magnus minor et.0 or &y a geniti"e.

NOTE 2.((The !ord frugi used as an ad,eti"e is a dati"e of this )ind:

ogis me diere inimium >rugi />ont. 70 you ompel me to all my enemyonest.

homines satis fortes et plane frugi /<err. .650 men &ra"e enough and thoroughlyhonest. Cf. ero frugi &onae /laut. seud. =680 I !ill &e good for something. DSeeSet: 422. &.F

2. The 9ati"e of urpose of onrete nouns is used in prose in a fe! militarye%pressions and !ith freedom in poetry :

loum astris deligit /'. 1. 5.460 he selets a site for a amp.

reeptui anere to sound a retreat /for a retreat0.

reeptui signum /hil. 4.4?0 the signal for retreat.

opta"it loum regno /$en. .4;70 he hose a plae for a )ingdom.

loum insidiis irumspetare /i". 24.?0 to loo) a&out for a plae for an am&ush.DCf. loum seditionis 3uaerere / id. .=60.F

>or the 9ati"e of the 1erundi"e denoting urpose see Set: ?;?. &.

9ati"e !ith $d,eti"es



SECTION: #8. The 9ati"e is used after $d,eti"es or $d"er&s to denote that to !hih the gi"en 3uality is direted for !hih it e%ists or to!ards !hih it tends.

NOTE.((The dati"e !ith ertain ad,eti"es is in origin a 9ati"e of urpose or End.

SECTION: #8=. The 9ati"e is used !ith ad,eti"es /and a fe! $d"er&s0 of fitnessnearness li)eness ser"ie inlination and their opposites:

nihil est tam naturae aptum /ael. 450 nothing is so fitted to nature.

nihil diffiile amanti puto+ /Or. 0 I thin) nothing hard to a lo"er.

astris idoneum loum delegit /'. 1. 4.=70 he seleted a plae suita&le for a amp.

tri&uni no&is sunt amii+ / . >r. 4.2.460 the tri&unes are friendly to us.

esse propitius potest nemini /N. 9. 4.42=0 he an &e graious to no&ody.

magnis autem "iris prosperae semper omnes res / id. 2.4650 &ut to great mene"erything is al!ays fa"ora&le.

sedes hui nostro non importuna sermoni /9e Or. .480 a plae not unsuita&le forthis on"ersation of ours.

ui fundo erat affinis @. Tullius /Tull. 4=0 to !hih estate @arus Tullius !as ne%tneigh&or.

on"enienter naturae "i"ere /Off. .40 to li"e in aordane !ith nature/ homologoumenos te phusei0.

NOTE 4.((So also in poeti and ollo3uial use !ith idem: as(( in"itum 3ui ser"atidem fait oidenti /or. $. . =650 he !ho sa"es a man against his !ill does thesame as one !ho )ills him.

NOTE 2.(($d,eti"es of li)eness are often follo!ed &y at3ue / a0 as. So also thead"er&s ae3ue pariter similiter et. The pronoun idem has regularly at3ue or arelati"e:

si parem sapientiam ha&et a formam /laut. @il. 42?40 if he has sense e3ual to his &eauty /li)e as his &eauty0.

te suspior eisdem re&us 3ui&us me ipsum ommo"eri+ /Cat. @. 40 I suspet youare distur&ed &y the same things &y !hih I am.



hi erant affines istius /<err. 2.60 these !ere this manAs fello!s.

2. $fter similis li)e the geniti"e is more ommon in early !riters. Ciero regularlyuses the geniti"e of persons and either the geniti"e or the dati"e of things. -ithpersonal pronouns the geniti"e is regular / mei tui et.0 and also in "eri similis

pro&a&le:domini similis es /Ter. Eun. =760 youAre li)e your master /your masterAs li)e0.

ut essemus similes deorum /N. 9. 4.740 that !e might &e li)e the gods.

est similis maiorum suom /Ter. $d. =440 heAs li)e his anestors.

patris similis esse /Off. 4.4240 to &e li)e his father.

simia 3uam similis turpissima &estia no&is /N. 9. 4.75 3uoted from Enn.0 ho! li)eus is that !rethed &east the ape*

si enim ho illi simile sit est illud hui / id. 4.7;0 for if this is li)e that that is li)ethis.

NOTE.((The geniti"e in this onstrution is not o&,eti"e li)e those in Set: =7 &utpossessi"e /f. Set: =0.

>or the 9ati"e or $usati"e !ith propior pro%imus propius pro%ime see Set:=2. a.

.$CCS$TI<E C$SE

SECTION: #86. The $usati"e originally ser"ed to onnet the noun more or lessloosely !ith the "er&(idea !hether e%pressed &y a "er& proper or &y a "er&al nounor ad,eti"e. Its earliest use !as perhaps to repeat the "er&(idea as in the Cognate $usati"e /run a rae fight a &attle see Set: 7;0. >rom this it !ould &e a shortstep to the >atiti"e $usati"e /denoting the result of an at as in ma)e a ta&ledrill a hole f. Set: 25. N.40. >rom this last ould easily ome the ommonausati"e /of $ffeting &rea) a ta&le plug a hole see Set: 85. a0. Traes of allthese uses appear in the language and the loose onnetion of noun !ith "er&(ideais seen in the use of stems in omposition /f. Set: 26?.0.0. It is impossi&leho!e"er to deri"e the "arious onstrutions of the ausati"e !ith ertainty fromany single funtion of that ase.

The uses of the ausati"e may &e lassified as follo!s:

I. rimary O&,et: 4. 9iretly affeted &y the $tion / Set: 85. a0.



2. Effet of the $tion Thing produed /Set: 85. a0. Cognate $usati"e /Set:7;0.

II. T!o $usati"es: 4. rediate $usati"e /Of Naming et.0 /Set: 70.

2. Of $s)ing or Teahing /Set: 760.. Of Conealing /Set: 76. 0.

III. Idiomati ses: 4. $d"er&ial /Set: 75. a0.

2. Of Speifiation / 1ree) $usati"e0 /Set: 75. &0.

. Of E%tent and 9uration /Set: =2 =2?0.

=. Of E%lamation /Set: 75. d0.

?. Su&,et of Infiniti"e /Set: 75. e0.

4 $d,eti"es of this )ind are aommodatus aptus+ amius inimius infestusin"isus molestus+ idoneus opportunus proprius+ utilis inutilis+ affinis finitimuspropin3uus "iinus+ par dispar similis dissimilis+ iuundus gratus+ notusignotus and others.

2 Suh are ae3ualis affinis alienus amius ognatus ommunis onsanguineusontrarius dispar familiaris finitimus inimius neessarius par peuliarispropin3uus proprius /regularly geniti"e0 saer similis superstes "iinus.

Compare armiger armor(&earer !ith arma gerere to &ear arms+ fidien lyre(player !ith fidi&us anere to /play on0 sing to the lyre. Compare also istan tatio/laut.0 the Dat ofF touhing her !ith istan tangere to touh her /Set: 88. d.N.20.

9iret O&,et

SECTION: #85. The 9iret O&,et of a transiti"e "er& is put in the $usati"e/Set: 25=0.

The $usati"e of the 9iret O&,et denotes /40 that !hih is diretly affeted or /20that !hih is aused or produed &y the ation of the "er&:

/40 'rutus Caesarem interfeit 'rutus )illed Caesar.

/20 aedem faere to ma)e a temple. DCf. proelium pugnare to fight a &attle Set:7;.F



NOTE.((There is no definite line &y !hih transiti"e "er&s an &e distinguishedfrom intransiti"e. <er&s !hih usually ta)e a diret o&,et /e%pressed or implied0are alled transiti"e &ut many of these are often used intransiti"ely or a&solutely.Thus timeo I fear is transiti"e in the sentene inimium timeo I fear my enemy &ut intransiti"e /a&solute0 in noli timere donAt &e afraid. $gain many "er&s aretransiti"e in one sense and intransiti"e in another: as(( el"etios supera"eruntBomani the Bomans o"erame the el"etians+ &ut nihil supera&at nothingremained /!as left o"er0. So also many "er&s ommonly intransiti"e may &e usedtransiti"ely !ith a slight hange of meaning: as(( rides you are laughing+ &ut merides youAre laughing at me.

The o&,et of a transiti"e "er& in the ati"e "oie &eomes its su&,et in the passi"eand is put in the nominati"e /Set: 25?0:

'rutus Caesarem interfeit 'rutus )illed Caesar.

Caesar a 'ruto interfetus est Caesar !as )illed &y 'rutus.

domum aedifiat he &uilds a house.

domus aedifiatur the house is &uilding /&eing &uilt0.

SECTION: #88. Certain speial "er&s re3uire notie.

@any "er&s apparently intransiti"e e%pressing feeling ta)e an ausati"e and may &e used in the passi"e:

meum asum lutum3ue doluerunt /Sest. 4=?0 they grie"ed at my alamity andsorro!.

si non $risium risissent Iuppiter et <enus /or. Od. .46.?0 if Hupiter and <enushad not laughed at $risius.

ridetur a& omni on"entu+ / or. S. 4.5.220 he is laughed at &y the !hole assem&ly.

>or the Cognate $usati"e !ith "er&s of taste smell and the li)e see Set: 7;. a.

NOTE.((Some "er&s ommonly intransiti"e may &e used transiti"ely /espeially inpoetry0 from a similarity of meaning !ith other "er&s that ta)e the ausati"e:

gemens ignominiam /1eorg. .2260 groaning at the disgrae. DCf. doleo.F

festinare fugam /$en. =.?5?0 to hasten their flight. DCf. aelero.F



omptos arsit rinis /or. Od. =.7.40 she &urned !ith lo"e for his !ell(om&edlo)s. DCf. adamo.F

<er&s of motion ompounds of irum trans and praeter and a fe! othersfre3uently &eome transiti"e and ta)e the ausati"e /f. Set: 5;. &0:

mortem o&ire to die /to meet death0.

onsulatum ineunt /i". 2.280 they enter upon the onsulship.

neminem on"eni+ / >am. 7.4=0 I met no one.

si insulam adisset /'. 1. =.2;0 if he should go to the island.

transire flumen / id. 2.20 to ross the ri"er /f. Set: 7?0.

i"es 3ui irumstant senatum /Cat. 4.240 the itiGens !ho stand a&out the senate.

NOTE.(($mong suh "er&s are some ompounds of ad in per and su&.

The ausati"e is used after the impersonals deet dedeet deletat iu"at oportetfallit fugit praeterit:

ita ut "os deet /laut. @ost. 5270 so as &efits you.

me pedi&us deletat laudere "er&a /or. S. 2.4.280 my delight is /it pleases me0 toarrange !ords in measure.

nisi me fallit unless I am mista)en /unless it deei"es me0.

iu"it me ti&i tuas litteras profuisse />am. ?.24.0 it pleased me that your literarystudies had profited you.

te non praeterit />am. 4.8.20 it does not esape your notie.

NOTE 4.((So after later in poetry and post(lassial prose: as(( latet pleros3ue/lin. N. . 2.820 it is un)no!n to most persons.

NOTE 2.((These "er&s are merely ordinary transiti"es !ith an idiomatisignifiation. ene most of them are also used personally.

NOTE .(( 9eet and latet sometimes ta)e the dati"e:

ita no&is deet /Ter. $d. 7280 thus it &efits us.

hosti 3ue Boma latet /Sil. It. 42.64=0 and Bome lies hidden from the foe.



Empedoles multa alia peat /N. 9. 4.270 Empedoles ommits many othererrors.

ego illud adsentior Theophrasto+ /9e Or. .48=0 in this I agree !ith Theophrastus.

multum te ista fefellit opinio+ / <err. 2.4.880 you !ere muh deei"ed in thise%petation /this e%petation deei"ed you muh0.

plus "aleo I ha"e more strength.

plurimum potest he is strongest.

3uid me ista laedunt /eg. $gr. 2.20 !hat harm do those things do me

ho te moneo I gi"e you this !arning /f. d. N.40.

id laetor I re,oie at this /f. d. N.40.

3uid moror !hy do I delay

3uae homines arant na"igant aedifiant / Sall. Cat. 2.50 !hat men do inploughing sailing and &uilding.

So in many ommon phrases:

si 3uid ille se "elit /'. 1. 4.=0 if he should !ant anything of him /if he should !ant him in anything0.

num3uid 1eta aliud me "is /Ter. h. 4?40 an I do anything more for you 1eta/there is nothing you !ant of me is there0 D$ ommon form of lea"e(ta)ing.F

3uid est 3uod et. !hy is it that et. DCf. ho erat 3uod / $en. 2.66=0 !as it forthis that et.F

NOTE 4.((In these ases su&stanti"es !ith a definite meaning !ould &e in someother onstrution:

in ho eodem peat he errs in this same point.

&onis re&us laetari to re,oie at prosperity. D$lso: in de or e%.F

de testamento monere to remind one of the !ill. Dater: geniti"e Set: ?4.F

offii admonere to remind one of his duty. D$lso: de offiio.F

NOTE 2.((In some of these ases the onnetion of the ausati"e !ith the "er& hasso faded out that the !ords ha"e &eome real ad"er&s: as(( multum plus



plurimum+ plerum3ue for the most part generally+ eterum etera for the restother!ise &ut+ primum first+ nihil &y no means not at all+ ali3uid some!hat+3uid !hy+ faile easily. So in the omparati"e of ad"er&s /Set: 2480. 'ut the lineannot &e sharply dra!n and some of the e%amples under & may &e lassed asad"er&ial.

T-O $CCS$TI<ES

SECTION: #74. Some transiti"e "er&s ta)e a seond ausati"e in addition to their9iret O&,et.

This seond ausati"e is either /40 a rediate $usati"e or /20 a SeondaryO&,et.

rediate $usati"e

SECTION: #72. $n ausati"e in the rediate referring to the same person orthing as the 9iret O&,et &ut not in apposition !ith it is alled a rediate $usati"e.

SECTION: #7. <er&s of naming hoosing appointing ma)ing esteemingsho!ing and the li)e may ta)e a rediate $usati"e along !ith the diret o&,et:

o Spartae 3uem enim te potius appellem /hil. 4.220 O Spartaus for !hat elseshall I all you /than Spartaus0

Cieronem onsulem reare to elet Ciero onsul.

me augurem nomina"erunt /hil. 2.=0 they nominated me for augur.

um gratias ageret 3uod se onsulem feisset /9e Or. 2.2680 !hen he than)ed him &eause he had made him onsul /supported his andiday0.

hominem prae se neminem puta"it /Bos. $m. 4?0 he thought no&ody a man inomparison !ith himself.

duem se prae&uit /<at. 0 he offered himself as a leader.

NOTE.((The prediate ausati"e may &e an ad,eti"e: as(( homines mitis reddiditet mansuetos /In". 4.20 has made men mild and gentle.



In hanging from the ati"e "oie to the passi"e the rediate $usati"e &eomesrediate Nominati"e /Set: 28=0:

re% a& suis appellatur /'. 1. 8.=0 he is alled )ing &y his su&,ets. D$ti"e

J sui eum regem appellant.FSeondary O&,et

SECTION: #7=. The $usati"e of the Seondary O&,et is used /along !ith thediret o&,et0 to denote something more remotely affeted &y the ation of the "er&.

SECTION: #7?. Transiti"e "er&s ompounded !ith prepositions sometimes ta)e/in addition to the diret o&,et0 a Seondary O&,et originally go"erned &y thepreposition:

Caesar 1ermanos flumen traiit /'. C. 4.80 Caesar thro!s the 1ermans aross theri"er.

idem ius iurandum adigit $franium / id. 4.560 he e%ats the same oath from $franius.

3uos ompeiius omnia sua praesidia irumdu%it / id. .640 !hom ompeyonduted through all his garrison.

NOTE 4.((This onstrution is ommon only !ith traduo traiio and transporto.The preposition is sometimes repeated !ith ompounds of trans and usually !ithompounds of the other prepositions. The a&lati"e is also used:

done res suas trans alyn flumen traierent /i". 8.2?0 till they should get theirpossessions aross the ri"er alys.

/ e%eritus0 ado traietus Cremonam / id. 24.?60 the army !as on"eyed arossthe o to Cremona /&y !ay of the o Set: =27. a0.

NOTE 2.((The seondary o&,et may &e retained !ith a passi"e "er&: as(( 'elgaeBhenum traduti sunt /'. 1. 2.=0 the 'elgians !ere led o"er the Bhine.

NOTE .((The dou&le onstrution indiated in Set: 7? is possi&le only !hen thefore of the preposition and the fore of the "er& are eah distintly felt in theompound the "er& go"erning the diret and the preposition the seondary o&,et.



Some "er&s of as)ing ta)e the a&lati"e of the person !ith a preposition instead ofthe ausati"e. So al!ays peto / a&0 3uaero / e% a& de0+ usually poso / a&0flagito / a&0 postulo / a&0 and oasionally others:

paem a& Bomanis petierunt /'. 1. 2.40 they sought peae from the Bomans.

3uod 3uaesi"it e% me . $puleiius /hil. 6.40 !hat u&lius $puleius as)ed of me.

-ith the passi"e of some "er&s of as)ing or teahing the person or the thing may &e used as su&,et /f. . N.20:

Caesar sententiam rogatus est Caesar !as as)ed his opinion.

id a& eo flagita&atur /'. C. 4.540 this !as urgently demanded of him.

NOTE.((The ausati"e of the thing may &e retained !ith the passi"e of rogo andof "er&s of teahing and oasionally !ith a fe! other "er&s:

fuerant ho rogati+ / Cael. 6=0 they had &een as)ed this.

posor meum aelapa /O". @. 5.5540 I am as)ed for my aelaps.

Ciero unta edotus / Sall. Cat. =?0 Ciero &eing informed of e"erything.

'ut !ith most "er&s of as)ing in prose the ausati"e of the thing &eomes thesu&,et nominati"e and the ausati"e of the person is put in the a&lati"e !ith apreposition: as(( ne postulantur 3uidem "ires a senetute /Cat. @. =0 strength isnot e"en e%peted of an old man /as)ed from old age0.

The "er& elo oneal may ta)e t!o ausati"es and the usually intransiti"e lateolie hid an ausati"e of the person:

non te ela"i sermonem T. $mpi+ / >am. 2.46.0 I did not oneal from you the tal)of Titus $mpius.

ne latuere doli fratrem Iunonis /$en. 4.4;0 nor did the !iles of Huno esape thenotie of her &rother.

NOTE 4.((The ausati"e of the person !ith lateo is late or poetial /Set: 88. .N.40.

NOTE 2.(($ll the dou&le onstrutions indiated in V W 76 arise from the !a"eringmeaning of the "er&s. Thus doeo means &oth to sho! a thing and to instrut aperson+ elo to )eep a person in the dar) and to hide a thing+ rogo to 3uestion aperson and to as) a 3uestion or a thing. Thus either ausati"e may &e regarded asthe diret o&,et and so &eome the su&,et of the passi"e /f. & a&o"e0 &ut foron"eniene the ausati"e of the thing is usually alled seondary.



4 erhaps not found in the ati"e &ut f. traieto fune /$en. ?.=880 .

Idiomati ses

SECTION: #75. The $usati"e has the follo!ing speial uses:

The ausati"e is found in a fe! ad"er&ial phrases /$d"er&ial $usati"e0:

id temporis at that time+ id / istu0 aetatis at that age.

id / 3uod0 genus of that /!hat0 sort /perhaps originally nominati"e0.

meam "iem on my part.

&onam partem in a great measure+ ma%imam partem for the most part.

"irile / mulie&re0 seus of the male /female0 se% /pro&a&ly originally in apposition0.

3uod si &ut if /as to !hih if0+ 3uod nisi if not.

The so(alled synedohial or 1ree) $usati"e found in poetry and later atin isused to denote the part affeted:

aput netentur /$en. ?.;70 their heads shall &e &ound /they shall &e &ounda&out the head0.

ardentis oulos suffeti sanguine et igni+ / id. 2.24;0 their glaring eyes &loodshotand &laGing !ith fire /suffused as to their eyes !ith &lood and fire0.

nuda genu / id. 4.2;0 !ith her )nee &are /&are as to the )nee0.

femur tragula itus /i". 24.5.4;0 !ounded in the thigh &y a dart.

NOTE.((This onstrution is also alled the $usati"e of Speifiation.

In many apparently similar e%pressions the ausati"e may &e regarded as thediret o&,et of a "er& in the middle "oie /Set: 4?6. a0:

inutile ferrum ingitur /$en. 2.?4;0 he girds on the useless steel.

nodo sinus olleta fluentis / id. 4.2;0 ha"ing her flo!ing folds gathered in a )not.

umeros insternor pelle leonis / id. 2.5220 I o"er my shoulders !ith a lionAs s)in.



protinus induitur faiem ultum 3ue 9ianae /O". @. 2.=2?0 forth!ith she assumesthe shape and gar& of 9iana.

The $usati"e is used in E%lamations:

o fortunatam rem pu&liam O fortunate repu&li* DCf. o fortunata morUJ / hil. 4=.40 oh happy death* /Set: 7. a0.F

o me infeliem /@il. 4;20 oh unhappy I*

me miserum ah !rethed me*

en 3uattuor aras /El. ?.6?0 lo four altars*

ellum /Lem illum0 there he is* DCf. Set: 4=6. a. N.2.F

eos /L ee eos0 there they are loo) at them*

pro deum fidem good hea"ens /O protetion of the gods0*

hoine saelum /Ter. $d. ;=0 O this generation*

hunine hominem /<err. ?.620 this man good hea"ens*

NOTE 4.((Suh e%pressions usually depend upon some long(forgotten "er&. Thesu&stanti"e is ommonly aompanied &y an ad,eti"e. The use of (ne in some asessuggests an original 3uestion as in 3uid !hat !hy tell me.

NOTE 2.((The omission of the "er& has gi"en rise to some other idiomatiausati"es. Suh are:

salutem /s. diit0 /in addressing a letter0 greeting.

me dius fidius /s. adiu"et0 so help me hea"en /the god of faith0.

unde mihi lapidem /or. S. 2.5.4460 !here an I get a stone

3uo mihi fortunam /or. Ep. 4.?.420 of !hat use to me is fortune DNo "er&thought of.F

The su&,et of an infiniti"e is in the ausati"e:

intellego te sapere />am. 5.2.0 I perei"e that you are !ise.

eas res iatari nole&at /'. 1. 4.480 he !as un!illing that these matters should &edisussed.



. Of Cause / la&oro e%silio et.0 /Set: =;=0.

=. Of $gent /!ith a& after assi"es0 /Set: =;?0.

?. Of Comparison /T$N0 /Set: =;60.

II. Instrumental $&lati"e /!ith0: 4. Of @anner @eans and Instrument /Set: =;8ff.0.

2. Of O&,et of the 9eponents utor et. /Set: =4;0.

. Of $ompaniment /!ith um0 /Set: =40.

=. Of 9egree of 9ifferene /Set: =4=0.

?. Of uality /!ith $d,eti"es0 /Set: =4?0.

6. Of rie and E%hange /Set: =460.

5. Of Speifiation /Set: =480.

8. $&lati"e $&solute /Set: =470.

III. oati"e $&lati"e /in on at0: 4. Of lae !here /ommonly !ith in0 /Set: =240.

2. Of Time and Cirumstane /Set: =20.

SECTION: #77. The $&lati"e is used to denote the relations e%pressed in English &y the prepositions from+ in at+ !ith &y:

li&erare metu to deli"er from fear.

e%ultus dotrina trained in learning.

ho ipso tempore at this "ery time.

aeus a"aritia &lind !ith a"arie.

oisus gladio slain &y the s!ord.

4 Thus the $&lati"e of Cause may &e at least in part of Instrumental origin and the $&lati"e $&solute appears to om&ine the Instrumental and the oati"e.

SES O> TE $'$TI<E BOEB



$&lati"e of Separation

SECTION: #=;;. -ords signifying Separation or ri"ation are follo!ed &y the

a&lati"e.

SECTION: #=;4. <er&s meaning to remo"e set free &e a&sent depri"e and !antta)e the $&lati"e /sometimes !ith a& or e%0:

oulis se pri"a"it />in. ?.850 he depri"ed himself of eyes.

omni 1allia Bomanis interdiit /'. 1. 4.=60 he / $rio"istus0 &ars the Bomans fromthe !hole of 1aul.

ei a3ua et igni interdiitur /<ell. 2.=?0 he is de&arred the use of fire and !ater.DThe regular formula of &anishment.F

"oluptati&us arere /Cat. @. 50 to la) en,oyments.

non egeo mediina /ael. 4;0 I !ant no physi.

le"amur superstitione li&eramur mortis metu />in. 4.60 !e are relie"ed fromsuperstition !e are freed from fear of death.

soluti a upiditati&us /eg. $gr. 4.250 freed from desires.

multos e% his inommodis peunia se li&erasse /<err. ?.20 that many ha"e freedthemsel"es &y money from these inon"enienes.

>or the 1eniti"e !ith "er&s of separation and !ant see Set: ?6. N.

SECTION: #=;2. <er&s ompounded !ith a a& de e% /40 ta)e the simple $&lati"e !hen used figurati"ely+ &ut /20 !hen used literally to denote atual separation ormotion they usually re3uire a preposition /Set: =26. 40:

/40 onatu desistere /'. 1. 4.80 to desist from the attempt.

desine ommuni&us lois /$ad. 2.8;0 3uit ommonplaes.

a&ire magistratu to lea"e oneAs offie.

a&stinere iniuria to refrain from !rong.



uius rationis "im at3ue utilitatem e% illo aelesti Epiuri "olumine aepimus /N.9. 4.=0 of this reasoning !e ha"e learned the po!er and ad"antage from thatdi"ine &oo) of Epiurus.

sua"itatem odorum 3ui afflarentur e flori&us /Cat. @. ?70 the s!eetness of the

odors !hih &reathed from the flo!ers.2. @aterial:

erat totus e% fraude et mendaio fatus /Clu. 520 he !as entirely made up of fraudand falsehood.

"al"as magnifientiores e% auro at3ue e&ore perfetiores /<err. =.42=0 moresplendid doors more finely !rought of gold and i"ory.

fatum de auti&us antrum /O". @. 4.?5?0 a a"e formed of ro)s.

templum de marmore ponam /1eorg. .40 IAll &uild a temple of mar&le.

NOTE 4.((In poetry the preposition is often omitted.

NOTE 2.((The $&lati"e of @aterial is a de"elopment of the $&lati"e of Soure. >orthe 1eniti"e of @aterial see Set: ==.

artiiples denoting &irth or origin are follo!ed &y the $&la ti"e of Souregenerally !ithout a preposition:

Io"e natus et @aia /N. 9. .?60 son of Hupiter and @aia.

edite regi&us /or. Od. 4.4.40 desendant of )ings.

3uo sanguine retus /$en. 2.5=0 &orn of !hat &lood.

genitae andione /O". @. 6.6660 daughters of andion.

NOTE 4.(($ preposition / a& de e%0 is usually e%pressed !ith pronouns !ith thename of the mother and often !ith that of other anestors:

e% me hi natus non est sed e% fratre meo+ / Ter. $d. =;0 this is not my son &ut my &rotherAs /not &orn from me et.0.

um e% utra3ue D u%oreF filius natus esset /9e Or. 4.480 eah !ife ha"ing had ason /!hen a son had &een &orn of eah !ife0.

'elus et omnes a 'elo /$en. 4.5;0 'elus and all his desendants.



NOTE 2.((Barely the plae of &irth is e%pressed &y the a&lati"e of soure: as((desidera"it C. >leginatem laentia $. 1ranium uteolis /'. C. .540 he lost Caius>leginas of laentia $ulus 1ranius of uteoli.

NOTE .((The Boman tri&e is regularly e%pressed &y the a&lati"e alone: as(( .

<errem Bomilia /<err. 4.20 uintus <erres of the Bomilian tri&e.Some "er&s may ta)e the $&lati"e of @aterial !ithout a preposition. Suh areonstare onsistere and ontineri.'ut !ith onstare e% is more ommon:

domus amoenitas non aedifiio sed sil"a onsta&at /Nep. $tt. 40 the harm of thehouse onsisted not in the &uildings &ut in the !oods.

e% animo onstamus et orpore />in. =.470 !e onsist of soul and &ody.

"ita orpore et spiritu ontinetur /@ar. 280 life onsists of &ody and spirit.

The $&lati"e of @aterial !ithout a preposition is used !ith faere fieri and similar !ords in the sense of do !ith &eome of:

3uid ho homine faiatis /<err. 2.4.=20 !hat are you going to do !ith this man

3uid Tulliola mea fiet />am. 4=.=.0 !hat !ill &eome of my dear Tullia

3uid te futurum est /<err. 2.4??0 !hat !ill &eome of you

The $&lati"e of @aterial !ith e% and in poetry !ithout a preposition sometimesdepends diretly on a noun:

non paua poula e% auro /<err. =.620 not a fe! ups of gold.

sopulis pendenti&us antrum /$en. 4.4660 a a"e of hanging ro)s.

>or $&lati"e of .Soure instead of artiti"e 1eniti"e see Set: =6. .

$&lati"e of Cause

SECTION: #=;=. The $&lati"e /!ith or !ithout a preposition0 is used to e%pressCause:

neglegentia pletimur /ael. 8?0 !e are hastised for negligene.

gu&ernatoris ars utilitate non arte laudatur />in. 4.=20 the pilot s s)ill is praisedfor its ser"ie not its s)ill.



praeditionis ausa+ /N. 9. .?0 &y !ay of prophey.

e%empli gratia+ / "er&i gratia0 for e%ample.

sui purgandi gratia for the sa)e of learing themsel"es.

NOTE.(('ut gratia !ith possessi"es in this use is rare.

$&lati"e of .$gent

SECTION: #=;?. The <oluntary $gent after a passi"e "er& is e%pressed &y the $&lati"e !ith a or a&:

laudatur a& his ulpatur a& illis /or. S. 4.2.440 he is praised &y these &lamed &ythose.

a& animo tuo 3uid3uid agitur id agitur a te /Tus. 4.?20 !hate"er is done &y yoursoul is done &y yourself.

a filiis in iudiium "oatus est /Cat. @. 220 he !as &rought to trial &y his sons.

um a unto onsessu plausus esset multiple% datus / id. 6=0 !hen great applausehad &een gi"en &y the !hole audiene.

ne "irtus a& audaia "ineretur /Sest. 720 that "alor might not &e o"er&orne &yaudaity. D $udaia is in a manner personified.F

NOTE 4.((This onstrution is de"eloped from the $&lati"e of Soure. The agent isonei"ed as the soure or author of the ation.

NOTE 2.((The a&lati"e of the agent /!hih re3uires a or a&0 must &e arefullydistinguished from the a&lati"e of instrument !hih has no preposition /Set:=;70. Thus (( oisus gladio slain &y a s!ord+ &ut oisus a& hoste slain &y anenemy.

NOTE .((The a&lati"e of the agent is ommonest !ith nouns denoting persons &utit ours also !ith names of things or 3ualities !hen these are onei"ed asperforming an ation and so are partly or !holly personified as in the last e%ampleunder the rule.

The a&lati"e of the agent !ith a& is sometimes used after intransiti"e "er&s thatha"e a passi"e sense:

perire a& hoste to &e slain &y an enemy.



The personal agent !hen onsidered as instrument or means is often e%pressed &yper !ith the ausati"e or &y opera !ith a geniti"e or possessi"e:

a& e%ploratori&us ertior fatus est /'. 1. 4.240 he !as informed &y souts /inperson0. 'ut((

per e%ploratores Caesar ertior fatus est / id. 4.420 Caesar !as informed &y /meansof0 souts.

elautae opera Neptuni /laut. Bud. 6770 !ashed lean &y the ser"ies of Neptune.

non mea opera e"enit /Ter. e. 2280 it hasnAt happened through me /&y mye%ertions0. DCf. eiius opera '. 1. ?.25.F

NOTE 4.((The a&lati"e of means or instrument is often used instead of the a&lati"eof agent espeially in military phrases: as(( hae e%u&itori&us tene&antur /'. 1.5.670 these /redou&ts0 !ere held &y means of sentinels.

NOTE 2.(($n animal is sometimes regarded as the means or instrumentsometimes as the agent. ene &oth the simple a&lati"e and the a&lati"e !ith a&our:

e3uo "ehi to ride on horse&a) /&e on"eyed &y means of a horse0. DNot a& e3uo.F

lipeos a muri&us esse derosos /9i". 4.770 that the shields !ere gna!ed &y mie.

>or the 9ati"e of the $gent !ith the 1erundi"e see Set: 5=.

$&lati"e of .Comparison

SECTION: #=;6. The Comparati"e degree is often follo!ed &y the $&lati"esignifying than:

Cato est Cierone elo3uentior Cato is more elo3uent than Ciero.

3uid no&is duo&us la&oriosius est /@il. ?0 !hat more &urdened !ith toil than !et!o

"ilius argentum est auro "irtuti&us aurum /or. Ep. 4.4.?20 sil"er is less preiousthan gold gold than "irtue.

The idiomati a&lati"es opinione spe solito dito ae3uo redi&ili and iusto areused after omparati"es instead of a lause:

elerius opinione />am. 4=.20 faster than one !ould thin).



serius spe omnium /i". 26.260 later than all hoped /than the hope of all0.

amnis solito itatior / id. 2.47.440 a stream s!ifter than its !ont.

gra"ius ae3uo / Sall. Cat. ?40 more seriously than !as right.

SECTION: #=;5. The omparati"e may &e follo!ed &y 3uam than. -hen 3uam isused the t!o things ompared are put in the same aseU

J

non allidior es 3uam hi /Bos. $m. =70 you are not more unning than he.

ontioni&us aommodatior est 3uam iudiiis /Clu. 20 fitter for popularassem&lies than for ourts.

miseriordia dignior 3uam ontumelia /ison. 20 more !orthy of pity than ofdisgrae.

The onstrution !ith 3uam is re3uired !hen the first of the things ompared isnot in the Nominati"e or $usati"e.

NOTE 4.((There are se"eral limitations on the use of the a&lati"e of omparisone"en !hen the first of the things ompared is in the nominati"e or ausati"e. Thusthe 3uam onstrution is regularly used /40 !hen the omparati"e is in agreement !ith a geniti"e dati"e or a&lati"e: as(( sene% est eo meliore ondiione 3uamadulesens /Cat. @. 680 an old man is in this respet in a &etter position than a young man+ and /20 !hen the seond mem&er of the omparison is modified &y alause: as((minor fuit ali3uanto is 3ui primus fa&ulam dedit 3uam ei 3ui et./'rut. 50 he !ho first presented a play !as some!hat younger than those !hoet.

NOTE 2.((The poets sometimes use the a&lati"e of omparison !here the proseonstrution re3uires 3uam: as((pane egeo iam mellitis potiore plaentis /or. Ep.4.4;.440 I no! !ant &read &etter than honey(a)es.

NOTE .((Belati"e pronouns ha"ing a definite anteedent ne"er ta)e 3uam in this

onstrution &ut al!ays the a&lati"e: as(( re% erat $eneas no&is 3uo iustior alterne et. / $en. 4.?==0 $eeas !as our )ing than !hom no other D!asF morerighteous.

In sentenes e%pressing or implying a general negati"e the a&lati"e /rather than3uam0 is the regular onstrution !hen the first mem&er of the omparison is inthe nominati"e or ausati"e:



nihil detesta&ilius dedeore nihil foedius ser"itute /hil. .60 nothing is moredreadful than disgrae nothing "iler than sla"ery.

neminem esse ariorem te / $tt. %. 8$. 40 that no one is dearer than you.

$fter the omparati"es plus minus amplius longius !ithout 3uam a !ord ofmeasure or num&er is often used !ith no hange in its ase:

plus septingenti apti+ / i". =4.420 more than se"en hundred !ere ta)en.DNominati"e.F

plus tertia parte interfeta+ / '. 1. .60 more than a third part &eing slain. D$&lati"e $&solute.F

aditus in latitudinem non amplius duentorum pedum relin3ue&atur / id. 2.270 anapproah of not more than t!o hundred feet in !idth !as left. D1eniti"e of@easure: Set: =?. &.F

NOTE.((The noun ta)es the ase re3uired &y the onte%t !ithout referene to theomparati"e !hih is in a sort of apposition: Kse"en hundred !ere ta)en DandFmore.M

$lius is sometimes follo!ed &y the a&lati"e in poeti and ollo3uial use+ in formalprose it is follo!ed &y a / at3ue0 et more rarely &y nisi 3uam:

ne 3ui3uam aliud li&ertate ommuni+ / >am. 44.20 nothing else than the ommonli&erty.

alius ysippo /or. Ep. 2.4.2=;0 another than ysippus.

num aliud "idetur esse a meorum &onorum direptio+ / 9om. ?40 does it seemanything different from the plundering of my property

erat historia nihil aliud nisi annalium onfetio+ /9e OU

J. 2.?20 history !as nothing else &ut a ompiling of reords.

The omparati"e of an ad"er& is usually follo!ed &y 3uam rarely &y the a&lati"ee%ept in poetry:

tempus te itius 3uam oratio defieret /Bos. $m. 870 time !ould fail you soonerthan !ords. 'ut((

ur oli"um sanguine "iperino autius "itat /or. Od. 4.8.70 !hy does he shun oilmore arefully than "iperAs &lood



NOTE.((repositions meaning &efore or &eyond /as ante prae praeter supra0 aresometimes used !ith a omparati"e: as(( selere ante alios immanior omnis /$en.4.=50 more monstrous in rime than all other men.

4 $s natus satus editus genitus ortus prognatus generatus retus reatus

oriundus.2 The a&lati"e !ith onsistere and ontineri is pro&a&ly loati"e in origin /f. Set:=40.

The ause in the a&lati"e is originally soure as is sho!n &y the use of a& de e%+ &ut !hen the ausati"e !ith ad o& is used the idea of ause arises from nearness.Oasionally it is diffiult to distinguish &et!een ause and means /!hih is the oldInstrumental ase0 or irumstane /!hih is either the oati"e or theInstrumental0.

= Originally a merantile use: f. o& deem minas for the prie of ten min ae.

? This is a &ranh of the $&lati"e of Separation. The o&,et !ith !hih anything isompared is the starting(point from !hih !e re)on. Thus K Ciero is elo3uentM+ &ut starting from him !e ome to Cato !ho is Kmore so than he.

SES O> TE $'$TI<E $S .INSTB@ENT$

SECTION: #=;8. @eans Instrument @anner and $ompaniment are denoted &ythe Instrumental $&lati"e /see Set: 780 &ut some of these uses more ommonlyre3uire a preposition. $s they all ome from one soure /the old Instrumental Case0no sharp line an &e dra!n &et!een them and indeed the Bomans themsel"es anhardly ha"e thought of any distintion. Thus in omni&us prei&us ora&ant theyentreated !ith e"ery D)ind ofF prayer the a&lati"e properly that of means annot &e distinguished from that of manner.

$&lati"e of @eans or Instrument

SECTION: #=;7. The $&lati"e is used to denote the means or instrument of an

ation:

ertantes pugnis ali&us ungui&us morsu deni3ue /Tus. ?.550 fighting !ithfists heels nails and e"en teeth.

um pugnis et ali&us onisus esset /<err. .?60 !hen he had &een pummelled !ith their fists and heels.



meis la&ori&us interitu rem pu&liam li&era"i+ / Sull. 0 &y my toils I ha"e sa"edthe state from ruin.

multae istarum ar&orum mea manu sunt satae /Cat. @. ?70 many of those trees !ere set out !ith my o!n hands.

"i "ita "is "el potius oppressa "irtute audaia est /@il. ;0 "iolene !aso"erome &y "iolene or rather &oldness !as put do!n &y ourage.

The $&lati"e of @eans is used !ith "er&s and ad,eti"es of filling a&ounding andthe li)e:

9eus &onis omni&us e%ple"it mundum /Tim. 0 1od has filled the !orld !ith allgood things.

aggere et rati&us fossas e%plent /'. 1. 5.860 they fill up the dithes !ith earth andfasines.

totum montem homini&us omple"it / id. 4.2=0 he filled the !hole mountain !ithmen.

opimus praeda /<err. 2.4.420 rih !ith spoils.

"ita plena et onferta "oluptati&us / Sest.20 life filled and ro!ded !ith delights.

>orum $ppi differtum nautis /or. S. 4.?.=0 >orum $ppii rammed !ith &argemen.

NOTE.((In poetry the 1eniti"e is often used !ith these !ords. Compleo and impleosometimes ta)e the geniti"e in prose /f. Set: ?60+ so regularly plenus and /!ithpersonal nouns0 ompletus and refertus /Set: =7. a0:

omnia plena lutus et maeroris fuerunt /Sest. 4280 e"erything !as full of grief andmourning.

ollam denariorum implere />am. 7.480 to fill a pot !ith money. Dere e"identlyollo3uial other!ise rare in Ciero.F

on"i"ium "iinorum ompleo+ /Cat. @. =6 in the mouth of Cato0 I fill up the

&an3uet !ith my neigh&ors.

um ompletus meratorum arer esset /<err. ?.4=50 !hen the prison !as full oftraders.



SECTION: #=4;. The deponents utor fruor fungor potior "esor !ith se"eral oftheir ompoundsgo"ern the $&lati"e:

utar "estra &enignitate /$rh. 480 I !ill a"ail myself of your )indness.

ita mihi sal"a re pu&lia "o&isum perfrui lieat /Cat. =.440 so may I en,oy !ith youthe state seure and prosperous.

fungi inani munere /$en. 6.88?0 to perform an idle ser"ie.

auro heros potitur /O". @. 5.4?60 the hero ta)es the gold.

late et ferina arne "ese&antur /Iug. 870 they fed on mil) and game.

NOTE.((This is properly an $&lati"e of @eans /instrumental0 and the "er&s arereally in the middle "oie /Set: 4?6. a0. Thus utor !ith the a&lati"e signifies Iemploy myself /or a"ail myself0 &y means of et. 'ut these earlier meaningsdisappeared from the language lea"ing the onstrution as !e find it.

otior sometimes ta)es the 1eniti"e as al!ays in the phrase potiri rerum to getontrol or &e master of affairs /Set: ?5. a0:

totius 1alliae sese potiri posse sperant /'. 1. 4.0 they hope they an getpossession of the !hole of 1aul.

NOTE 4.((In early atin these "er&s are sometimes transiti"e and ta)e theausati"e:

funtus est offiium /Ter. h. 2840 he performed the part et.

ille patria potitur ommoda /Ter. $d. 8540 he en,oys his anestral estate.

NOTE 2.((The 1erundi"e of these "er&s is used personally in the passi"e as if the "er& !ere transiti"e /&ut f. Set: ?;;. 0: as(( eralio omnia utenda apossidenda tradiderat /<err. 2.=60 he had gi"en o"er e"erything to eralius forhis use and possession /to &e used and possessed0.

SECTION: #=44. Opus and usus signifying need ta)e the $&lati"e:

magistrati&us opus est /eg. .?0 there is need of magistrates.

nun "iri&us usus /$en. 8.==40 no! there is need of strength.

NOTE.((The a&lati"e !ith usus is not ommon in lassi prose.



-ith opus the a&lati"e of a perfet partiiple is often found either agreeing !ith anoun or used as a neuter a&strat noun:

opus est tua e%prompta malitia at3ue astutia+ / Ter. $nd. 520 I must ha"e your &est unning and le"erness set to !or).

properato opus erat /f. @il. =70 there !as need of haste.

NOTE 4.((So rarely !ith usus in omedy: as(( 3uid istis usust onsriptis /l.'ah. 5=70 !hatAs the good of ha"ing them in !riting

NOTE 2.((The omission of the noun gi"es rise to omple% onstrutions: as(( 3uidopus fatost /f. '. 1. 4.=20 !hat must &e done DCf. 3uid opus est fieri !ith 3uofato opus estF

Opus is often found in the prediate !ith the thing needed in the nominati"e assu&,et:

du% no&is et autor opus est />am. 2.6.=0 !e need a hief and responsi&le ad"iser/a hief et. is neessary for us0.

si 3uid ipsi opus esset /'. 1. 4.=0 if he himself !anted anything /if anythingshould &e neessary for him0.

3uae opus sunt / Cato B. B. 4=.0 things !hih are re3uired.

$&lati"e of @anner

SECTION: #=42. The @anner of an ation is denoted &y the $&lati"e+ usually !ithum unless a limiting ad,eti"e is used !ith the noun:

um eleritate "enit he ame !ith speed. 'ut((

summa eleritate "enit he ame !ith the greatest speed.

3uid refert 3ua me ratione ogatis /ael. 260 !hat differene does it ma)e in !hat !ay you ompel me

'ut um is often used e"en !hen the a&lati"e has a limiting ad,eti"e:

3uanto id um periulo feerit /'. 1. 4.450 at !hat ris) he did this.

non minore um taedio reu&ant /lin. Ep. 7.45.0 they reline !ith no less !eariness.



-ith suh !ords of manner as modo pato ratione ritu "i "ia and !ith sto)e%pressions !hih ha"e &eome "irtually ad"er&s /as silentio iure iniuria0 um isnot used:

apis @atinae more modo3ue armina fingo+ / or. Od. =.2.280 in the style and

manner of a @atinian &ee I fashion songs.NOTE.((So in poetry the a&lati"e of manner often omits um: as(( inse3uiturumulo a3uae mons /$en. 4.4;?0 a mountain of !ater follo!s in a mass. DCf.murmure / id. 4.42=0+ rimis / id. 4.420.F

$&lati"e of $ompaniment

SECTION: #=4. $ompaniment is denoted &y the $&lati"e regularly !ith um:

um oniugi&us a li&eris /$tt. 8.2.0 !ith !i"es and hildren.

um funditori&us sagittariis 3ue flumen transgressi+ / '. 1. 2.470 ha"ing rossedthe ri"er !ith the arhers and slingers.

3uae suppliatio si um eteris onferatur /Cat. .4?0 if this than)sgi"ing &eompared !ith others.

3uae D le%F esse um telo "etat /@il. 440 the la! !hih for&ids DoneF to go armed/&e !ith a !eapon0.

si seum suos edu%erit /Cat. 4.;0 if he leads out !ith him his assoiates. D>orseum see Set: 4==. &. N.4.F

The a&lati"e is used !ithout um in some military phrases and here and there &yearly !riters:

su&se3ue&atur omni&us opiis /'. 1. 2.470 he follo!ed lose !ith all his fores.D'ut also um omni&us opiis id. 4.26.F

ho praesidio profetus est /<err. 2.4.860 !ith this fore he set out.

NOTE.(( @iseo and iungo !ith some of their ompounds and onfundo ta)eeither /40 the $&lati"e of $ompaniment !ith or !ithout um or /20 sometimesthe 9ati"e /mostly poetial or late0:

mi%ta dolore "oluptas /'. $l. ?60 pleasure mingled !ith pain.

uius animum um suo miseat /ael. 840 !hose soul he may mingle !ith his o!n.



fletum3ue ruori misuit /O". @. =.4=;0 and mingled tears !ith &lood.

Caesar eas ohortis um e%eritu suo oniun%it /'. C. 4.480 Caesar united thoseohorts !ith his o!n army.

aer oniuntus terris /ur. ?.?620 air united !ith earth.humano apiti er"iem e3uinam iungere /or. $. . 40 to ,oin to a human head ahorseAs ne).

-ords of Contention and the li)e re3uire um:

armis um hoste ertare /Off. .850 to fight !ith the enemy in arms.

li&enter hae um . Catulo disputarem /@anil. 660 I should gladly disuss thesematters !ith uintus Catulus.

NOTE.(('ut !ords of ontention may ta)e the 9ati"e in poetry /see Set: 68. a0.

$&lati"e of 9egree of 9ifferene

SECTION: #=4=. -ith Comparati"es and !ords implying omparison the a&lati"eis used to denote the 9egree of 9ifferene:

3uin3ue mili&us passuum distat it is fi"e miles distant.

a mili&us passuum iriter duo&us /'. 1. ?.20 at a distane of a&out t!o miles.D>or a as an ad"er& see Set: =. .F

ali3uot ante annis /Tus. 4.=0 se"eral years &efore.

ali3uanto post suspe%it /Bep. 6.70 a !hile after he loo)ed up.

multo me "igilare arius /Cat. 4.80 that I !ath muh more sharply.

nihilo erat ipse Cylops 3uam aries prudentior /Tus. ?.44?0 the Cylops himself !as not a !hit !iser than the ram.

The a&lati"es 3uo ... eo / ho0 and 3uanto ... tanto are used orrelati"ely !ithomparati"es li)e the English the ... the:

3uo minus upiditatis eo plus autoritatis /i". 2=.280 the less greed the more !eight /&y !hat the less &y that the more0.



3uanto erat gra"ior oppugnatio tanto re&riores litterae mitte&antur /'. 1. ?.=?0 the se"erer the siege !as the more fre3uently letters !ere sent.

NOTE.((To this onstrution are dou&tless to &e referred all ases of 3uo and eo/ ho0 !ith a omparati"e e"en !hen they ha"e eased to &e distintly felt as

degree of differene and approah the $&lati"e of Cause:eo3ue me minus paenitet /N. 9. 4.80 and for that reason I regret less et. /&y somuh the less I regret0.

hae eo failius faie&ant 3uod /'. 1. .420 this they did the more easily for thisreason &eause et. DCf. ho maiore spe 3uod

The $&lati"e of Comparison /Set: =;60 and the $&lati"e of 9egree of 9iffereneare sometimes used together !ith the same ad,eti"e:

paulo minus duentis /'. C. .280 a little less than t!o hundred.

patria 3uae mihi "ita mea multo est arior /Cat. 4.250 my ountry !hih is muhdearer to me than life.

'ut the onstrution !ith 3uam is more ommon.

$&lati"e of uality

SECTION: #=4?. The 3uality of a thing is denoted &y the $&lati"e !ith an ad,eti"eor geniti"e modifier.

This is alled the 9esripti"e $&lati"e or $&lati"e of uality:

animo meliore sunt gladiatores /Cat. 2.260 the gladiators are of a &etter mind.

3uae um esset i"itas ae3uissimo iure a foedere /$rh. 60 as this !as a ity !ithperfetly e3ual onstitutional rights.

mulierem e%imia pulhritudine /<err. 2.4.6=0 a !oman of rare &eauty.

$ristoteles "ir summo ingenio sientia opia /Tus. 4.50 $ristotle a man of thegreatest genius learning and gift of e%pression.

de 9omitio di%it "ersum 1raeum eadem sententia /9eiot. 2?0 onerning9omitius he reited a 1ree) line of the same tenor.

NOTE.((The $&lati"e of uality /li)e the 1eniti"e of uality Set: =?0 modifies asu&stanti"e &y desri&ing it. It is therefore e3ui"alent to an ad,eti"e and may &e



either attri&uti"e or prediate. In this it differs from other a&lati"es !hih aree3ui"alent to ad"er&s.

In e%pressions of 3uality the 1eniti"e or the $&lati"e may often &e usedindifferently+ &ut physial 3ualities are oftener denoted &y the $&lati"e /f. Set:

=?. N.0:apillo sunt promisso /'. 1. ?.4=0 they ha"e long hair.

ut apite operto sit /Cat. @. =0 to ha"e his head o"ered /to &e !ith o"eredhead0.

3uam fuit in&eillus . afriani filius 3uam tenui aut nulla potius "aletudine / id.?0 ho! !ea) !as the son of $frianus of !hat fee&le health or rather none at all*

$&lati"e of rie

SECTION: #=46. The prie of a thing is put in the $&lati"e:

agrum "endidit sestertium se% mili&us he sold the land for 6;;; sesteres.

$ntonius regna addi%it peunia /hil. 5.4?0 $ntony sold thrones for money.

logos ridiulos: 3uis ena posit /l. Stih. 2240 ,o)es: !ho !ants them for /at theprie of0 a dinner

magno illi ea untatio stetit /i". 2.60 that hesitation ost him dear.

NOTE.((To this head is to &e referred the $&lati"e of the enalty /Set: ?. 40.

SECTION: #=45. Certain ad,eti"es of 3uantity are used in the 1eniti"e to denoteindefinite "alue. Suh are magni par"i tanti 3uanti pluris minoris:

mea magni interest it is of great onse3uene to me.

illud par"i refert /@anil. 480 this is of small aount.

est mihi tanti /Cat. 2.4?0 it is !orth the prie /it is of so muh0.

<erresne ti&i tanti fuit /<err. 2.4.550 !as <erres of so muh aount to you

tantone minoris deumae "enierunt / id. .4;60 !ere the tithes sold for so muhless



ut te redimas aptum 3uam 3ueas minimo: si ne3ueas paululo at 3uanti 3ueas/Ter. Eun. 5=0 to ransom yourself !hen aptured at the heapest rate you an+ if you anAt for a small sum then at any rate for !hat you an.

NOTE.((These are really 1eniti"es of uality /Set: =?. &0.

The geniti"e of ertain olorless nouns is used to denote indefinite "alue. Suh arenihili / nili0 nothing+ assis a farthing /rare0+ floi /a lo) of !ool0 a stra!:

non floi faio+ / $tt. 4.?;0 I are not a stra!. DCollo3uial.F

utinam ego istu a&s te fatum nili penderem /Ter. Eun. 7=0 O that I arednothing for this &eing done &y you* DCollo3uial.F

-ith "er&s of e%hanging either the thing ta)en or the thing gi"en in e%hange may &e in the $&lati"e of rie. Suh are muto ommuto permuto "erto:

fidem suam et religionem peunia ommutare /Clu. 4270 to &arter his faith andonsiene for money.

e%silium patria sede muta"it /. C. .5.440 he e%hanged his nati"e land for e%ile/he too) e%ile in e%hange for his nati"e land0.

"elo% saepe uretilem mutat yaeo >aunus /or. Od. 4.45.40 nim&le >aunusoften hanges yKus for uretilis. De ta)es uretilis at the prie of yaeus i.e.he goes from yaeus to uretilis.F

"ertere funeri&us triumphos / id. 4.?.=0 to hange the triumph to the funeral train/e%hange triumphs for funerals0. Doetial.F

NOTE.((-ith "er&s of e%hanging um is often used perhaps !ith a differentoneption of the ation: as((aries ... um roeo muta&it "ellera luto /El. =.==0 the ram shall hange his fleee for Done dyed !ithF the yello! saffron.

-ith "er&s of &uying and selling the simple $&lati"e of rie must &e used e%eptin the ase of tanti 3uanti pluris minoris:

3uanti eam emit "ili ... 3uot minis 3uadraginta minis /l. Epid. ?40 !hat did he &uy her for Cheap. >or ho! many minK >orty.

$&lati"e of Speifiation

SECTION: #=48. The $&lati"e of Speifiation denotes that in respet to !hihanything is or is done:



"irtute praeedunt /'. 1. 4.40 they e%el in ourage.

laudus altero pede /Nep. $ges. 80 lame of one foot.

lingua haesitantes "oe a&soni+ /9e Or. 4.44?0 hesitating in speeh harsh in "oie.

sunt enim homines non re sed nomine /Off. 4.4;?0 for they are men not in fat &utin name.

maior natu older+ minor natu younger /f. Set: 44. 0.

paulum aetate progressi+ /Cat. @. 0 some!hat ad"aned in age.

orpore sene% esse poterit animo num3uam erit / id. 80 he may &e an old man in &ody he ne"er !ill &e DoldF at heart.

To this head are to &e referred many e%pressions !here the a&lati"e e%presses thatin aordane !ith !hih anything is or is done:

meo iure !ith perfet right+ &ut meo modo in my fashion.

mea sententia in my opinion+ &ut also more formally e% mea sententia. Dere thesense is the same &ut the first a&lati"e is speifiation the seond soure.F

propin3uitate oniuntos at3ue natura /ael. ?;0 losely allied &y )indred andnature. Dere the a&lati"e is not different in sense from those a&o"e &ut no dou&tis a de"elopment of means.F

3ui "init "iri&us / id. ??0 !ho surpasses in strength. Dere it is impossi&le to tell !hether "iri&us is the means of the superiority or that in respet to !hih one issuperior.F

NOTE.(($s the Bomans had no suh ategories as !e ma)e it is impossi&le tolassify all uses of the a&lati"e. The a&lati"e of speifiation /originallyinstrumental0 is losely a)in to that of manner and sho!s some resem&lane tomeans and ause.

>or the Supine in (u as an $&lati"e of Speifiation see Set: ?4;.

The ad,eti"es dignus and indignus ta)e the a&lati"e:

"ir patre a"o maiori&us suis dignissimus /hil. .2?0 a man most !orthy of hisfather grandfather and anestors.

te omni honore indignissimum iudia"it /<at. 70 he ,udged you entirelyun!orthy of e"ery honor.



NOTE 4.((So the "er& dignor in poetry and later prose: as(( haud e3uidem tali medignor honore /$en. 4.?0 I do not deem myself !orthy of suh an honor.

NOTE 2.(( 9ignus and indignus sometimes ta)e the geniti"e in ollo3uial usageand in poetry:

uram dignissimam tuae "irtutis / 'al&us in $tt. 8.4?0 are most !orthy of yourno&le harater.

dignus salutis /laut. Trin. 44?0 !orthy of safety.

magnorum haud um3uam indignus a"orum /$en. 42.6=70 ne"er un!orthy of mygreat anestors.

$&lati"e .$&solute

SECTION: #=47. $ noun or pronoun !ith a partiiple in agreement may &e put inthe $&lati"e to define the time or irumstanes of an ation. This onstrution isalled the $&lati"e $&solute:

Caesar aeptis litteris nuntium mittit /'. 1. ?.=60 ha"ing reei"ed the letterCaesar sends a messenger /the letter ha"ing &een reei"ed0.

3ui&us re&us ognitis Caesar apud milites ontionatur /'. C. 4.50 ha"ing learnedthis Caesar ma)es a speeh to the soldiers.

fugato omni e3uitatu /'. 1. 5.680 all the a"alry &eing put to flight.

interfeto Indutiomaro / id. 6.20 upon the death of Indutiomarus.

nondum hieme onfeta in finis Ner"iorum ontendit / id. 6.0 though the !inter !as not yet o"er he hastened into the territory of the Ner"ii.

ompressi D suntF onatus nullo tumultu pu&lie onitato /Cat. 4.440 the attempts !ere put do!n !ithout e%iting any general alarm.

ne "o&is 3uidem omni&us re etiam tum pro&ata / id. 2.=0 sine at that time thefats !ere not yet pro"ed e"en to all of you.

NOTE.((The a&lati"e a&solute is an ad"er&ial modifier of the prediate. It isho!e"er not grammatially dependent on any !ord in the sentene: hene itsname a&solute / a&solutus i.e. free or unonneted0. $ su&stanti"e in the a&lati"ea&solute "ery seldom denotes a person or thing else!here mentioned in the samelause.



$n ad,eti"e or a seond noun may ta)e the plae of the partiiple in the $&lati"e $&solute onstrution:

e%igua parte aestatis reli3ua /'. 1. =.2;0 !hen &ut a small part of the summer !asleft /a small part of the summer remaining0.

. 9omitio $p. Claudio onsuli&us / id. ?.40 in the onsulship of uius 9omitiusand $ppius Claudius / uius 9omitius and $ppius Claudius D&eingF onsuls0. DTheregular !ay of e%pressing a date see Set: =2=. g.F

nil desperandum Teuro due et auspie Teuro /or. Od. 4.5.250 there should &eno despair under TeuerAs leadership and auspies / Teuer &eing leader et.0.

$ phrase or lause used su&stanti"ely sometimes ours as a&lati"e a&solute !itha partiiple or an ad,eti"e:

inerto 3uid peterent /i". 28.60 as it !as unertain !hat they should aim at /it &eing unertain et.0.

omperto "anum esse formidinem /Ta. $nn. 4.660 !hen it !as found that thealarm !as groundless.

ur praetereatur demonstrato /In". 2.=0 !hen the reason for omitting it has &eene%plained /!hy it is passed &y &eing e%plained0.

NOTE.((This onstrution is "ery rare e%ept in later atin.

$ partiiple or an ad,eti"e is sometimes used ad"er&ially in the a&lati"e a&solute !ithout a su&stanti"e:

onsulto /Off. 4.250 on purpose /the matter ha"ing &een deli&erated on0.

mihi optato "eneris /$tt. 4.28.0 you !ill ome in aordane !ith my !ish.

sereno /i". 4.420 under a lear s)y /it D&eingF lear0.

ne auspiato ne litato / id. ?.80 !ith no auspies or fa"ora&le sarifie.

tran3uillo ut aiunt 3uili&et gu&ernator est /Sen. Ep. 8?.=0 in good !eather asthey say any manAs a pilot.

SECTION: #=2;. The $&lati"e $&solute often ta)es the plae of a Su& ordinateClause.

Thus it may replae:



4. $ Temporal Clause /Set: ?=4 ff.0:

patre interfeto DhisF father ha"ing &een )illed. DThis orresponds to um paterinterfetus esset !hen his father had &een )illed.F

reenti&us seleris eiius "estigiis /. C. 5.4.40 !hile the traes of the rime !erefresh. DCf. dum reentia sunt "estigia.F

2. $ Causal Clause /Set: ?=;0:

at ei 3ui $lesiae o&side&antur praeterita die 3ua au%ilia suorum e%speta"erantonsumpto omni frumento onilio oato onsulta&ant /'. 1. 5.550 &ut those !ho !ere under siege at $lesia sine the time et. had e%pired and their grainhad &een e%hausted alling a ounil /see&elo!0 onsulted together. DCf. um diespraeterisset et.F

9areus desperata pae ad reparandas "iris intendit animum /. C. =.6.40 9ariussine he despaired of peae de"oted his energies to reruiting his fores. DCf. umpaem desperaret.F

. $ Conessi"e Clause /Set: ?250:

at eo repugnante fie&at / onsul0 immo "ero eo fie&at magis /@il. =0 &ut thoughhe / Clodius0 opposed he / @ilo0 !as li)ely to &e eleted onsul+ nay rather et.

turri&us e%itatis tamen has altitudo puppium e% &ar&aris na"i&us supera&at /'. 1..4=0 although to!ers had &een &uilt up still the high sterns of the enemyAs shipsrose a&o"e them.

=. $ Conditional Clause /Set: ?240:

ourre&at ei manam et de&ilem praeturam futuram suam onsule @ilone /@il.2?0 it ourred to him that his prKtorship !ould &e maimed and fee&le if @ilo !ere onsul. D si @ilo onsul esset.F

3ua / regione0 su&ata lie&it deurrere in illud mare /. C. 7..40 if this region issu&dued !e shall &e free to run do!n into that sea.

3ua 3uidem detrata /$rh. 280 if this &e ta)en a!ay.

?. $ Clause of $ompanying Cirumstane:

ego hae a Chrysogono mea sponte remoto Se%. Bosio 3uaero+ / Bos. $m. 4;0of my o!n aord !ithout referene to Se%tus Bosius / Se%tus Bosius &eing putaside0 I as) these 3uestions of Chrysogonus.



ne imperante ne siente ne praesente domino /@il. 270 !ithout their masterAsgi"ing orders or )no!ing it or &eing present.

NOTE.(($s the English Nominati"e $&solute is far less ommon than the $&lati"e $&solute in atin a hange of form is generally re3uired in translation. Thus the

present partiiple is oftenest to &e rendered in English &y a relati"e lause !ith !hen or !hile+ and the perfet passi"e partiiple &y the perfet ati"e partiiple.These hanges may &e seen in the follo!ing e%ample:

$t illi intermisso spatio imprudenti&us nostris at3ue oupatis in munitioneastrorum su&ito se e% sil"is eieerunt+ impetu 3ue in eos fato 3ui erant instatione pro astris onloati ariter pugna"erunt+ dua&us3ue missis su&sidioohorti&us a Caesare um hae / pere%iguo intermisso loe Q spatio inter se0onstitissent no"o genere pugnae perterritis nostris per medios audaissimeperruperunt se3ue inde inolumis reeperunt.(( C$ES$B '. 1. ?.4?.

'ut they ha"ing paused a spae !hile our men !ere una!are and &usied infortifying the amp suddenly thre! themsel"es out of the !oods+ then ma)ing anatta) upon those !ho !ere on guard in front of the amp they fought fierely+and though t!o ohorts had &een sent &y Caesar as reinforements after these hadta)en their position /lea"ing "ery little spae of ground &et!een them0 as our men !ere alarmed &y the strange )ind of fighting they dashed most daringly throughthe midst of them and got off safe.

>or the $&lati"e !ith repositions see Set: 22;.

4 These are a&utor deutor /"ery rare0 defungor defruor perfruor perfungor.

2 This onstrution is properly an instrumental one in !hih opus and usus mean !or) and ser"ie and the a&lati"e e%presses that !ith !hih the !or) is performedor the ser"ie rendered. The noun usus follo!s the analogy of the "er& utor and thea&lati"e !ith opus est appears to &e an e%tension of that !ith usus est.

In this phrase the is not the definite artile &ut a pronominal ad"er& &eing the $nglo( Sa%on thy the instrumental ase of the pronoun thaet that. This pronoun isused &oth as relati"e /&y !hih &y ho! muh0 and as demonstrati"e /&y that &y somuh0. Thus the ... the orresponds e%atly to 3uo ... eo.

= It !as originally instrumental and appears to ha"e de"eloped from

aompaniment /Set: =40 and manner /Set: =420.

? The $&lati"e $&solute is perhaps of instrumental origin. It is ho!e"ersometimes e%plained as an outgro!th of the loati"e and in any e"ent ertainloati"e onstrutions /of plae and time0 must ha"e ontri&uted to itsde"elopment.



dies ontinuos triginta for thirty days together.

um triduum iter feisset /'. 1. 2.460 !hen he had marhed three days.

NOTE.((The $&lati"e of Time is loati"e in its origin /Set: =240+ the $usati"e is

the same as that of the e%tent of spae /Set: =2?0.

SECTION: #=2=. Speial onstrutions of time are the follo!ing:

The $&lati"e of time !ithin !hih sometimes ta)es in and the $usati"e of timeho! long per for greater preision:

in die&us pro%imis deem /Iug. 280 !ithin the ne%t ten days.

ludi per deem dies /Cat. .2;0 games for ten days.

9uration of time is oasionally e%pressed &y the $&lati"e:

milites 3uin3ue horis proelium sustinuerant /'. C. 4.=50 the men had sustainedthe fight fi"e hours.

NOTE.((In this use the period of time is regarded as that !ithin !hih the at isdone and it is only implied that the at lasted through the period. Cf. inter annos3uattuordeim / '. 1. 4.60 for fourteen years.

Time during !hih or !ithin !hih may &e e%pressed &y the $usati"e or $&lati"eof a noun in the singular !ith an ordinal numeral:

3uinto die !ithin D,ustF four days /lit. on the fifth day0. DThe Bomans ounted &othends see Set: 64. d.F

regnat iam se%tum annum he has reigned going on si% years.

@any e%pressions ha"e in atin the onstrution of time !hen !here in English themain idea is rather of plae:

pugna Cannensi+ /or apud Cannas0 in the fight at CannK

ludis Bomanis at the Boman games.

omni&us 1alliis &ellis in all the 1alli !ars.

In many idiomati e%pressions of time the $usati"e !ith ad in or su& is used.Suh are the follo!ing:



SECTION: #=2?. E%tent of Spae is e%pressed &y the $usati"e:

fossas 3uindeim pedes latas /'. 1. 5.520 trenhes fifteen feet &road.

progressus milia passuum iriter duodeim / id. ?.70 ha"ing ad"aned a&outt!el"e miles.

in omni "ita sua 3uem3ue a reta onsientia trans"ersum unguem non oportetdisedere /3uoted in $tt. 4.2;0 in all oneAs life one should not depart a nailAs &readth from straightfor!ard onsiene.

NOTE.((This $usati"e denotes the o&,et through or o"er !hih the ation ta)esplae and is )indred !ith the $usati"e of the End of @otion /Set: =25. 20.

@easure is often e%pressed &y the 1eniti"e of uality /Set: =?. &0:

"allum duodeim pedum /'. 1. 5.520 a rampart of t!el"e feet /in height0.

9istane !hen onsidered as e%tent of spae is put in the $usati"e+ !henonsidered as degree of differene in the $&lati"e /Set: =4=0:

milia passuum tria a& eorum astris astra ponit /'. 1. 4.220 he pithes his ampthree miles from their amp.

3uin3ue dierum iter a&est /i". ;.270 it is distant fi"e daysA marh.

triginta mili&us passuum infra eum loum /'. 1. 6.?0 thirty miles &elo! thatplae /&elo! &y thirty miles0.

Belations of lae

SECTION: #=26. Belations of laeare e%pressed as follo!s:

4. The plae from !hih &y the $&lati"e !ith a& de or e%.

2. The plae to !hih /or end of motion0 &y the $usati"e !ith U

Jd or in.

. The plae !here &y the $&lati"e !ith in /oati"e $&lati"e0.

E%amples are:



4. lae from !hih:

a septentrione from the north.

um a "o&is disessero+ /Cat. @. 570 !hen I lea"e you.

de pro"inia deedere to ome a!ay from oneAs pro"ine.

de monte do!n from the mountain.

negotiator e% afria /<err. 2.4.4=0 a merhant from $fria.

e% 'ritannia o&sides miserunt /'. 1. =.80 they sent hostages from 'ritain.

@osa profluit e% monte <osego+ / id. =.4;0 the @euse /flo!s from0 rises in the <osges mountains.

2. lae to !hih /end of motion0:

note ad Ner"ios per"enerunt /'. 1. 2.450 they ame &y night to the Ner"ii.

adi&am ad istum fundum /Cae. 820 I !as going to that estate.

in afriam na"iga"it he sailed to $fria+ in Italiam profetus gone to Italy.

legatum in Tre"eros mittit /'. 1. .440 he sends his lieutenant into the Dountry oftheF Tre"eri.

. lae !here:

in ha ur&e "itam degit he passed his life in this ity.

si in 1allia remanerent /'. 1. =.80 if they remained in 1aul.

dum hae in <enetis geruntur / id. .450 !hile this !as going on among the <eneti.

oppidum in insula positum / id. 5.?80 a to!n situated on an island.

SECTION: #=25. -ith names of to!ns and small islands and !ith domus and rusthe Belations of lae are e%pressed as follo!s:

4. The plae from !hih &y the $&lati"e !ithout a preposition.

2. The plae to !hih &y the $usati"e !ithout a preposition.



. The plae !here &y the oati"e.

E%amples are:

4. lae from !hih:

Boma profetus ha"ing set out from Bome+ Boma a&esse to &e a&sent from Bome.

domo a&ire to lea"e home+ r Qre re"ersus ha"ing returned from the ountry.

2. lae to !hih:

um Bomam se%to die @utina "enisset />am. 44.6.40 !hen he had ome to Bomefrom @odena in fi"e days /on the si%th day0.

9elo Bhodum na"igare to sail from 9elos to Bhodes.

rus i&o I shall go into the ountry.

domum iit he !ent home.DSo suas domos a&ire to go to their homes.F

. lae !here /or at !hih0:

Bomae at Bome / Boma0. $thenis at $thens / $thenae0.

Bhodi at Bhodes / Bhodus0. anu"i at anu"ium.

Sami at Samos. Cypri at Cyprus.

Ti&uri or Ti&ure at Ti&ur. Curi&us at Cures.

hilippis at hilippi. Capreis at Capri / Capreae0.

domi /rarely domui0 at home. ruri in the ountry.

The oati"e Case is also preser"ed in the follo!ing nouns !hih are used /li)enames of to!ns0 !ithout a preposition:

&elli militiae /in ontrast to domi0 a&road in military ser"ie.

humi on the ground. "esperi /(e0 in the e"ening.

foris out of doors. animi /see Set: ?80.

heri /(e0 yesterday. temperi &etimes.



Cf. infelii ar&ori+ / i". 4.260 on the ill(omened /&arren0 tree+ terra mari3ue &yland and sea.

SECTION: #=28. Speial uses of plae from !hih to !hih and !here are thefollo!ing:

-ith names of to!ns and small islands a& is often used to denote from the "iinityof and ad to denote to!ards to the neigh&orhood of:

ut a @utina disederet /hil. 4=.=0 that he should retire from @odena /!hih he !as &esieging0.

erat a 1ergo"ia despetus in astra /'. 1. 5.=?0 there !as from a&out 1ergo"ia a "ie! into the amp.

ad $lesiam profiisuntur / id. 5.560 they set out for $lesia.

ad $lesiam per"eniunt / id. 5.570 they arri"e at $lesia /i.e. in the neigh&orhood ofthe to!n0.

9. aelius um lasse ad 'rundisium "enit /'. C. .4;;0 9eimus Klius ame to'rundisium !ith a fleet /arri"ing in the har&or0.

The general !ords ur&s oppidum insula re3uire a preposition to e%press the plaefrom !hih to !hih or !here:

a& / e%0 ur&e from the ity. in ur&e in the ity.

ad ur&em to the ity. Bomae in ur&e in the ity of Bome.

in ur&em into the ity. Boma e% ur&e from the ity of Bome.

ad ur&em Bomam / Bomam ad ur&em0 to the ity of Bome.

-ith the name of a ountry ad denotes to the &orders+ in !ith the ausati"e intothe ountry itself. Similarly a& denotes a!ay from the outside+ e% out of theinterior.

Thus ad Italiam per"enit !ould mean he ame to the frontier regardless of thedestination+ in Italiam he !ent to Italy i.e. to a plae !ithin it to Bome forinstane.

So a& I talia profetus est !ould mean he ame a!ay from the frontier regardlessof the original starting(point+ e% I talia he ame from Italy from !ithin as fromBome for instane.



-ith all names of plaes at meaning near /not in0 is e%pressed &y ad or apud !iththe ausati"e.

pugna ad Cannas the fight at Cannae.

onhas ad Caietam legunt /9e Or. 2.220 at Caieta /along the shore0.ad / apud0 inferos in the !orld &elo! /near or among those &elo!0.

ad foris at the doors. ad ianuam at the door.

NOTE 4.((In the neigh&orhood of may &e e%pressed &y ira !ith the ausati"e+among &y apud !ith the ausati"e:

apud 1raeos among the 1ree)s. apud me at my house.

apud Solensis /eg. 2.=40 at Soli. ira Capuam round a&out Capua.

N OTE 2.((In iting an author apud is regularly used+ in iting a partiular !or)in. Thus(( apud [enophontem in [enophon+ &ut in [enophontis Oeonomio in[enophonAs Aonomius

arge islands and all plaes !hen thought of as a territory and not as a loality aretreated li)e names of ountries:

in Siilia in Siily.

in Ithaa lepores illati moriuntur /lin. . N. 8.2260 in Ithaa hares !hen arriedthere die. Dlysses li"ed at Ithaa !ould re3uire Ithaae.F

The $&lati"e !ithout a preposition is used to denote the plae from !hih inertain idiomati e%pressions:

essisset patria /@il. 680 he !ould ha"e left his ountry.

patria pellere to dri"e out of the ountry.

manu mittere to emanipate /let go from the hand0.

The poets and later !riters often omit the preposition !ith the plae from !hih orto !hih !hen it !ould &e re3uired in lassial prose:

manis $heronte remissos /$en. ?.770 the spirits returned from $heron.

Sythia profeti+ /. C. =.42.440 setting out from Sythia.



Italiam ... a"inia3ue "enit litora /$en. 4.20 he ame to Italy and the a"inianshores.

terram esperiam "enies / id. 2.584 you shall ome to the esperian land.

$egyptum profiisitur /Ta. $nn. 2.?70 he sets out for Egypt.In poetry the plae to !hih is often e%pressed &y the 9ati"e oasionally also inlater prose:

it lamor aelo /$en. ?.=?40 a shout goes up to the s)y.

failis desensus $"erno / id. 6.4260 easy is the desent to $"ernus.

diadema apiti reponere iussit /<al. @a%. ?.4.70 he ordered him to put &a) thediadem on his head.

The preposition is not used !ith the supine in (um /Set: ?;70 and in the follo!ingold phrases:

e%se3uias ire to go to the funeral. infitias ire to resort to denial.

pessum ire to go to ruin. pessum dare to ruin /f. perdo0.

"enum dare to sell /gi"e to sale0. Dene "endere.F

"enum ire to &e sold /go to sale0. Dene "enire.F

foras /used as ad"er&0 out: as(( foras egredi to go out of doors.

suppetias ad"enire to ome to oneAs assistane.

-hen t!o or more names of plae are used !ith a "er& of motion eah must &eunder its o!n onstrution:

3uadriduo 3uo hae gesta sunt res ad Chrysogonum in astra . Sullae <ola terrasdefertur /Bos. $m. 2;0 !ithin four days after this !as doneth matter !asreported TO Chrysogonus IN SullaAs amp $T <olaterrK.

NOTE.((The ausati"e !ith or !ithout a preposition is often used in atin !henmotion to a plae is implied &ut not e%pressed in English /see ) N.0.

9omum denoting the plae to !hih and the loati"e domi may &e modified &y apossessi"e pronoun or a geniti"e:

domum regis /9eiot. 450 to the )ingAs house. D'ut also in @. aeae domum /Cat.4.80 to @arus KaAs house.F



domi meae at my house+ domi Caesaris at CaesarAs house.

domi suae "el alienae at his o!n or anotherAs house.

NOTE.(($t times !hen thus modified and regularly !hen other!ise modified in

domum or in domo is used:in domum pri"atam on"eniunt / Ta. . =.??0 they ome to gether in a pri"atehouse.

in @ari Crassi astissima domo /Cael. 70 in the haste home of @arus Crassus.DCf. e% $nniana @ilonis domo Set: ;2. e.F

SECTION: #=27. The plae !here is denoted &y the $&lati"e !ithout a prepositionin the follo!ing instanes:

4. Often in indefinite !ords suh as loo parte et.:

3ui&us loo positiU

J /9e Or. .4?0 !hen these are set in position.

3ua parte &elli "ierant /i". 24.220 the &ranh of !arfare in !hih they !ere "itorious.

lois ertis horrea onstituit /'. C. .20 he esta&lished granaries in partiularplaes.

2. >re3uently !ith nouns !hih are 3ualified &y ad,eti"es /regularly !hen totus isused0:

media ur&e /i". 4.0 in the middle of the ity.

tota Siilia /<err. =.?40 throughout Siily /in the !hole of Siily0.

tota Tarraina /9e Or. 2.2=;0 in all Tarraina.

unta $sia at3ue 1raeia /@anil. 420 throughout the !hole of $sia and 1reeetoo.

. In many idiomati e%pressions !hih ha"e lost the idea of plae:

pendemus animis /Tus. 4.760 !e are in suspense of mind /in our minds0.



soius periulis "o&isum adero+ /Iug. 8?.=50 I !ill &e present !ith you aompanion in dangers.

=. >reely in poetry:

litore ur"o+ / $en. .460 on the !inding shore.antro selusa relin3uit / id. .==60 she lea"es them shut up in the a"e.

Epiro esperia / id. .?;0 in Epirus in esperia.

premit altum orde dolorem / id. 4.2;70 he )eeps do!n the pain deep in his heart.

The !ay &y !hih is put in the $&lati"e !ithout a preposition:

"ia &re"iore e3uites praemisi+ / >am. 4;.70 I sent for!ard the a"alry &y a shorterroad.

$egaeo mari traieit /i". 5.4=0 he rossed &y !ay of the $egean Sea.

pro"ehimur pelago /$en. .?;60 !e sail forth o"er the sea.

NOTE.((In this use the !ay &y !hih is onei"ed as the means of passage.

osition is fre3uently e%pressed &y the $&lati"e !ith a& /rarely e%0 properlymeaning from:

a tergo in the rear+ a sinistra on the left hand. DCf. hin on this side.F

a parte ompeiiana on the side of ompey.

e% altera parte on the other side.

magna e% parte in a great degree /from i.e. in a great part0.

SECTION: #=;. <er&s of plaing though implying motion ta)e the onstrutionof the plae !here:

Suh are pono loo olloo statuo onstituo et.:

3ui in sede a domo olloa"it /ar. 2?0 !ho put DoneF into his plae and home.

statuitur e3ues Bomanus in $proni on"i"io /<err. .620 a Boman )night is &rought into a &an3uet of $pronius.



insula 9elos in $egaeo mari posita /@anil. ??0 the island of 9elos situated in theY gean Sea.

si in uno ompeiio omnia poneretis / id. ?70 if you made e"erything depend onompey alone.

NOTE.((Compounds of pono ta)e "arious onstrutions /see the e%ion undereah !ord0.

SECTION: #=4. Se"eral "er&s are follo!ed &y the $&lati"e.

These are a3uieso deletor laetor gaudeo glorior nitor sto maneo fidoonfido onsisto ontineor.

nomini&us "eterum gloriantur /Or. 4670 they glory in the names of the anients.D$lso de di"itiis /in "irtute ira rem ali3uid hae0 gloriari.F

spe niti+ / $tt. .70 to rely on hope.

prudentia fidens /Off. 4.840 trusting in prudene.

NOTE.((The a&lati"e !ith these "er&s sometimes ta)es the preposition in /&ut fidoin is late0 and the a&lati"e !ith them is pro&a&ly loati"e. Thus((in 3ui&us ausanititur /Cael. 2?0 on !hom the ase depends.

-ith se"eral of these "er&s the neuter $usati"e of pronouns is often found. >orfido and onfido !ith the 9ati"e see Set: 65.

The "er&als fretus ontentus and laetus ta)e the oati"e $&lati"e:

fretus gratia 'ruti+ / $tt. ?.24.420 relying on the fa"or of 'rutus.

laetus praeda re,oiing in the &ooty.

ontentus sorte ontent !ith his lot. Dossi&ly $&lati"e of Cause.F

non fuit ontentus gloria /9om. 4;40 he !as not ontent !ith the glory.

NOTE.((So intentus rarely: as(( ali3uo negotio intentus / Sall. Cat. 20 intent onsome oupation.

.SECI$ SES O> .BEOSITIONS



pro%imus a postremo /Or. 2450 ne%t to the last.

\s3ue sometimes ta)es the $usati"e &ut us3ue ad is muh more ommon:

terminos us3ue i&yae /Iust. 4.4.?0 to the &ounds of i&ya.

us3ue ad astra hostium /'. 1. 4.?40 to the enemyAs amp.

The ad"er&s palam proul simul may &e used as prepositions and ta)e the $&lati"e:

rem reditori palam populo sol"it /i". 6.4=0 he paid the de&t to his reditor in thepresene of the people.

haud proul astris in modum muniipi e%struta /Ta. . =.220 not far from theamp &uilt up li)e a to!n.

simul no&is ha&itat &ar&arus /O". Tr. ?.4;.270 lose among us d!ells the &ar&arian.

NOTE.(('ut simul regularly ta)es um+ proul is usually follo!ed &y a& in lassi !riters+ and the use of palam as a preposition is omparati"ely late.

The ad"er& lam is found in early atin !ith the $usati"e also one !ith the1eniti"e and one in lassial atin !ith the $&lati"e:

lam matrem suam /l. @il. 4420 un)no!n to his mother.

lam patris / id. @er. =0 !ithout his fatherAs )no!ledge.

lam "o&is / '. C. 2.2.80 !ithout your )no!ledge.

SECTION: #=. repositions often retain their original meaning as $d"er&s:

4. $nte and post in relations of time:

3uos paulo ante di%imus /'rut. 20 !hom I mentioned a little !hile ago.

post tri&us die&us three days after /f. Set: =2=. f0.

2. $d"ersus iriter prope:

nemo ad"ersus i&at /i". 5.4.80 no one !ent out in opposition.

iriter pars 3uarta / Sall. Cat. ?60 a&out the fourth part.



prope e%animatus nearly lifeless.

. a or a& off in e%pressions of distane !ith the $&lati"e of 9egree of 9ifferene/Set: =4=0:

a mili&us passuum iriter duo&us Bomanorum ad"entum e%speta&ant /'. 1.?.20 at a distane of a&out t!o miles /a&out t!o miles off0 they a!aited theapproah of the Bomans.

=. In general prepositions ending in (a:

$eolus hae ontra /$en. 4.560 thus $eolus in reply.

forte fuit iu%ta tumulus / id. .220 there happened to &e a mound lose &y.

SECTION: #==. Some repositions and $d"er&s !hih imply omparison arefollo!ed li)e omparati"es &y 3uam !hih may &e separated &y se"eral !ords ore"en lauses.

Suh !ords are ante prius post postea pridie postridie+ also magis and prae inompounds:

ne3ue ante dimisit eum 3uam fidem dedit /i". 7.4;0 nor did he let him go untilhe ga"e a pledge.

post diem tertium 3uam di%erat /@il. ==0 the third day after he said it.

Cato ipse iam ser"ire 3uam pugnare ma"ult /$tt. 5.4?0 Cato himself &y this timehad rather &e a sla"e than fight.

1allorum 3uam Bomanorum imperia praeferre /'. 1. 4.450 DtheyF prefer the ruleof 1auls to that of Bomans.

NOTE.((The a&lati"e of time is sometimes follo!ed &y 3uam in the same !ay /Set:=2=. f0: as((ota"o mense 3uam /i". 24.4?0 !ithin eight months after et.

SECTION: #=?. The follo!ing repositions sometimes ome after their nouns: aditra irum ontra de e / e%0 inter iu%ta penes propter ultra+ so regularlytenus and "ersus and oasionally others:

D ususF 3uem penes ar&itrium est et ius et norma lo3uendi+ / or. $. . 520 ustomunder !hose ontrol is the hoie right and rule of speeh.



uius a me orpus est rematum 3uod ontra deuit a& illo meum /Cat. @. 8=0 !hose &ody I &urned Don the funeral pileF !hile on the ontrary /ontrary to !hih0 mine should ha"e &een &urned &y him.

SNT$[ O> TE .<EB'

.@OO9S $N9 .TENSES

SECTION: #=6. The Synta% of the <er& relates hiefly to the use of the @oods/!hih e%press the manner in !hih the ation is onei"ed0 and the Tenses /!hihe%press the time of the ation0. There is no differene in origin &et!een mood andtense+ and hene the uses of mood and tense fre3uently ross eah other. Thus thetenses sometimes ha"e modal signifiations /ompare indiati"e in apodosis Set:

?45. + future for imperati"e Set: ==7. &0+ and the moods sometimes e%press time/ompare su&,unti"e in future onditions Set: ?46. & and notie the !ant of afuture su&,unti"e0.

The parent language had &esides the Imperati"e mood t!o or more forms !ithmodal signifiation. Of these the Su&,unti"e appears !ith t!o sets ofterminations (a(m (a(s in the present tense / moneam diam0 and (e(m ( e(s inthe present / amem0 or other tenses / essem di%issem0. The Optati"e !as formed &y ie( i( !ith the present stem /sim duim0 or the perfet / di%erim0. /See details inSet: Set: 468 467.0

Eah mood has t!o general lasses or ranges of meaning. The uses of theSu&,unti"e may all &e lassed under the general ideas of !ill or desire and ofation "i"idly onei"ed+ and the uses of the Optati"e under the general ideas of !ish and of ation "aguely onei"ed.

It must not &e supposed ho!e"er that in any gi"en onstrution either thesu&,unti"e or the optati"e !as deli&erately used &eause it denoted oneption orpossi&ility. On the ontrary eah onstrution has had its o!n line of de"elopmentfrom more tangi&le and literal forms of thought to more "ague and ideal+ and &ythis proess the mood used ame to ha"e in eah ase a speial meaning !hih !asafter!ards ha&itually assoiated !ith it in that onstrution. Similar de"elopmentsha"e ta)en plae in English. Thus the e%pression I !ould do this has &eome

e3ui"alent to a mild ommand !hile &y analysis it is seen to &e the apodosis of apresent ondition ontrary to fat /Set: ?450: if I !ere you et. 'y further analysisI !ould do is seen to ha"e meant originally I should ha"e !ished /or I did !ish0 todo.

In atin the original Su&,unti"e and the Optati"e &eame onfounded in meaningand in form and !ere merged in the Su&,unti"e at first in the present tense. Thenne! tense(forms of the su&,unti"e !ere formedand to these the original as !ell as



the deri"ed meanings of &oth moods &eame attahed /see Set: =80. $ll theindependent uses of the atin su&,unti"e are thus to &e aounted for.

The dependent uses of the su&,unti"e ha"e arisen from the employment of someindependent su&,unti"e onstrution in onnetion !ith a main statement. @ost

fre3uently the main statement is prefi%ed to a sentene ontaining a su&,unti"e asa more omplete e%pression of a omple% idea /Set: 2680. Thus a 3uestionimplying a general negati"e / 3uin rogem !hy should nAt I as)0 might ha"e thegeneral negati"e e%pressed in a prefi%ed statement / nulla ausa est there is noreason0+ or a&eat let him go a!ay may &e e%panded into sine a&eat. -hen suh aom&ination omes into ha&itual use the original meaning of the su&,unti"epartially or !holly disappears and a ne! meaning arises &y impliation. Thus inmisit legatos 3ui dierent he sent am&assadors to say /i.e. !ho should say0 theoriginal hortatory sense of the su&,unti"e is partially lost and the mood &eomesin part an e%pression of purpose. Similar proesses may &e seen in the gro!th of $podosis. Thus tolle han opinionem lutum sustuleris remo"e this notion you !ill ha"e done a!ay !ith grief /i.e. if you remo"e et.0.

The Infiniti"e is originally a "er&al noun /Set: =?40 modifying a "er& li)e othernouns: "olo "idere lit. KI !ish for(seeingM: ompare English K!hat !ent ye outfor to seeK'ut in atin it has &een surprisingly de"eloped so as to ha"e forms fortense and some proper modal harateristis and to &e used as a su&stitute forfinite moods.

The other noun and ad,eti"e forms of the "er& ha"e &een de"eloped in "arious !ays !hih are treated under their respeti"e heads &elo!.

The proper <er&al Construtions may &e thus lassified:

I. Indiati"e: 9iret $ssertion or uestion /Set: =50.

II. Su&,unti"e: a. Independent ses: 4. E%hortation or Command /Set: =70.

2. Conession /Set: ==;0.

. -ish /Set: ==40.

=. uestion of 9ou&t et. /Set: ===0.

?. ossi&ility or Contingeny /Set: ==60.

&. 9ependent ses: 4. Conditions >uture /less "i"id0 /Set: ?46. & 0. Contrary to>at /Set: ?450.

2. urpose /!ith ut ne0 /Set: ?40.

. Charateristi /Belati"e Clause0 /Set: ??0.



=. Besult /!ith ut ut non0 /Set: ?50.

?. Time /!ith um0 /Set: ?=60.

6. Intermediate /Indiret 9isourse0 /Set: ?720.

5. Indiret uestions or Commands /Set: ?5= ?880.

III. Imperati"e: 4. 9iret Commands /often Su&,unti"e0 /Set: ==80.

2. Statutes a!s and -ills /Set: ==7. 20.

. rohi&itions /early or poeti use0 /Set: =?;. a0.

I<. Infiniti"e: a. Su&,et of esse and Impersonal <er&s /Set: =?2 =?=0.

&. O&,eti"e Construtions: 4. Complementary Infiniti"e /Set: =?60.

2. Indiret 9isourse /!ith Su&,et $usati"e0 /Set: ?8;0.

. Idiomati ses: 4. urpose /poeti or 1ree) use0 /Set: =6;0.

2. E%lamation /!ith Su&,et $usati"e0 /Set: =620.

. istorial Infiniti"e /Set: =60.

@OO9S

>or the signifiation of the tense(endings see Set: 468 467.

SECTION: #=5. The Indiati"e is the mood of diret assertions or 3uestions !henthere is no modifiation of the "er&al idea e%ept that of time.

The Indiati"e is sometimes used !here the English idiom !ould suggest theSu&,unti"e:

longum est it !ould &e tedious Dif et.F+ satius erat it !ould ha"e &een &etter Difet.F+ perse3ui possum I might follo! up Din detailF.

NOTE.((Su&stitutes for the Indiati"e are /40 the istorial Infiniti"e /Set: =60and /20 the Infiniti"e in Indiret 9isourse /Set: ?8;0.

>or the Indiati"e in Conditions see Set: ?4? ?46+ for the Indiati"e in impliedCommands see Set: ==7. &.



4 >or the signifiation of the tense(endings see Set: 468 467.

.IN9IC$TI<E @OO9

SECTION: #=8. The Su&,unti"e in general e%presses the "er&al idea !ith somemodifiationsuh as is e%pressed in English &y au%iliaries &y the infiniti"e or &ythe rare su&,unti"e /Set: 4?5. &0.

The Su&,unti"e is used independently to e%press:pJ

4. $n E%hortation or Command /ortatory Su&,unti"e: Set: =70.

2. $ Conession /Conessi"e Su&,unti"e: Set: ==;0.

. $ -ish /Optati"e Su&,unti"e: Set: ==40.

=. $ uestion of 9ou&t et. /9eli&erati"e Su&,unti"e: Set: ===0.

?. $ ossi&ility or Contingeny /otential Su&,unti"e: Set: ==60.

>or the speial idiomati uses of the Su&,unti"e in $podosis see Set: ?4=.

The Su&,unti"e is used in dependent lauses to e%press:pJ

4. Condition: future or ontrary to fat /Set: ?46. & ?450.2. urpose />inal Set: ?40.

. Charateristi /Set: ??0.

=. Besult /Conseuti"e Set: ?50.

?. Time /Temporal Set: ?=60.

6. Indiret uestion /Set: ?5=0.

The Su&,unti"e is also used !ith Conditional artiles of Comparison /Set: ?2=0and in su&ordinate lauses in the Indiret 9isourse /Set: ?8;0.

.S'HNCTI<E IN IN9EEN9ENT SENTENCES



.ortatory Su&,unti"e

SECTION: #=7. The ortatory Su&,unti"e is used in the present tense to e%press

an e%hortation or a ommand. The negati"e is ne.hos latrones interfiiamus /'. 1. 5.80 let us )ill these ro&&ers.

a"eant intemperantiam meminerint "ereundiae /Off. 4.4220 let them shune%ess and herish modesty.

NOTE 4.((The hortatory su&,unti"e ours rarely in the perfet /e%ept inprohi&itions: Set: =?;0: as(( Epiurus ho "iderit /$ad. 2.470 let Epiurus loo)to this.

NOTE 2.((The term hortatory su&,unti"e is sometimes restrited to the firstperson plural the seond and third persons &eing designated as the ,ussi"esu&,unti"e+ &ut the onstrutions are su&stantially idential.

NOTE .((One in Ciero and oasionally in the poets and later !riters thenegati"e !ith the hortatory su&,unti"e is non: as((a legi&us non reedamus /Clu.4??0 let us not a&andon the la!s.

The Seond erson of the hortatory su&,unti"e is used only of an indefinitesu&,et e%ept in prohi&itions in early atin and in poetry:

iniurias fortunae 3uas ferre ne3ueas defugiendo relin3uas /Tus. ?.4480 the !rongs of fortune !hih you annot &ear lea"e &ehind &y flight.

e%oriare ali3uis ultor /$en. =.62?0 rise some a"enger.

isto &ono utare dum adsit um a&sit ne re3uiras /Cat. @. 0 use this &lessing !hile it is present+ !hen it is !anting do not regret it.

doeas iter et sara ostia pandas /$en. 6.4;70 sho! us the !ay and lay open thesared portals.

>or Negati"e Commands /prohi&itions0 see Set: =?;.

The Imperfet and luperfet of the hortatory su&,unti"e denote an unfulfilledo&ligation in past time:

moreretur in3uies /Ba&. ost. 270 he should ha"e died you !ill say.

potius doeret /Off. .880 he should rather ha"e taught.



ne poposisses /$tt. 2.4.0 you should not ha"e as)ed.

saltem ali3uid de pondere detra%isset />in. =.?50 at least he should ha"e ta)ensomething from the !eight.

NOTE 4.((In this onstrution the luperfet usually differs from the Imperfetonly in more learly representing the time for ation as momentary or as past.

NOTE 2.((This use of the su&,unti"e is arefully to &e distinguished from thepotential use /Set: ==60. The differene is indiated &y the translation should orought /not !ould or might0.

SECTION: #==;. The ortatory Su&,unti"e is used to e%press a onession.Theresent is used for present time the erfet for past. The negati"e is ne.

sit fur sit sarilegus: at est &onus imperator /<err. ?.=0 grant he is a thief agodless !reth: yet he is a good general.

fuerit aliis+ ti&i 3uando esse oepit /<err. 2.4.50 suppose he !as DsoF to others+ !hen did he &egin to &e to you

nemo is um3uam fuit: ne fuerit /Or. 4;40 there ne"er !as suh a one Dyou !illsayF: granted /let there not ha"e &een0.

ne sit summum malum dolor malum erte est /Tus. 2.4=0 granted that pain isnot the greatest e"il at least it is an e"il.

NOTE.((The onessi"e su&,unti"e !ith 3uam"is and liet is originally hortatory/ Set: ?25. a &0.

>or other methods of e%pressing Conession see Set: ?25.

>or the ortatory Su&,unti"e denoting a ro"iso see Set: ?28. a.

Optati"e Su&,unti"e

SECTION: #==4. The Optati"e Su&,unti"e is used to e%press a -ish. The presenttense denotes the !ish as possi&le the imperfet as unaomplished in presenttime the pluperfet as unaomplished in past time. The negati"e is ne:

ita "i"am /$tt. ?.4?0 as true as I li"e so may I li"e.

ne "i"am si sio+ / id. =.46.80 I !ish I may not li"e if I )no!.



di te perduint /9eiot. 240 the gods onfound thee*

"aleant "aleant i"es mei+ sint inolumes /@il. 70 fare!ell fare!ell to my fello!(itiGens+ may they &e seure from harm.

di faerent sine patre forem /O". @. 8.520 !ould that the gods allo!ed me to &e !ithout a father /&ut they do not0*

The perfet su&,unti"e in a !ish is arhai:

di fa%int />am. 4=..0 may the gods grant.

3uod di omen a"erterint / hil. 42.4= in a religious formula0 and may the godsa"ert this omen.

SECTION: #==2. The Optati"e Su&,unti"e is often preeded &y the partileutinam+ so regularly in the imperfet and pluperfet:

falsus utinam "ates sim /i". 24.4;.4;0 I !ish I may &e a false prophet.

utinam Clodius "i"eret /@il. 4;0 !ould that Clodius !ere no! ali"e.

utinam me mortuum "idisses /. >r. 4..40 !ould you had seen me dead.

utinam ne "ere sri&erem />am. ?.45.0 !ould that I !ere not !riting the truth.

NOTE.(( tinam non is oasionally used instead of utinam ne: as(( utinamsuseptus non essem /$tt. 7.7.0 !ould that I had not &een &orn.

In poetry and old atin uti or ut often introdues the optati"e su&,unti"e+ and inpoetry si or o si !ith the su&,unti"e sometimes e%presses a !ish:

ut pereat positum ro&igine telum /or. S. 2.4.=0 may the !eapon unused perish !ith rust.

o si angulus ille aedat / id. 2.6.80 O if that orner might only &e added*

si nun se no&is ille aureus ramus ostendat /$en. 6.4850 if no! that golden &ranh !ould only sho! itself to us*

NOTE 4.((The su&,unti"e !ith uti / ut0 or utinam !as originally deli&erati"emeaning ho! may I et. /Set: ===0. The su&,unti"e !ith si or o si is a protasis/Set: ?42. a0 the apodosis not &eing e%pressed.



3uid ho homine faias 3uod suppliium dignum li&idini eiius in"enias /<err.2.=;0 !hat are you to do !ith this man !hat fit penalty an you de"ise for his !antonness

an ego non "enirem /hil. 2.0 !hat should I not ha"e ome

3uid dierem /$tt. 6..70 !hat !as I to say

3uis enim ela"erit ignem /O". . 4?.50 !ho ould oneal the flame

NOTE.((The hortatory origin of some of these 3uestions is o&"ious. Thus(( 3uidfaiamusL faiamus D ali3uidF 3uid let us do((!hat /Compare the e%pandedform 3uid "is faiamus !hat do you !ish us to do0 One esta&lished it !asreadily transferred to the past: 3uid faiam !hat $@ I to do 3uid faerem !hat -$S I to do uestions implying impossi&ility ho!e"er annot &e distinguishedfrom $podosis /f. Set: ?450.

In many ases the 3uestion has &eome a mere e%lamation re,eting a suggestedpossi&ility:

mihi um3uam &onorum praesidium defuturum putarem /@il. 7=0 ould thin) thatthe defene of good men !ould e"er fail me*

NOTE.((The indiati"e is sometimes used in deli&erati"e 3uestions: as(( 3uid ago !hat am I to do

otential Su&,unti"e

SECTION: #==?. Of the t!o prinipal uses of the Su&,unti"e in independentsentenes /f. Set: =60 the seond or otential Su&,unti"eis found in a "arietyof sentene(forms ha"ing as their ommon element the fat that the moodrepresents the ation as merely onei"ed or possi&le not as desired /hortatoryoptati"e0 or real /indiati"e0. Some of these uses are "ery old and may go &a) tothe Indo(European parent speeh &ut no satisfatory onnetion &et!een theotential and the ortatory and Optati"e Su&,unti"e has &een traed. There is nosingle English e3ui"alent for the otential Su&,unti"e+ the mood must &erendered aording to irumstanes &y the au%iliaries !ould should may might

an ould.

SECTION: #==6. The otential Su&,unti"e is used to suggest an ation as possi&leor onei"a&le. The negati"e is non.



In this use the resent and the erfet refer !ithout distintion to the immediatefuture+ the Imperfet /oasionally the erfet0 to past time+ the luperfet /!hihis rare0 to !hat might ha"e happened.

SECTION: #==5. The otential Su&,unti"e has the follo!ing uses:

4. In autious or modest assertions in the first person singular of e%pressions ofsaying thin)ing or !ishing /present or perfet0:

pae tua di%erim /@il. 4;0 I !ould say &y your lea"e.

haud siam an /ael. ?40 I should inline to thin).

tu "elim si e%istimes />am. 42.60 I should li)e you to thin) so.

ertum affimare non ausim /i". .20 I should not dare to assert as sure.

NOTE.(( <ellem nollem or mallem e%pressing an unfulfilled !ish in present timemay &e lassed as independent potential su&,unti"e or as the apodosis of anune%pressed ondition /Set: ?240: as(( "ellem adesset @. $ntonius /hil. 4.460 Iould !ish $ntony !ere here.

2. In the indefinite seond person singular of "er&s of saying thin)ing and the li)e/present or imperfet0:

redas non de puero sriptum sed a puero+ /lin. Ep. =.5.50 you !ould thin) that it !as !ritten not a&out a &oy &ut &y a &oy.

rederes "itos /i". 2.=.70 you !ould ha"e thought them on3uered.

reos dieres / id. 2.?.?0 you !ould ha"e said they !ere ulprits.

"ideres susurros /or. S. 2.8.550 you might ha"e seen them !hispering /lit. !hispers0.

freto assimilare possis /O". @. ?.60 you might ompare it to a sea.

. -ith other "er&s in all persons !hen some !ord or phrase in the onte%timplies that the ation is e%pressed as merely possi&le or onei"a&le:

nil ego ontulerim iuundo sanus amio+ / or. S. 4.?.==0 !hen in my senses Ishould ompare nothing !ith an interesting friend.

fortunam itius reperias 3uam retineas /u&. Syr. 4680 you may sooner findfortune than )eep it.



ali3uis diat /Ter. $nd. 6=;0 some&ody may say.

NOTE.((In this use the su&,unti"e may &e regarded as the apodosis of anunde"eloped protasis. -hen the onditional idea &eomes learer it findse%pression in a formal protasis and a onditional sentene is de"eloped.

>orsitan perhaps regularly ta)es the otential Su&,unti"e e%ept in later atinand in poetry !here the Indiati"e is also ommon:

forsitan 3uaeratis 3ui iste terror sit /Bos. $m. ?0 you may perhaps in3uire !hatthis alarm is.

forsitan temere feerim / id. 40 perhaps I ha"e ated rashly.

NOTE.((The su&,unti"e lause !ith forsitan /L fors sit an0 !as originally anIndiret uestion: it !ould &e a hane !hether et.

>ortasse perhaps is regularly follo!ed &y the Indiati"e+ sometimes ho!e"er &ythe Su&,unti"e &ut hiefly in later atin:

3uaeres fortasse />am. 4?.=.40 perhaps you !ill as).

NOTE.((Other e%pressions for perhaps are /40 forsan /hiefly poetial+ onstrued !ith the indiati"e or the su&,unti"e more ommonly the indiati"e0 fors /rareand poetial+ onstrued !ith either the indiati"e or the su&,unti"e0. >orsit /or forssit0 ours one / or. S. 4.6.=70 and ta)es the su&,unti"e. >ortasse is sometimesfollo!ed &y the infiniti"e !ith su&,et ausati"e in lautus and Terene. >ortassis/rare+ onstrued li)e fortasse0 and fortasse an /"ery rare+ onstrued !ith thesu&,unti"e0 are also found.

4 These modifiations are of "arious )inds eah of !hih has had its o!n speialde"elopment /f. Set: =60. The su&,unti"e in atin has also many idiomati uses/as in lauses of Besult and Time0 !here the English does not modify the "er&alidea at all &ut e%presses it diretly. In suh ases the atin merely ta)es a different "ie! of the ation and has de"eloped the onstrution differently from the English.

2 @any sholars regard the onessi"e su&,unti"e as a de"elopment of theOptati"e Su&,unti"e in a !ish.

The name otential Su&,unti"e is not preisely desripti"e &ut is fi%ed ingrammatial usage.

.I@EB$TI<E @OO9



SECTION: #==8. The Imperati"e is used in Commands and Entreaties:

onsulite "o&is prospiite patriae onser"ate "os /Cat. =.0 ha"e a are for yoursel"es guard the ountry preser"e yoursel"es.

di @are Tulli sententiam @arus Tullius state your opinion.te ipsum onute /or. S. 4..?0 e%amine yourself.

"i"e "ale 3ue / id. 2.?.44;0 fare!ell &less you /li"e and &e !ell0*

miserere animi non digna ferentis /$en. 2.4==0 pity a soul &earing undeser"edmisfortune.

The third person of the imperati"e is anti3uated or poeti:

ollis salus populi suprema le% esto /egg. .80 the safety of the people shall &etheir first la!.

iusta imperia sunto eis3ue i"es modeste parento / id. .60 let there &e la!fulauthorities and let the itiGens stritly o&ey them.

NOTE.((In prose the ortatory Su&,unti"e is ommonly used instead /Set: =70.

SECTION: #==7. The >uture Imperati"e is used in ommands et. !here there is adistint referene to future time:

4. In onnetion !ith some ad"er& or other e%pression that indiates at !hat timein the future the ation of the imperati"e shall ta)e plae. So espeially !ith afuture a future perfet indiati"e or /in poetry and early atin0 !ith a presentimperati"e:

ras petito da&itur /l. @er. 5670 as) to(morro! DandF it shall &e gi"en.

um "aletudini onsulueris tum onsulito na"igationi+ / >am. 46.=.0 !hen youha"e attended to your health then loo) to your sailing.

hyllida mitte mihi meus est natalis Iolla+ um faiam "itula pro frugi&us ipse "enito /El. .560 send hyllis to me it is my &irthday Iollas+ !hen I DshallFsarifie a heifer for the har"est ome yourself.

di 3ui&us in terris et. et hyllida solus ha&eto / id. .4;50 tell in !hat lands et.and ha"e hyllis for yourself.

2. In general diretions ser"ing for all time as reepts Statutes and -ills:



is iuris i"ilis ustos esto /egg. .80 let him /the praetor0 &e the guardian of i"ilright.

'orea flante ne arato semen ne iaito /lin. . N. 48.=0 !hen the north !ind &lo!s plough not nor so! your seed.

The "er&s sio memini and ha&eo /in the sense of onsider0 regularly use the>uture Imperati"e instead of the resent:

filiolo me autum sito /$tt. 4.20 learn that I am &lessed !ith a little &oy.

si ha&eto mi Tiro+ / >am. 46.=.=0 so understand it my good Tiro.

de palla memento ama&o+ / l. $sin. 770 remem&er dear a&out the go!n.

The >uture Indiati"e is sometimes used for the imperati"e+ and 3uin /!hy not0 !ith the resent Indiati"e may ha"e the fore of a ommand:

si 3uid aiderit no"i faies ut siam />am. 4=.80 you !ill let me )no! if anythingne! happens.

3uin aipis /Ter. aut. 820 here ta)e it /!hy not ta)e it0.

Instead of the simple Imperati"e ura ut fa / fa ut0 or "elim follo!ed &y thesu&,unti"e /Set: ?6?0 is often used espeially in ollo3uial language:

ura ut Bomae sis /$tt. 4.20 ta)e are to &e at Bome.

fa ut "aletudinem ures />am. 4=.450 see that you ta)e are of your health

domi adsitis faite /Ter. Eun. ?;60 &e at home do.

eum mihi "elim mittas /$tt. 8.440 I !ish you !ould send it to me.

>or ommands in Indiret 9isourse see Set: ?88.

>or the Imperati"e !ith the fore of a Conditional Clause see Set: ?24. &.

rohi&ition /Negati"e Command0

SECTION: #=?;. rohi&ition is regularly e%pressed in lassi prose /40 &y noli !iththe Infiniti"e /20 &y a"e !ith the resent Su&,unti"e or /0 &y ne !ith the erfetSu&,unti"e:

/40 noli putare /ig. 0 do not suppose /&e un!illing to suppose0.



noli impudens esse />am. 42.;.40 donAt &e shameless.

nolite ogere soios /<err. 2.4.820 do not ompel the allies.

/20 a"e putes /$tt. 5.2;0 donAt suppose /ta)e are lest you suppose0.

a"e ignosas /ig. 4=0 do not pardon.

a"e festines />am. 46.42.60 do not &e in haste.

/0 ne neesse ha&ueris /$tt. 46.2.?0 do not regard it as neessary.

ne sis admiratus />am. 5.48.0 do not &e surprised.

ho faito+ ho ne feeris /9i". 2.4250 thou shalt do this thou shalt not do that.

ne $pellae 3uidem di%eris />am. 5.2?.20 do not tell $pella e"en.

ne "os 3uidem mortem timueritis /Tus. 4.780 nor must you fear death.

$ll three of these onstrutions are !ell esta&lished in lassi prose. The first !hih is the most eremonious ours oftenest+ the third though not disourteousis usually less formal and more peremptory than the others.

NOTE 4.((Instead of noli the poets sometimes use other imperati"es of similarmeaning /f. Set: =?5. a0:

pare pias selerare manus /$en. .=20 for&ear to defile your pious hands.

etera mitte lo3ui+ /or. Epod. 4.50 for&ear to say the rest.

fuge 3uaerere /or. Od. 4.7.40 do not in3uire.

NOTE 2.(( Ca"e ne is sometimes used in prohi&itions+ also "ide ne and/ollo3uially0 fa ne: as(( fa ne 3uid aliud ures / >am. 46.440 see that you attendto nothing else.

NOTE .((The present su&,unti"e !ith ne and the perfet !ith a"e are found inold !riters+ ne !ith the present is ommon in poetry at all periods:

ne e%spetetis /l. s. 42=0 do not !ait.

ne metuas /@art. Ep. 4.5;.40 do not fear.

a"e 3ui3uam responderis /l. $m. 6;80 do not ma)e any reply.

NOTE =.((Other negati"es sometimes ta)e the plae of ne:



nihil igno"eris /@ur. 6?0 grant no pardon /pardon nothing0.

ne mihi illud di%eris />in. 4.2?0 and do not say this to me.

NOTE ?.((The regular onneti"e and do not is ne"e.

The resent Imperati"e !ith ne is used in prohi&itions &y early !riters and thepoets:

ne time /l. Cur. ?2;0 donAt &e afraid.

nimium ne rede olori+ / El. 2.450 trust not too muh to omple%ion.

e3uo ne redite /$en. 2.=80 trust not the horse.

The >uture Imperati"e !ith ne is used in prohi&itions in la!s and formal preepts/see Set: ==7. 20.

4 In prohi&itions the su&,unti"e !ith ne is hortatory+ that !ith a" e is an o&,etlause /f. Set: =?;. N.2 ?6?. N.40.

.IN>INITI<E @OO9

SECTION: #=?4. The Infiniti"e is properly a noun denoting the ation of the "er&

a&stratly. It differs ho!e"er from other a&strat nouns in the follo!ing points: /40it often admits the distintion of tense+ /20 it is modified &y ad"er&s not &yad,eti"es+ /0 it go"erns the same ase as its "er&+ /=0 it is limited to speialonstrutions.

The atin Infiniti"e is the dati"e or loati"e ase of suh a nounand !as originallyused to denote urpose+ &ut it has in many onstrutions de"eloped into asu&stitute for a finite "er&. ene the "ariety of its use.

In its use as a "er& the Infiniti"e may ta)e a Su&,et $usati"e /Set: 75. e0originally the o&,et of another "er& on !hih the Infiniti"e depended. Thus iu&eote "alere is literally I ommand you for &eing !ell /f. su&stanti"e lauses Set:?62. N.0.

Infiniti"e as Noun



SECTION: #=?2. The Infiniti"e !ith or !ithout a su&,et ausati"e may &e used !ith est and similar "er&s /40 as the Su&,et /20 in $pposition !ith the su&,et or/0 as a rediate Nominati"e.

4. $s Su&,et:

dolere malum est />in. ?.8=0 to suffer pain is an e"il.

&ellum est sua "itia nosse /$tt. 2.450 itAs a fine thing to )no! oneAs o!n faults.

praestat omponere flutus /$en. 4.4?0 it is &etter to alm the !a"es.

2. In $pposition !ith the Su&,et:

proinde 3uasi iniuriam faere id demum esset imperio uti+ / Sall. Cat. 420 ,ust as ifthis and this alone to ommit in,ustie !ere to use po!er. Dere faere is inapposition !ith id.F

. $s rediate Nominati"e:

id est on"enienter naturae "i"ere />in. =.=40 that is to li"e in onformity !ithnature. DCf. uti in the last e%ample.F

NOTE 4.(($n infiniti"e may &e used as 9iret O&,et in onnetion !ith a rediate $usati"e /Set: 70 or as $ppositi"e !ith suh 9iret O&,et:

istu ipsum non esse um fueris miserrimum puto+ /Tus. 4.420 for I thin) this "erything most !rethed not to &e !hen one has &een. Dere istu ipsum &elongs tothe noun non esse.F

miserari in"idere gestire laetari hae omnia mor&os 1raei appellant / id. .50 tofeel pity en"y desire ,oy((all these things the 1ree)s all diseases. Dere theinfiniti"es are in apposition !ith hae.F

NOTE 2.(($n $ppositi"e or rediate noun or ad,eti"e used !ith an infiniti"e inany of these onstrutions is put in the $usati"e !hether the infiniti"e has asu&,et e%pressed or not. Thus(( non esse upidum peunia est /ar. ?40 to &e freefrom desires /not to &e desirous0 is money in hand. DNo Su&,et $usati"e.F

The infiniti"e as su&,et is not ommon e%ept !ith est and similar "er&s. 'utsometimes espeially in poetry it is used as the su&,et of "er&s !hih areapparently more ati"e in meaning:

3uos omnis eadem upere eadem odisse eadem metuere in unum oegit /Iug. 40 all of !hom the fat of desiring hating and fearing the same things has united intoone.



ingenuas didiisse fideliter artis emollit mores /O". . 2.7.=80 faithfully to ha"elearned li&eral arts softens the manners.

posse lo3ui eripitur /O". @. 2.=80 the po!er of speeh is ta)en a!ay.

SECTION: #=?. Barely the Infiniti"e is used e%atly li)e the $usati"e of a noun:

&eate "i"ere alii in alio "os in "oluptate ponitis />in. 2.860 a happy life differentDphilosophersF &ase on different things you on pleasure.

3uam multa ... faimus ausa amiorum preari a& indigno suppliare et. /ael.?50 ho! many things !e do for our friendsA sa)e as) fa"ors from an un!orthyperson resort to entreaty et.

nihil e%ploratum ha&eas ne amare 3uidem aut amari / id. 750 you ha"e nothingassured not e"en lo"ing and &eing lo"ed.

NOTE.((@any omplementary and other onstrutions approah a properausati"e use of the infiniti"e &ut their de"elopment has &een different from thatof the e%amples a&o"e. Thus(( a"aritia ... super&iam rudelitatem deos neglegereomnia "enalia ha&ere edouit / Sall. Cat. 4;0 a"arie taught pride ruelty toneglet the gods and to hold e"erything at a prie.

Infiniti"e as $pparent Su&,et of Impersonals

SECTION: #=?=. The Infiniti"e is used as the apparent Su&,et !ith manyimpersonal "er&s and e%pressions:

Suh are li&et liet oportet deet plaet "isum est pudet piget neesse est opusest et.:

li&et mihi onsiderare /uint. =80 it suits me to onsider.

neesse est mori /Tus. 2.20 it is neessary to die.

3uid attinet gloriose lo3ui nisi onstanter lo3uare />in. 2.870 !hat good does it doto tal) &oastfully unless you spea) onsistently

ne3ue me "i%isse paenitet / id. 8=0 I do not feel sorry to ha"e li"ed.

gu&ernare me taede&at /$tt. 2.5.=0 I !as tired of &eing pilot.



NOTE.((This use is a de"elopment of the Complementary Infiniti"e /Set: =?60+ &utthe infiniti"es approah the su&,et onstrution and may &e on "enientlyregarded as the su&,ets of the impersonals.

SECTION: #=??. -ith impersonal "er&s and e%pressions that ta)e the Infiniti"e asan apparent su&,et the personal su&,et of the ation may &e e%pressed:pJ

4. 'y a 9ati"e depending on the "er& or "er&al phrase:

rogant ut id si&i faere lieat /'. 1. 4.50 they as) that it &e allo!ed them to do this.

non lu&et enim mihi deplorare "itam /Cat. @. 8=0 for it does not please me tolament my life.

"isum est mihi de senetute ali3uid onsri&ere / id. 40 it seemed good to me to !rite something a&out old age.

3uid est tam seundum naturam 3uam seni&us emori+ / id. 540 !hat is so muh inaordane !ith nature as for old men to die

e%stingui homini suo tempore opta&ile est / id. 8?0 for a man to die at theappointed time is desira&le.

2. 'y an $usati"e e%pressed as the su&,et of the infiniti"e or the o&,et of theimpersonal:

si liet "i"ere eum 3uem Se%. Nae"ius non "olt /uint. 7=0 if it is allo!ed a manto li"e against the !ill of Se%tus NK"ius.

nonne oportuit praesisse me ante /Ter. $nd. 270 ought I not to ha"e )no!n &eforehand

oratorem irasi minime deet /Tus. =.?=0 it is partiularly un&eoming for anorator to lose his temper.

puderet me diere /N. 9. 4.4;70 I should &e ashamed to say.

onsilia ineunt 3uorum eos in "estigio paenitere neesse est /'. 1. =.?0 they formplans for !hih they must at one &e sorry.

NOTE.(( i&et plaet and "isum est ta)e the dati"e only+ oportet pudet piget andgenerally deet the ausati"e only+ liet and neesse est ta)e either ase.

$ prediate noun or ad,eti"e is ommonly in the $usati"e+ &ut !ith lietregularly and !ith other "er&s oasionally the 9ati"e is used:



e%pedit &onas esse "o&is /Ter. aut. 880 it is for your ad"antage to &e good.

liuit esse otioso Themistoli+ /Tus. 4.0 Themistoles might ha"e &een inati"e/it !as allo!ed to Themistoles to &e inati"e0.

mihi neglegenti esse non liet /$tt. 4.45.60 I must not &e negligent. D'ut alsoneglegentem.F

ur his esse li&eros non liet />la. 540 !hy is it not allo!ed these men to &e free

non est omni&us stanti&us neesse diere /@ar. 0 it is not neessary for all tospea) standing.

NOTE.((-hen the su&,et is not e%pressed as &eing indefinite /one any&ody0 aprediate noun or ad,eti"e is regularly in the ausati"e /f. Set: =?2. . N.20: as(( "el pae "el &ello larum fieri liet / Sall. Cat. 0 one an &eome illustrious eitherin peae or in !ar

U

Complementary Infiniti"e

SECTION: #=?6. <er&s !hih imply another ation of the same su&,et to ompletetheir meaning ta)e the Infiniti"e !ithout a su&,et ausati"e.

Suh are "er&s denoting to &e a&le dare underta)e remem&er forget &eaustomed &egin ontinue ease hesitate learn )no! ho! fear and the li)e:

ho 3ueo diere /Cat. @. 20 this I an say.

mitto 3uaerere /Bos. $m. ?0 I omit to as).

"ereor laudare praesentem /N. 9. 4.?80 I fear to praise a man to his fae.

oro ut matures "enire /$tt. =.40 I &eg you !ill ma)e haste to ome.

o&li"isi non possum 3uae "olo+ />in. 2.4;=0 I annot forget that !hih I !ish.

desine id me doere /Tus. 2.270 ease to teah me that.

diere sole&at he used to say.

audeo diere I "enture to say.

lo3ui posse oepi I &egan to &e a&le to spea).



NOTE.((The peuliarity of the Complementary Infiniti"e onstrution is that noSu&,et $usati"e is in general admissi&le or onei"a&le. 'ut some infiniti"esusually regarded as o&,ets an hardly &e distinguished from this onstrution !hen they ha"e no su&,et e%pressed. Thus "olo diere and "olo me diere meanthe same thing I !ish to spea) &ut the latter is o&,et(infiniti"e !hile the formeris not apparently different in origin and onstrution from 3ueo diere/omplementary infiniti"e0 and again "olo eum diere I !ish him to spea) isessentially different from either /f. Set: ?6. &0.

SECTION: #=?5. @any "er&s ta)e either a Su&,unti"e Clause or a ComplementaryInfiniti"e !ithout differene of meaning.

Suh are "er&s signifying !illingness neessity propriety resol"e ommandprohi&ition effort and the li)e /f. Set: ?60:

deernere opta&at /. C. .44.40 he !as eager to deide.

opta"it ut tolleretur /Off. .7=0 he !as eager to &e ta)en up.

oppugnare ontendit /'. 1. ?.240 he stro"e to ta)e &y storm.

ontendit ut aperet / id. ?.80 he stro"e to ta)e.

&ellum gerere onstituit / id. =.60 he deided to arry on !ar.

onstitueram ut manerem /$tt. 46.4;.40 I had deided to remain.

NOTE 4.((>or the infiniti"e !ith su&,et ausati"e used !ith some of these "er&sinstead of a omplementary infiniti"e see Set: ?6.

NOTE 2.((Some "er&s of these lasses ne"er ta)e the su&,unti"e &ut are identialin meaning !ith others !hih do:

eos 3uos tutari de&ent deserunt /Off. 4.280 they forsa)e those !hom they ought toprotet.

a"eo pugnare /$tt. 2.48.0 IAm an%ious to fight.

In poetry and later !riters many "er&s may ha"e the infiniti"e after the analogy of "er&s of more literal meaning that ta)e it in prose:

furit te reperire /or. Od. 4.4?.250 he rages to find thee. D$ fori&le !ay of sayingupit /Set: =?5 ?6. &0.F

sae"it e%stinguere nomen /O". @. 4.2;;0 he rages to &lot out the name.



fuge 3uaerere /or. Od. 4.7.40 for&ear to as) /f. Set: =?;. N. 40.

pare pias selerare manus /$en. .=20 for&ear to defile your pious hands.

SECTION: #=?8. $ rediate Noun or $d,eti"e after a omplementary infiniti"eta)es the ase of the su&,et of the main "er&:

fieri3ue stude&am eiius prudentia dotior /ael. 40 I !as eager to &eome more !ise through his !isdom.

sio 3uam soleas esse oupatus />am. 46.24.50 I )no! ho! &usy you usually are/are !ont to &e0.

&ro"is esse la&oro o&surus fio+ / or. $. . 2?0 I struggle to &e &rief I &eomeo&sure.

Infiniti"e !ith Su&,et $usati"e

SECTION: #=?7. The Infiniti"e !ith Su&,et $usati"e is used !ith "er&s andother e%pressions of )no!ing thin)ing telling and perei"ing /Indiret 9isourseSet: ?570:

diit montem a& hosti&us teneri /'. 1. 4.220 he says that the hill is held &y theenemy. D9iret: mons a& hosti&us tenetur.F

Infiniti"e of urpose

SECTION: #=6;. In a fe! ases the Infiniti"e retains its original meaning ofurpose.

The infiniti"e is used in isolated passages instead of a su&,unti"e lause afterha&eo do ministro:

tantum ha&eo pollieri / >am. 4.?$. 0 so muh I ha"e to promise. Dere the moreformal onstrution !ould &e 3uod polliear.F

ut Io"i &i&ere ministraret /Tus. 4.6?0 to ser"e Ho"e !ith !ine /to drin)0.

meridie &i&ere dato+ / Cato B. B. 870 gi"e /to0 drin) at noonday.



aratus suetus and their ompounds and a fe! other partiiples /used asad,eti"es0 ta)e the infiniti"e li)e the "er&s from !hih they ome:

id 3uod parati sunt faere /uint. 80 that !hih they are ready to do.

adsuefati superari /'. 1. 6.2=0 used to &eing on3uered.urru suedere sueti+ / $en. .?=40 used to &eing harnessed to the hariot

opias &ellare onsuetas /'. $fr. 50 fores austomed to fighting.

NOTE.((In prose these !ords more ommonly ta)e the 1erund or 1erundi"eonstrution /Set: ?; ff.0 either in the geniti"e the dati"e or the ausati"e !ithad:

insuetus na"igandi /'. 1. ?.60 unused to ma)ing "oyages.

alendis li&eris sueti /Ta. $nn. 4=.250 austomed to supporting hildren.

orpora insueta ad onera portanda /'. C. 4.580 &odies unused to arry &urdens.

The poets and early !riters often use the infiniti"e to e%press purpose !hen there isno analogy !ith any prose onstrution:

filius intro iit "idere 3uid agat /Ter. e. =?0 your son has gone in to see !hat heis doing. DIn prose: the supine "isum.F

non ferro i&yos populare enatis "enimus /$en. 4.?250 !e ha"e not ome to lay !aste !ith the s!ord the i&yan homes.

loriam donat ha&ere "iro+ / id. ?.2620 he gi"es the hero a &reastplate to !ear. DInprose: ha&endam.F

NOTE.((So rarely in prose !riters of the lassi period.

>or the Infiniti"e used instead of a Su&stanti"e Clause of urpose see Set: =?5.

>or tempus est a&ire see Set: ?;=. N. 2.

euliar Infiniti"es

SECTION: #=64. @any $d,eti"es ta)e the Infiniti"e in poetry follo!ing a 1ree)idiom:

durus omponere "ersus /or. S. 4.=.80 harsh in omposing "erse.



antari dignus /El. ?.?=0 !orthy to &e sung. DIn prose: 3ui antetur.F

fortis tratare serpentis /or. Od. 4.5.260 &ra"e to handle serpents.

antare periti+ / El. 4;.20 s)illed in song.

failes aurem prae&ere /rop. .4=.4?0 ready to lend an ear.

nesia "ini petora /$en. 42.?250 hearts not )no!ing ho! to yield.

te "idere aegroti+ /laut. Trin. 5?0 si) of seeing you.

Barely in poetry the infiniti"e is used to e%press result:

fingit e3uum doilem magister ire "iam 3ua monstret e3ues /or. Ep. 4.2.6=0 thetrainer ma)es the horse gentle so as to go in the road the rider points out.

hi le"are ... pauperem la&ori&us "oatus audit /or. Od. 2.48.80 he !hen alledhears so as to relie"e the poor man of his trou&les.

NOTE.((These poeti onstrutions !ere originally regular and &elong to theInfiniti"e as a noun in the 9ati"e or oati"e ase /Set: =?40. They had &eensupplanted ho!e"er &y other more formal onstrutions and !ere after!ardsrestored in part through 1ree) influene.

The infiniti"e oasionally ours as a pure noun limited &y a demonstrati"e apossessi"e or some other ad,eti"e:

ho non dolere />in. 2.480 this freedom from pain. DCf. totum ho &eate "i"ere/Tus. ?.0 this !hole matter of the happy life.F

nostrum "i"ere /er. 4.70 our life /to li"e0.

sire tuum / id. 4.250 your )no!ledge /to )no!0.

E%lamatory Infiniti"e

SECTION: #=62. The Infiniti"e !ith Su&,et $usati"emay &e used inE%lamations /f. Set: 75. d0:

te in tantas aerumnas propter me inidisse />am. 4=.40 alas that you should ha"efallen into suh grief for me*

mene inepto desistere "itam /$en. 4.50 !hat* I &eaten desist from my purpose



NOTE 4.((The interrogati"e partile ( ne is often attahed to the emphati !ord /asin the seond e%ample0.

NOTE 2.((The resent and the erfet Infiniti"e are used in this onstrution !iththeir ordinary distintion of time /Set: =860.

$ su&,unti"e lause !ith or !ithout ut is often used elliptially in e%lamatory3uestions. The 3uestion may &e introdued &y the interrogati"e ( ne:

3uam3uam 3uid lo3uor te ut ulla res frangat /Cat. 4.220 yet !hy do I spea) DtheideaF that anything should &end you*

egone ut te interpellem /Tus. 2.=20 !hat I interrupt you

ego ti&i iraserer /. >r. 4.0 I angry !ith you

NOTE.((The Infiniti"e in e%lamations usually refers to something atuallyourring+ the Su&,unti"e to something ontemplated.

istorial Infiniti"e

SECTION: #=6. The Infiniti"e is often used for the Imperfet Indiati"e innarration and ta)es a su&,et in the Nominati"e:

tum Catilina pollieri no"as ta&ulas / Sall. Cat. 240 then Catiline promised a&olitionof de&ts /lean ledgers0.

ego instare ut mihi responderet /<err. 2.4880 I )ept urging him to ans!er me.

pars edere alii inse3ui+ ne3ue signa ne3ue ordines o&ser"are+ u&i 3uem3ueperiulum eperat i&i resistere a propulsare+ arma tela e3ui "iri hostes at3uei"es permi%ti+ nihil onsilio ne3ue imperio agi+ fors omnia regere /Iug. ?40 a partgi"e !ay others press on+ they hold neither to standards nor ran)s+ !here dangero"ertoo) them there eah !ould stand and fight+ arms !eapons horses men foeand friend mingled in onfusion+ nothing !ent &y ounsel or ommand+ haneruled all.

NOTE.((This onstrution is not stritly historial &ut rather desripti"e and isne"er used to state a mere historial fat. It is rarely found in su&ordinate lauses.Though ourring in most of the !riters of all periods it is most fre3uent in thehistorians Sallust i"y Taitus. It does not our in Suetonius.

.TENSES



SECTION: #=6=. The num&er of possi&le Tenses is "ery great. >or in eah of thethree times resent ast and >uture an ation may &e represented as going onompleted or &eginning+ as ha&itual or isolated+ as defined in time or indefinite

/aoristi0+ as determined !ith referene to the time of the spea)er or as not itselfso determined &ut as relati"e to some time !hih is determined+ and the past andfuture times may &e near or remote. Thus a sheme of thirty or more tenses might &e de"ised.

'ut in the de"elopment of forms !hih al!ays ta)es plae gradually no languagefinds oasion for more than a small part of these. The most o&"ious distintionsaording to our ha&its of thought appear in the follo!ing sheme:

4. 9efinite /fi%ing the time of the ation0 2. Indefinite

INOO@ETE(((( (((CO@ETE((((((( N$BB$TI<E

resent: a. I am !riting.(((( d. I ha"e !ritten.(((( g. I !rite.

ast: &. I !as !riting.(((( e. I had !ritten. ((((h. I !rote.

>uture: . I shall &e !riting. ((((f. I shall ha"e !ritten. ((((i. I shall !rite.

@ost languages disregard some of these distintions and some ma)e otherdistintions not here gi"en. The Indo(European parent speeh had a resent tenseto e%press a and g a erfet to e%press d an $orist to e%press h a >uture to e%press and i and an Imperfet to e%press &. The atin ho!e"er onfounded the erfetand $orist in a single form /the erfet sripsi0 thus losing all distintion of form &et!een d and h and pro&a&ly in a great degree the distintion of meaning. Thenature of this onfusion may &e seen &y omparing di%i dia"i and didii /allerfets deri"ed from the same root 9IC0 !ith edei%a S)r. adi)sham dedeihaS)r. didesAa. atin also de"eloped t!o ne! forms those for e / sripseram0 and f/ sripsero0 and thus possessed si% tenses as seen in Set: 4?=. .

The lines &et!een these si% tenses in atin are not hard and fast nor are theypreisely the same that !e dra! in English. Thus in many "er&s the formorresponding to I ha"e !ritten /d0 is used for those orresponding to I am !riting/a0 and I !rite /g0 in a slightly different sense and the form orresponding to I had

!ritten /e0 is used in li)e manner for that orresponding to I !as !riting /&0. $gainthe atin often uses the form for I shall ha"e !ritten /f0 instead of that for I shall !rite /i0. Thus no"i I ha"e learned is used for I )no!+ onstiterat he had ta)enhis position for he stood+ ogno"ero I shall ha"e learned for I shall &e a!are. Ingeneral a !riter may ta)e his o!n point of "ie!.

4 The ending (e/ amare monere regere audire0 !as apparently loati"e the ending( i / amari moneri regi audiri0 apparently dati"e+ &ut this differene of ase had no



signifiane for atin synta%. The general atin restrition of the e Q(infiniti"es tothe passi"e !as not a primiti"e distintion &ut gre! up in the ourse of time.

2 In these onstrutions the a&strat idea e%pressed &y the infiniti"e is representedas ha"ing some 3uality or &elonging to some thing.

This onstrution is elliptial+ that is the thought is 3uoted in Indiret 9isoursethough no "er& of saying et. is e%pressed or e"en perhaps implied /ompare the>renh dire 3ue0. assages li)e hanine ego ad rem natam miseram me memora&o/laut. Bud. 4880 point to the origin of the onstrution.

.TENSES O> TE .IN9IC$TI<E

INCO@ETE $CTION: .BESENT TENSE

SECTION: #=6?. The resent Tense denotes an ation or state /40 as no! ta)ingplae or e%isting and so /20 as inomplete in present time or /0 as indefinitereferring to no partiular time &ut denoting a general truth:

senatus hae intellegit onsul "idet hi tamen "i"it /Cat. 4.20 the senate )no!sthis the onsul sees it yet this man li"es.

ti&i onedo meas sedis /9i". 4.4;=0 I gi"e you my seat /an offer !hih may or maynot &e aepted0.

e%speto 3uid "elis /Ter. $nd. =0 I a!ait your pleasure /!hat you !ish0.

tu ationem instituis ille aiem instruit /@ur. 220 you arrange a ase he arrays anarmy. DThe present is here used of regular employment.F

minora di neglegunt /N. 9. .860 the gods disregard trifles. D1eneral truth.F

o&se3uium amios "eritas odium parit /Ter. $nd. 680 flattery gains friends truthhatred. D1eneral truth.F

NOTE.((The present of a general truth is sometimes alled the 1nomi resent.

The present is regularly used in 3uoting !riters !hose !or)s are e%tant:

Epiurus "ero ea diit /Tus. 2.450 &ut Epiurus says suh things.

apud illum li%es lamentatur in "olnere / id. 2.=70 in him / Sopholes0 lysseslaments o"er his !ound.



iam iam3ue manu tenet /$en. 2.?;0 and no! e"en no! he attempts to grasphim.

densos fertur in hostis / id. 2.?440 he starts to rush into the thi)est of the foe.

deerno 3uin3uaginta dierum suppliationes /hil. 4=.270 I mo"e for fifty daysAthan)sgi"ing. DCf. senatus dere"it the senate ordained.F

resent for >uture

SECTION: #=68. The resent espeially in ollo3uial language and poetry is oftenused for the >uture:

imusne sessum /9e Or. .450 shall !e ta)e a seat /are !e going to sit0

hodie u%orem duis /Ter. $nd. 240 are you to &e married to(day

3uod si fit pereo funditus / id. 2==0 if this happens I am utterly undone.

e3uid me adiu"as /Clu. 540 !onAt you gi"e me a little help

in ius "oo te. non eo. non is /l. $sin. =8;0 I summon you to the ourt. I !onAt go. ou !onAt

NOTE.(( Eo and its ompounds are espeially fre3uent in this use /f. !here are you going to(morro! and the 1ree) eimi in a future sense0. <er&s of neessitypossi&ility !ish and the li)e /as possum "olo et.0 also ha"e referene to thefuture.

>or other uses of the resent in a future sense see under Conditions /Set: ?46. a.N.0 ante3uam and prius3uam /Set: ??4. 0 dum /Set: ??. N. 20 and Set: ===.a. N.

istorial resent

SECTION: #=67. The resent in li"ely narrati"e is often used for the istorialerfet:

affertur nuntius Syrausas+ urritur ad praetorium+ Cleomenes in pu&lio esse nonaudet+ inludit se domi+ / <err. ?.720 the ne!s is &rought to Syrause+ they run tohead3uarters+ Cleomenes does not "enture to &e a&road+ he shuts himself up athome.



NOTE.((This usage ommon in all languages omes from imagining past e"ents asgoing on &efore our eyes / repraesentatio Set: ?8?. &. N.0.

>or the resent Indiati"e !ith dum !hile see Set: ??6.

The present may &e used for the perfet in a summary enumeration of past e"ents/$nnalisti resent0:

Boma interim resit $l&ae ruinis: dupliatur i"ium numerus+ Caelius additur ur&imons /i". 4.;0 Bome mean!hile gro!s as a result of the fall of $l&a: the num&erof itiGens is dou&led+ the CKlian hill is added to the to!n

.I@EB>ECT TENSE

SECTION: #=5;. The Imperfet denotes an ation or a state as ontinued orrepeated in past time:

hun audie&ant antea+ / @anil. 40 they used to hear of him &efore.

D SoratesF ita ense&at ita3ue disseruit /Tus. 4.520 Sorates thought so/ha&itually0 and so he spo)e /then0.

prudens esse puta&atur /ael. 60 he !as /generally0 thought !ise. DThe perfet !ould refer to some partiular ase and not to a state of things.F

iam3ue ru&ese&at $urora /$en. .?240 and no! the da!n !as &lushing.

ara "etus sta&at /O". @. 6.260 an old altar stood there.

NOTE.((The Imperfet is a desripti"e tense and denotes an ation onei"ed as inprogress or a state of things as atually o&ser"ed. ene in many "er&s it does notdiffer in meaning from the erfet. Thus re% erat and re% fuit may often &e usedindifferently+ &ut the former desri&es the ondition !hile the latter only states it.The English is less e%at in distinguishing these t!o modes of statement. ene theatin Imperfet is often translated &y the English reterite:

aedui gra"iter fere&ant ne3ue legatos ad Caesarem mittere aude&ant /'. 1. ?.60 the aedui !ere displeased and did not dare to send en"oys to Caesar. Dere theImperfets desri&e the state of things.F 'ut((

id tulit fatum gra"iter Indutiomarus / id. ?.=0 Indutiomarus !as displeased at thisation. Dere the erfet merely states the fat.F

aedifiia "ios3ue ha&e&ant / id. =.=0 they had &uildings and "illages.



SECTION: #=54. The Imperfet represents a present tense transferred to past time.ene all the meanings !hih the resent has deri"ed from the ontinuane of theation &elong also to the Imperfet in referene to past time.

The Imperfet is used in desriptions:

erant omnino itinera duo ... mons altissimus impende&at /'. 1. 4.60 there !ere inall t!o !ays ... a "ery high mountain o"erhung.

-ith iam diu iam dudum and other e%pressions of duration of time the Imperfetdenotes an ation ontinuing in the past &ut &egun at some pre"ious time /f. Set:=660.

In this onstrution the Imperfet is rendered &y the English luperfet:

iam dudum fle&am /O". @. .6?60 I had &een !eeping for a long time.

opias 3uas diu ompara&ant />am. 44.4.?0 the fores !hih they had long &eengetting ready.

The Imperfet sometimes denotes an ation as &egun / Inepti"e Imperfet0 or asattempted or only intended /Conati"e Imperfet+ f Set: =650:

in e%silium eioie&am 3uem iam ingressum esse in &ellum "ide&am /Cat. 2.4=0 !asI trying to send into e%ile one !ho I sa! had already gone into !ar

hun igitur diem si&i proponens @ilo ruentis mani&us ad illa augustaenturiarum auspiia "enie&at /@il. =0 !as @ilo oming /i.e. !as it li)ely that he !ould ome0 et.

si liitum esset "enie&ant /<err. ?.4270 they !ere oming if it had &een allo!ed/they !ere on the point of oming and !ould ha"e done so if et.0.

NOTE.((To this head may &e referred the imperfet !ith iam denoting the &eginning of an ation or state: as(( iam 3ue ar"a tene&ant ultima /$en. 6.=550 and no! they !ere ,ust getting to the farthest fields.

The Imperfet is sometimes used to e%press a surprise at the resent diso"ery of afat already e%isting:

o tu 3uo3ue aderas /Ter. h. 8?80 oh you are here too*

ehem tun hi eras mi haedria /Ter. Eun. 860 !hat* you here hKdria



SECTION: #=52. The >uture denotes an ation or state that !ill our hereafter.

The >uture may ha"e the fore of an Imperati"e /Set: ==7. &0.

The >uture is often re3uired in a su&ordinate lause in atin !here in English

futurity is suffiiently e%pressed &y the main lause:um aderit "ide&it !hen he is there he !ill see /f. Set: ?=50.

sana&imur si "olemus /Tus. .40 !e shall &e healed if !e !ish /f. Set: ?46. a0.

NOTE.(('ut the resent is ommon in future protases /Set: ?46. a N.0.

.EB>ECT TENSE: CO@ETE9 $CTION

erfet 9efinite and istorial erfet

SECTION: #=5. The erfet denotes an ation either as no! ompleted /erfet9efinite0 or as ha"ing ta)en plae at some undefined point of past time /istorialor $oristi erfet0.

The erfet 9efinite orresponds in general to the English erfet !ith ha"e+ theistorial erfet to the English reterite /or ast0:

/40 ut ego fei 3ui 1raeas litteras sene% didii /Cat. @. 260 as I ha"e done !hoha"e learned 1ree) in my old age.

diuturni silenti finem hodiernus dies attulit /@ar. 40 this day has put an end tomy long(ontinued silene.

/20 tantum &ellum e%trema hieme appara"it ineunte "ere susepit media aestateonfeit /@anil. ?0 so great a !ar he made ready for at the end of !interundertoo) in early spring and finished &y midsummer.

NOTE.((The distintion &et!een these t!o uses is represented &y t!o forms inmost other Indo(European languages &ut !as almost if not !holly lost to theminds of the Bomans. It must &e notied ho!e"er on aount of the mar)eddistintion in English and also &eause of ertain differenes in the se3uene oftenses.

The Indefinite resent denoting a ustomary ation or a general truth /Set: =6?0often has the erfet in a su&ordinate lause referring to time anteedent to that ofthe main lause:



3ui in ompedi&us orporis semper fuerunt etiam um soluti sunt tardiusingrediuntur /Tus. 4.5?0 they !ho ha"e al!ays &een in the fetters of the &odye"en !hen released mo"e more slo!ly.

simul a mihi olli&itum est praesto est imago+ /N. 9. 4.4;80 as soon as I ha"e

ta)en a fany the image is &efore my eyes.hae morte effugiuntur etiam si non e"enerunt tamen 3uia possunt e"enire /Tus.4.860 these things are esaped &y death e"en if they ha"e not DyetF happened &eause they still may happen.

NOTE.((This use of the perfet is espeially ommon in the protasis of 1eneralConditions in present time /Set: ?48. &0.

SECTION: #=5=. The erfet is sometimes used emphatially to denote that a thingor ondition of things that one e%isted no longer e%ists:

fuit ista 3uondam in ha re pu&lia "irtus /Cat. 4.0 there !as one suh "irtue inthis ommon!ealth.

ha&uit non ha&et /Tus. 4.850 he had he has no longer.

filium ha&eo ... immo ha&ui+ nun ha&eam nene inertumst / Ter. aut. 70 Iha"e a son no I had one+ !hether I ha"e no! or not is unertain.

fuimus Troes fuit Ilium /$en. 2.2?0 !e ha"e eased to &e Tro,ans Troy is nomore.

Speial ses of the erfet

SECTION: #=5?. The erfet is sometimes used of a general truth espeially !ithnegati"es /1nomi erfet0:

3ui studet ontingere metam multa tulit feit 3ue /or. $. . =420 he !ho aims toreah the goal first &ears and does many things.

non aeris aer"us et auri dedu%it orpore fe&ris / id. Ep. 4.2.=50 the pile of &rassand gold remo"es not fe"er from the frame.

NOTE.((The gnomi perfet stritly refers to past time+ &ut its use implies thatsomething !hih ne"er did happen in any )no!n ase ne"er does happen andne"er !ill /f. the English K>aint heart ne"er !on fair ladyM0+ or !ithout a



negati"e that !hat has one happened !ill al!ays happen under similarirumstanes.

The erfet is often used in e%pressions ontaining or implying a negation !herein affirmation the Imperfet !ould &e preferred:

die&at melius 3uam sripsit ortensius /Or. 420 ortensius spo)e &etter thanhe !rote. Dere the negati"e is implied in the omparison: ompare the use of3uis3uam ullus et. /Set: 44 420 and the >renh ne after omparati"es andsuperlati"es.F

SECTION: #=56. The ompleted tenses of some "er&s are e3ui"alent to theinomplete tenses of "er&s of )indred meaning.

Suh are the preteriti"e "er&s odi I hate+ memini I remem&er+ no"i I )no!+onsue"i I am austomed!ith others used preteriti"ely as "enerat /L aderat he !as at hand et.0 onstiterunt they stand firm /ha"e ta)en their stand0 and manyinepti"es /see Set: 26. 40:

3ui dies aestus ma%imos effiere onsue"it /'. 1. =.270 !hih day generally ma)esthe highest tides /is austomed to ma)e0.

uius splendor o&sole"it /uint. ?70 !hose splendor is no! all faded.

NOTE.((@any other "er&s are oasionally so used: as(( dum oulos ertamena"erterat /i". 2.2=0 !hile the ontest had turned their eyes /)ept them turned0.Dere a"erteratL tene&at.F

.EB>ECT TENSE

SECTION: #=55. The luperfet is used /40 to denote an ation or state ompletedin past time+ or /20 sometimes to denote an ation in indefinite time &ut prior tosome past time referred to:

/40 loi natura erat hae 3uem loum nostri astris delegerant /'. 1. 2.480 this !as the nature of the ground !hih our men had hosen for a amp.

<irido"i% summam imperi tene&at earum omnium i"itatum 3uae defeerant / id..450 <irido"i% held the hief ommand of all those tri&es !hih had re"olted.

/20 ne3ue "ero um ali3uid manda"erat onfetum puta&at /Cat. .460 &ut !henhe had gi"en a thing in harge he did not loo) on it as done.



3uae si 3uando adepta est id 3uod ei fuerat onupitum tum fert alaritatem /Tus.=.4?0 if it /desire0 e"er has gained !hat it had Dpre"iouslyF desired then itprodues ,oy.

>or the Epistolary luperfet see Set: =57.

.>TBE EB>ECT TENSE

SECTION: #=58. The >uture erfet denotes an ation as ompleted in the future:

ut sementem feeris ita metes /9e Or. 2.2640 as you so! /shall ha"e so!n0 soshall you reap.

armina tum melius um "enerit ipse anemus /El. 7.650 then shall !e sing oursongs &etter !hen he himself has ome /shall ha"e ome0.

si illius insidiae lariores ha lue fuerint tum deni3ue o&sera&o+ / @il. 60 !henthe plots of that man ha"e &een sho!n to &e as lear as daylight then and not tillthen shall I on,ure you.

ego erte meum offiium praestitero /'. 1. =.2?0 I at least shall ha"e done my duty/i.e. !hen the time omes to re)on up the matter I shall &e found to ha"e done it !hate"er the e"ent0.

NOTE.((atin is far more e%at than English in distinguishing &et!een mere futureation and ation ompleted in the future. ene the >uture erfet is muhommoner in atin than in English. It may e"en &e used instead of the >uture fromthe fondness of the Bomans for representing an ation as ompleted:

3uid in"entum sit paulo post "idero /$ad. 2.560 !hat has &een found out I shallsee presently.

3ui $ntonium oppresserit &ellum taeterrimum onfeerit />am. 4;.470 !hoe"errushes /shall ha"e rushed0 $ntony !ill finish /!ill ha"e finished0 a mostloathsome !ar.

.EISTO$B TENSES

SECTION: #=57. In etters the erfet istorial or the Imperfet may &e used forthe present and the luperfet for any past tense as if the letter !ere dated at thetime it is supposed to &e reei"ed:



ne3ue tamen hae um sri&e&am eram nesius 3uantis oneri&us premerere/>am. ?.42.20 nor !hile I !rite this am I ignorant under !hat &urdens you are !eighed do!n.

ad tuas omnis D epistulasF resripseram pridie+ / $tt. 7.4;.40 I ans!ered all your

letters yesterday.um 3uod sri&erem ad te nihil ha&erem tamen has dedi litteras /$tt. 7.460 though I ha"e nothing to !rite to you still I !rite this letter.

NOTE.((In this use these tenses are alled the Epistolary erfet Imperfet andluperfet. The epistolary tenses are not employed !ith any uniformity &ut only !hen attention is partiularly direted to the time of !riting /so espeiallysri&e&am da&am et.0.

4 Cf. detestor reminisor sio soleo.

.TENSES O> TE .S'HNCTI<E

SECTION: #=8;. The tenses of the Su&,unti"e in Independent Clauses denotetime in relation to the time of the spea)er.

The resent al!ays refers to future /or indefinite0 time the Imperfet to either pastor present the erfet to either future or past the luperfet al!ays to past.

SECTION: #=84. The tenses of the Su&,unti"e in 9ependent Clauses !ereha&itually used in ertain fi%ed onnetions !ith the tenses of the main "er&.

These onnetions !ere determined &y the time of the main "er& and the time ofthe dependent "er& together. They are )no!n olleti"ely as the Se3uene ofTenses.

NOTE.((The so(alled Se3uene of Tenses is not a mehanial la!. Eah tense ofthe su&,unti"e in dependent lauses /as in independent0 originally denoted its o!ntime in relation to the time of the spea)er though less definitely than theorresponding tenses of the indiati"e. 1radually ho!e"er as the omple%sentene !as more strongly felt as a unit ertain types in !hih the tenses of thedependent lause seemed to aord !ith those of the main lause !ere almostunonsiously regarded as regular and others in !hih there !as no suhagreement as e%eptional. Thus a pretty definite system of orrespondenes gre!up !hih is odified in the rules for the Se3uene of Tenses. These ho!e"er are &yno means rigid. They do not apply !ith e3ual stringeny to all dependent



onstrutions and they !ere fre3uently disregarded not only !hen their strito&ser"ane !ould ha"e o&sured the sense &ut for the sa)e of emphasis and "ariety or merely from arelessness.

.Se3uene of Tenses

SECTION: #=82. The tenses of the Su&,unti"e in 9ependent Clauses follo! speialrules for the Se3uene of Tenses.

-ith referene to these rules all tenses !hen used in independent lauses aredi"ided into t!o lasses((rimary and Seondary.

4. BI@$B.((The rimary Tenses inlude all forms that e%press present or future

time. These are the resent >uture and >uture erfet Indiati"e the resent anderfet Su&,unti"e and the resent and >uture Imperati"e.

2. SECON9$B.((The Seondary Tenses inlude all forms that refer to past time.These are the Imperfet erfet and luperfet Indiati"e the Imperfet andluperfet Su&,unti"e and the istorial Infiniti"e.

NOTE.((To these may &e added ertain forms less ommonly used in independentlauses: /40 rimary: resent Infiniti"e in E%lamations+ /20 Seondary: erfetInfiniti"e in E%lamations /see Set: =62 =8?. a N.0.

The erfet 9efinite is sometimes treated as primary /see Set: =8?. a0.

>or the istorial resent see Set: =8?. e+ for the Imperfet Su&,unti"e in $podosis see Set: =8?. h.

SECTION: #=8. The follo!ing is the general rule for the Se3uene of Tenses:

In omple% sentenes a rimary tense in the main lause is follo!ed &y the resentor erfet in the dependent lause and a Seondary tense &y the Imperfet orluperfet:

.BI@$B TENSES

rogo I as) am as)ing 3uid faias !hat you are doing.



roga&o I shall as) 3uid feeris !hat you did !ere doing ha"e done ha"e &eendoing.

roga"i /sometimes0 I ha"e as)ed

roga"ero I shall ha"e as)ed 3uid faturus sis !hat you !ill do.sri&it he !rites ut nos moneat to !arn us.

sri&et he !ill !rite

sri &e / sri&ito0 !rite ut nos moneas to !arn us.

sri&it he !rites 3uasi o&litus sit as if he had forgotten.

.SECON9$B TENSESroga&am I as)ed !as as)ing 3uid faeres !hat you !ere doing.

roga"i I as)ed ha"e as)ed 3uid feisses !hat you had done had &een doing.

roga"eram I had as)ed 3uid faturus esses !hat you !ould do.

sripsit he !rote ut nos moneret to !arn us.

sripsit he !rote 3uasi o&litus esset as if he had forgotten.

SECTION: #=8=. In applying the rule for the Se3uene of Tenses o&ser"e:pJ

/40 -hether the main "er& is /a0 primary or /&0 seondary.

/20 -hether the dependent "er& is to denote ompleted ation /i.e. past !ithreferene to the main "er&0 or inomplete ation /i.e. present or future !ithreferene to the main "er&0. Then:pJ

If the leading "er& is primary the dependent "er& must &e in the resent if itdenotes inomplete ation in the erfet if it denotes ompleted ation.

If the leading "er& is seondary the dependent "er& must &e in the Imperfet if itdenotes inomplete ation in the luperfet if it denotes ompleted ation:

/40 e !rites DprimaryF to !arn Dinomplete ationF us sri&it ut nos moneat.



I as) DprimaryF !hat you !ere doing Dno! pastF rogo 3uid feeris.

/20 e !rote DseondaryF to !arn DinompleteF us sripsit ut nos moneret.

I as)ed DseondaryF !hat you !ere doing DinompleteF roga"i 3uid faeres.

Notie that the >uture erfet denotes ation ompleted /at the time referred to0and hene is represented in the Su&,unti"e &y the erfet or luperfet:

e sho!s that if they ome /shall ha"e ome0 many !ill perish demonstrat si "enerint multos interituros.

e sho!ed that if they should ome /should ha"e ome0 many !ould perishdemonstra"it si "enissent multos interituros.

SECTION: #=8?. In the Se3uene of Tenses the follo!ing speial points are to &enoted:

The erfet Indiati"e is ordinarily a seondary tense &ut allo!s the primaryse3uene !hen the present time is learly in the !riterAs mind:

ut satis esset praesidi pro"isum est /Cat. 2.260 pro"ision has &een made that thereshould &e ample guard. DSeondary se3uene.F

addu%i hominem in 3uo satisfaere e%teris nationi&us possetis /<err. 4.20 I ha"e &rought a man in !hose person you an ma)e satisfation to foreign nations.DSeondary se3uene.F

est enim res iam in eum loum adduta ut 3uam3uam multum intersit inter eorumausas 3ui dimiant tamen inter "itorias non multum interfuturum putem />am.?.24.0 for affairs ha"e &een &rought to suh a pass that though there is a greatdifferene &et!een the auses of those !ho are fighting still I do not thin) there !ill &e muh differene &et!een their "itories. Drimary se3uene.F

ea adhi&ita dotrina est 3uae "el "itiosissimam naturam e%olere possit /. >r.4.4.50 suh instrution has &een gi"en as an train e"en the faultiest nature.Drimary se3uene.F

NOTE.((The erfet Infiniti"e in e%lamations follo!s the same rule:

3uem3uamne fuisse tam seleratum 3ui ho fingeret /hil. 4=.4=0 !as any one soa&andoned as to imagine this DSeondary.F

adeon rem redisse patrem ut e%timesam /Ter. h. 4?0 to thin) that things ha"eome to suh a pass that I should dread my father* Drimary.F



$fter a primary tense the erfet Su&,unti"e is regularly used to denote any pastation. This the erfet Su&,unti"e may represent:pJ

4. $ erfet 9efinite:

non du&ito 3uin omnes tui sripserint />am. ?.80 I do not dou&t that all yourfriends ha"e !ritten. D9iret statement: sripserunt.F

3ua re non ignoro 3uid aidat in ultimis terris um audierim in I talia 3uerellasi"ium /. >r. 4.4.0 therefore I )no! !ell !hat happens at the ends of the earth !hen I ha"e heard in Italy the omplaints of itiGens. D9iret statement: audi"i.F

2. $ erfet istorial:

me autem hi laudat 3uod rettulerim non 3uod patefeerim /$tt. 42.240 me hepraises &eause I &rought the matter D&efore the senateF not &eause I &rought it tolight. D9iret statement: rettulit.F

. $n Imperfet:

si forte eiderunt tum intellegitur 3uam fuerint inopes amiorum /ael. ?0 ifperhane they fall /ha"e fallen0 then one an see ho! poor they !ere in friends.D9iret 3uestion: 3uam inopes erantF

3ui status rerum fuerit um has litteras dedi sire poteris e% C. Titio Stra&one/>am. 42.60 !hat the ondition of affairs !as !hen I !rote this letter you anlearn from Stra&o. D9iret 3uestion: 3ui status eratF

3uam i"itati arus fuerit maerore funeris indiatum est /ael. 440 ho! dear he !as to the state has &een sho!n &y the grief at his funeral. D9iret 3uestion: 3uamarus eratF

e% epistulis intellegi liet 3uam fre3uens fuerit latonis auditor /Or. 4?0 it may &eunderstood from his letters ho! onstant a hearer he !as of lato. D9iret3uestion: 3uam fre3uens eratF

NOTE.((Thus the erfet Su&,unti"e may represent not only a erfet 9efinite ora erfet istorial of a diret statement or 3uestion &ut an Imperfet as !ell. Thisomes from the !ant of any speial tense of the su&,unti"e for ontinued past

ation after a primary tense. Thus miror 3uid feerit may mean /40 I !onder !hathe has done /20 I !onder !hat he did /hist. perf.0 or /0 I !onder !hat he !asdoing.

In lauses of Besult the erfet Su&,unti"e is regularly /the resent rarely0 usedafter seondary tenses:



ortensius arde&at diendi upiditate si ut in nullo um3uam flagrantius studium "iderim /'rut. ;20 ortensius !as so hot !ith desire of spea)ing that I ha"ene"er seen a more &urning ardor in any man.

D Siiliam <erresF per triennium ita "e%a"it a perdidit ut ea restitui in anti3uum

statum nullo modo possit /<err. 4.420 for three years <erres so ra)ed and ruinedSiily that she an in no !ay &e restored to her former state. Dere the resentdesri&es a state of things atually e%isting.F

"ideor esse onseutus ut non possit 9ola&ella in Italiam per"enire />am. 42.4=.20 I seem to ha"e &rought it a&out that 9ola&ella annot ome into Italy.

NOTE 4.((This onstrution emphasiGes the result+ the regular se3uene of tenses !ould su&ordinate it.

NOTE 2.((There is a speial fondness for the erfet Su&,unti"e to represent aerfet Indiati"e:

Thorius erat ita non superstitiosus ut illa plurima in sua et sarifiia et fanaontemneret+ ita non timidus ad mortem ut in aie sit o& rem pu&liam interfetus/>in. 2.60 Thorius !as so little superstitious that he despised D ontemne&atF themany sarifies and shrines in his ountry+ so little timorous a&out death that he !as )illed D interfetus estF in &attle in defene of the state.

$ general truth after a past tense follo!s the se3uene of tenses:

e% his 3uae tri&uisset si&i 3uam muta&ilis esset reputa&at /. C. .8.2;0 from !hat she />ortune0 had &esto!ed on him he refleted ho! inonstant she is.D9iret: muta&ilis est.F

i&i 3uantam "im ad stimulandos animos ira ha&eret apparuit /i". .50 here itappeared !hat po!er anger has to goad the mind. D9iret: ha&et.F

NOTE.((In English the original tense is more ommonly )ept.

The istorial resent /Set: =670 is sometimes felt as a primary ometimes as aseondary tense and aordingly it ta)es either the primary or the seondaryse3uene:

rogat ut uret 3uod di%isset /uint. 480 he as)s him to attend to the thing he hadspo)en of. D'oth primary and seondary se3uene.F

NOTE.(($fter the historial present the su&,unti"e !ith um temporal mustfollo! the seondary se3uene:

3uo um "enisset ognosit /'. C. 4.=0 !hen he had ome there he learns.



um esset pugnatum horis 3uin3ue nostri3ue gra"ius premerentur impetum inohortis faiunt / id. 4.=60 !hen they had fought for fi"e hours and our men !erepretty hard pressed they ma)e an atta) on the ohorts.

The istorial Infiniti"e regularly ta)es the seondary se3uene:

interim otidie Caesar aeduos frumentum 3uod essent polliiti flagitare /'. 1.4.460 . mean!hile Caesar demanded of the aedui e"ery day the grain !hih theyhad promised.

The Imperfet and luperfet in onditions ontrary to fat /Set: ?450 and in the9eli&erati"e Su&,unti"e /Set: ===0 are not affeted &y the se3uene of tenses:

3uia tale sit ut "el si ignorarent id homines "el si o&mutuissent />in. 2.=70 &eause it is suh that e"en if men -EBE ignorant of it or $9 'EEN silent a&outit.

3uaero a te ur C. Cornelium non defenderem /<at. ?0 I as) you !hy I !as not todefend Caius Cornelius D9iret: ur non defenderemF

The Imperfet Su&,unti"e in present onditions ontrary to fat /Set: ?450 isregularly follo!ed &y the seondary se3uene:

si alii onsules essent ad te potissimum aule mitterem ut eos mihi 3uamamiissimos redderes />am. 4?.4.0 if there !ere other onsuls I should send to you aulus in preferene to all that you might ma)e them as friendly to me aspossi&le.

si solos eos dieres miseros 3ui&us moriendum esset neminem e%iperes /Tus.4.70 if you !ere to all only those !rethed !ho must dU

J you !ould e%ept no one.

The resent is sometimes follo!ed &y a seondary se3uene seemingly &eause the !riter is thin)ing of past time:

sed si res oget est 3uiddam tertium 3uod ne3ue Seliio ne mihi displie &at: utne3ue iaere rem pateremur et. / >am. 4.?$. 0 &ut if the ase shall demandthere is a third DourseF !hih neither Seliius nor myself disappro"ed that !e

should not allo! et. Dere Ciero is led &y the time of displie&at.F

sed tamen ut sires hae ti&i sri&o />am. 4.=50 &ut yet that you may )no! I !rite thus. D$s if he had used the epistolary imperfet sri&e&am /Set: =570.F

uius praeepti tanta "is est ut ea non homini uipiam sed 9elphio deo tri&ueretur/egg. 4.?80 suh is the fore of this preept that it !as asri&ed not to any man &ut to the 9elphi god. DThe preept !as an old one.F



-hen a lause depends upon one already dependent its se3uene may &eseondary if the "er& of that lause e%presses past time e"en if the main "er& is in aprimary tense:

sed tamen 3ua re aiderit ut e% meis superiori&us litteris id suspiarere nesio+

/ >am. 2.460 &ut yet ho! it happened that you suspeted this from my pre"iousletter I donAt )no!.

tantum profeisse "idemur ut a 1raeis ne "er&orum 3uidem opia "ineremur /N.9. 4.80 !e seem to ha"e ad"aned so far that e"en in a&undane of !ords !e $BEnot surpassed &y the 1ree)s.

NOTE.((So regularly after a erfet Infiniti"e !hih depends on a primary tense/Set: ?8?. a0.

4 The term is sometimes e%tended to ertain relations &et!een the tenses ofsu&ordinate "er&s in the indiati"e and those of the main "er&. These relations donot differ in priniple from those !hih !e are onsidering+ &ut for on"eniene theterm Se3uene of Tenses is in this &oo) restrited to su&,unti"es in aordane !ith the usual pratie.

.TENSES O> TE .IN>INITI<E

SECTION: #=86. E%ept in Indiret 9isourse only the resent and erfetInfiniti"es are used.

The resent represents the ation of the "er& as in progress !ithout distintreferene to time the erfet as ompleted.

>or the Tenses of the Infiniti"e in Indiret 9isourse see Set: ?8=.

-ith past tenses of "er&s of neessity propriety and possi&ility /as de&ui oportuitpotui0 the resent Infiniti"e is often used in atin !here the English idiom prefersthe erfet Infiniti"e:

numne si Coriolanus ha&uit amios ferre ontra patriam arma illi um Coriolanode&uerunt /ael. 60 if Coriolanus had friends ought they to ha"e &orne arms !ith him against their fatherland

peunia 3uam his oportuit i"itati&us pro frumento dari /<err. .45=0 money !hih ought to ha"e &een paid to these states for grain.

onsul esse 3ui potui nisi eum "itae ursum tenuissem a pueritia+ / Bep. 4.4;0 ho!ould I ha"e &eome onsul had I not from &oyhood follo!ed that ourse of life



illud te esse admonitum "olo+ / Cael. 80 I !ish you to &e !ell ad"ised of this.

3ui se a& omni&us desertos potius 3uam a&s te defensos esse malunt /Caeil. 240 !ho prefer to &e deserted &y all rather than to &e defended &y you.

NOTE.((The partiiple in this ase is rather in prediate agreement /!ith or !ithout esse0 than used to form a strit perfet infiniti"e though the full form anhardly &e distinguished from that onstrution.

In late atin and in poetry /often for metrial on"eniene0 rarely in good prosethe erfet $ti"e Infiniti"e is used emphatially instead of the resent and e"enafter other "er&s than those of !ishing:

nemo eorum est 3ui non perisse te upiat /<err. 2.4=70 there is no one of them !ho is not eager for your death.

haud e3uidem premendo alium me e%tulisse "elim /i". 22.?7.4;0 I !ould not &yrushing another e%alt myself.

sunt 3ui nolint tetigisse /or. S. 4.2.280 there are those !ho !ould not touh.

ommisisse a"et /or. $. . 4680 he is autious of doing.

nun 3uem tetigisse timerent anguis eras /O". @. 8.50 again you &eame aserpent !hih they dreaded to touh.

fratres3ue tendentes opao elion imposuisse Olympo+ / or. Od. .=.?40 and the &rothers stri"ing to set elion on dar) Olympus.

$fter "er&s of feeling the erfet Infiniti"e is used espeially &y the poets to denotea ompleted ation.

So also !ith satis est satis ha&eo melius est ontentus sum and in a fe! otherases !here the distintion of time is important:

non paenite&at interapedinem sri&endi feisse />am. 46.240 I !as not sorry toha"e made a respite of !riting.

pudet me non praestitisse / id. 4=.0 I am ashamed not to ha"e sho!n.

sunt 3uos pul"erem Olympium ollegisse iu"at /or. Od. 4.4.0 some delight toha"e stirred up the dust at Olympia.

3uiesse erit melius /i". .=80 it !ill &e &etter to ha"e )ept 3uiet.

a si 3uis amet sripsisse /or. S. 4.4;.6;0 than if one should hoose to ha"e !ritten.



id solum di%isse satis ha&eo+ /<ell. 2.42=0 I am ontent to ha"e said only this.

4 <olo and less fre3uently nolo malo and upio.

NON $N9 $9HECTI<E >OB@S O> TE <EB'

SECTION: #=85. The se"eral Noun and $d,eti"e forms assoiated !ith the "er&are employed as follo!s:

I. artiiples: a. resent and erfet: 4. $ttri&uti"e / Set: =7=0.

2. Simple rediate /Set: =7?0.

. eriphrasti erfet /passi"e0 /Set: =7?. N.0.

=. rediate of Cirumstane /Set: =760.

?. 9esripti"e /Indiret 9isourse0 /Set: =75 d0.

&. >uture 4. eriphrasti !ith esse /Set: =78. a0.

2. eriphrasti !ith fui /Lluperfet Su&,unti"e0 /Set: =78. &0.

. 1erundi"e 4. $s 9esripti"e $d,eti"e /Set: ?;;. 40.

2. eriphrasti !ith esse /Set: ?;;. 20.

. Of urpose !ith ertain "er&s /Set: ?;;. =0.

II. 1erund or 1erundi"e: 4. 1eniti"e as Su&,eti"e or O&,eti"e 1eniti"e /Set: ?;=0.

2. 9ati"e !ith $d,eti"es /of >itness0 Nouns <er&s /V W ?;?0.

. $usati"e !ith ertain repositions /Set: ?;60.

=. $&lati"e of @eans Comparison or !ith repositions /Set: ?;50.

III. Supine: 4. $usati"e Supine /in (um0 !ith <er&s of @otion /Set: ?;70.

$&lati"e Supine /in ( Q0 hiefly !ith $d,eti"es /Set: ?4;0.

>or the Synta% of the Infiniti"e see Set: =?4 ff. =86.



.$BTICIES

SECTION: #=88. The artiiple e%presses the ation of the "er& in the form of an

$d,eti"e &ut has a partial distintion of tense and may go"ern a ase.NOTE.((Thus the partiiple om&ines all the funtions of an ad,eti"e !ith some ofthe funtions of a "er&. $s an $d,eti"e it limits su&stanti"es and agrees !ith themin gender num&er and ase /Set: 2860. $s a <er& it has distintions of time /Set:=870 and often ta)es an o&,et.

9istintions of Tense in artiiples

SECTION: #=87. artiiples denote time as present past or future !ith respet tothe time of the "er& in their lause.

Thus the resent artiiple represents the ation as in progress at the timeindiated &y the tense of the "er& the erfet as ompleted and the >uture as stillto ta)e plae.

SECTION: #=7;. The resent artiiple has se"eral of the speial uses of theresent Indiati"e. Thus it may denote:pJ

4. $n ation ontinued in the present &ut &egun in the past /Set: =660:

3uaerenti mihi iam diu erta res nulla "enie&at in mentem />am. =.40 . though Ihad long sought no ertain thing ame to my mind.

2. $ttempted ation /Set: =650:

C. >laminio restitit agrum ientem di"identi /Cat. @. 440 he resisted >laminius !hen attempting to di"ide the iene territory.

. Barely /in poetry and later atin0 futurity or purpose !ith a "er& of motion:

Eurypylum sitantem oraula mittimus /$en. 2.44=0 !e send Eurypylus to onsultthe orale. DCf. Set: =68.F

SECTION: #=74. The erfet artiiple of a fe! deponent "er&s is used nearly inthe sense of a resent.



Suh are regularly ratus solitus "eritus+ ommonly ar&itratus fisus aususseutus and oasionally others espeially in later !riters:

rem inredi&ilem rati / Sall. Cat. =80 thin)ing the thing inredi&le.

insidias "eritus /'. 1. 2.440 fearing an am&usade.ohortatus milites douit /'. C. .8;0 enouraging the men he sho!ed.

iratus di%isti+ / @ur. 620 you spo)e in a passion.

ad pugnam ongressi /i". =.4;0 meeting in fight.

SECTION: #=72. The atin has no resent artiiple in the passi"e.

The plae of suh a form is supplied usually &y a lause !ith dum or um:

o&iere dum aliantur matutino duo Caesares /lin. N. . 5.4840 t!o Caesars died !hile ha"ing their shoes put on in the morning.

me3ue ista deletant um atine diuntur /$ad. 4.480 those things please me !hen they are spo)en in atin.

NOTE.((These onstrutions are often used !hen a partiiple might &e employed:

di hospes Spartae nos te hi "idisse iaentis dum santis patriae legi&uso&se3uimur /Tus. 4.4;40 tell it stranger at Sparta that you sa! us lying hereo&edient to our ountryAs sared la!s. Dere dum o&se3uimur is a translation of the1ree) present partiiple peithomenoi.F

dum D li%esF si&i dum soiis reditum parat /or. Ep. 4.2.240 lysses !hileseuring the return of himself and his ompanions. DIn 1ree): arnumenos.F

SECTION: #=7. The atin has no erfet artiiple in the ati"e "oie. Thedefiieny is supplied:pJ

4. In deponents &y the perfet passi"e form !ith its regular ati"e meaning:

nam singulas D na"isF nostri onsetati e%pugna"erunt /'. 1. .4?0 for our menha"ing o"erta)en them one &y one aptured them &y &oarding.

NOTE.((The perfet partiiple of se"eral deponent "er&s may &e either ati"e orpassi"e in meaning /Set: 47;. &0.



2. In other "er&s either &y the perfet passi"e partiiple in the a&lati"e a&solute/Set: =2;. N.0 or &y a temporal lause /espeially !ith um or post3uam0:

ita3ue on"oatis enturioni&us milites ertiores fait /'. 1. .?0 and so ha"ingalled the enturions together he informs the soldiers /the enturions ha"ing &een

alled together0.um "enisset animad"ertit ollem / id. 5.==0 ha"ing ome /!hen he had ome0 henotied a hill.

post3uam id animum ad"ertit opias suas Caesar in pro%imum ollem su&duit /'.1. 4.2=0 ha"ing o&ser"ed this /after he had o&ser"ed this0 Caesar led his troops tothe nearest hill.

ses of artiiples

SECTION: #=7=. The resent and erfet artiiples are sometimes used asattri&uti"es nearly li)e ad,eti"es:

aeger et flagrans animus /Ta. $nn. .?=0 his si) and passionate mind.

um anti3uissimam sententiam tum ompro&atam /9i". 4.440 a "ie! at one mostanient and !ell appro"ed.

signa num3uam fere mentientia / id. 4.4?0 signs hardly e"er deeitful.

auspiiis utuntur oatis / id. 4.250 they use fored auspies.

artiiples often &eome omplete ad,eti"es and may &e ompared or used asnouns:

3uo mulieri esset res autior /Cae. 440 that the matter might &e more seure forthe !oman.

in illis arti&us praestantissimus /9e Or. 4.2450 pre(eminent in those arts.

si&i indulgentes et orpori deser"ientes /egg. 4.70 the self(indulgent and sla"esto the &ody /indulging themsel"es and ser"ing the &ody0.

rete fata paria esse de&ent /ar. 220 right deeds /things rightly done0 ought to &eli)e in "alue /see Set: 24. &0.

male parta male dila&untur /hil. 2.6?0 ill got ill spent /things ill a3uired are illspent0.



onsuetudo "alentis /9e Or. 2.4860 the ha&it of a man in health.

SECTION: #=7?. artiiples are often used as rediate $d,eti"es. $s suh they

may &e ,oined to the su&,et &y esse or a opulati"e "er& /see V W 280:1allia est di"isa /'. 1. 4.40 1aul is di"ided.

lous 3ui nun saeptus est /i". 4.80 the plae !hih is no! enlosed.

"idetis ut senetus sit operosa et semper agens ali3uid et moliens /Cat. @. 260 yousee ho! &usy old age is al!ays aiming and trying at something.

nemo adhu on"enire me "oluit ui fuerim oupatus / id. 20 no&ody hithertohas De"erF !ished to on"erse !ith me to !hom I ha"e &een Kengaged.K

NOTE.((>rom this prediate use arise the ompound tenses of the passi"e((thepartiiple of ompleted ation !ith the inomplete tenses of esse de"eloping theidea of past time: as interfetus est he !as /or has &een0 )illed lit. he is ha"ing( &een()illed /i.e. already slain0.

The perfet partiiple used !ith fui et. !as perhaps originally an intensifiede%pression in the popular language for the perfet pluperfet et.

$t times these forms indiate a state of affairs no longer e%isting:

otem 3uo3ue eodem loo sitam fuisse memorant /i". 4.6.?0 they say that a !hetstone !as /one0 deposited in this same plae. D$t the time of !riting it !as nolonger there.F

arma 3uae fi%a in parieti&us fuerant humi in"enta sunt /9i". 4.5=0 the arms !hihhad &een fastened on the !alls !ere found upon the ground.

'ut more fre3uently they are not to &e distinguished from the forms !ith sum et.

The onstrution is found oasionally at all periods &ut is most ommon in i"yand later !riters.

SECTION: #=76. The resent and erfet artiiples are often used as a prediate !here in English a phrase or a su&ordinate lause !ould &e more natural.

In this use the partiiples e%press time ause oasion ondition onessionharateristi /or desription0 manner means attendant irumstanes:



"ol"entes hostilia ada"era amium reperie&ant / Sall. Cat. 640 !hile rolling o"erthe orpses of the enemy they found a friend. DTime.F

paululum ommoratus signa anere iu&et / id. ?70 after delaying a little !hile heorders them to gi"e the signal. DTime.F

longius prose3ui "eritus ad Cieronem per"enit /'. 1. ?.?20 &eause he feared tofollo! further he ame to Ciero. DCause.F

3ui siret la%as dare iussus ha&enas /$en. 4.60 !ho might )no! ho! to gi"e themloose rein !hen &idden. DOasion.F

damnatum poenam se3ui oporte&at /'. 1. 4.=0 if ondemned punishment musto"erta)e him. DCondition.F

salutem insperanti&us reddidisti+ / @ar. 240 you ha"e restored a safety for !hih !e did not hope /to DusF not hoping0. DConession.F

9ardanius aput ee puer detetus /$en. 4;.40 the Tro,an &oy !ith his headuno"ered. D9esription.F

ne trepides in usum posentis ae"i paua /or. Od. 2.44.?0 &e not an%ious for theneeds of age that demands little. DCharateristi.F

initati fuga montis altissimos pete&ant /'. C. .70 in headlong flight they madefor the highest mountains. [email protected]

milites su&le"ati alii a& aliis magnam partem itineris onfierent / id. 4.680 thesoldiers helped up &y eah other aomplished a onsidera&le part of the [email protected]

ho laudans ompeiius idem iura"it / id. .850 appro"ing this ompey too) thesame oath. D$ttendant Cirumstane.F

aut sedens aut am&ulans disputa&am /Tus. 4.50 I onduted the disussion eithersitting or !al)ing. D$ttendant Cirumstane.F

NOTE 4.((These uses are espeially fre3uent in the $&lati"e $&solute /Set: =2;0.

NOTE 2.(($ oordinate lause is sometimes ompressed into a perfet partiiple:

instrutos ordines in loum ae3uum deduit / Sall. Cat. ?70 he dra!s up the linesand leads them to le"el ground.

ut hos tradutos nearet /'. 1. ?.60 that he might arry them o"er and put them todeath.



NOTE .(($ partiiple !ith a negati"e often e%presses the same idea !hih inEnglish is gi"en &y !ithout and a "er&al noun: as(( miserum est nihil profiientemangi /N. 9. .4=0 it is !rethed to "e% oneself !ithout effeting anything.

NOTE =.(( $eptum and e%pensum as prediates !ith ferre and referre are

&oo))eeping terms: as((3uas peunias fere&at eis e%pensas /<err. 2.45;0 !hatsums he harged to them.

SECTION: #=75. $ noun and a passi"e partiiple are often so united that thepartiiple and not the noun ontains the main idea:

ante onditam ondendam "e ur&em /i". ref.0 &efore the ity !as &uilt or &uilding.

illi li&ertatem imminutam i"ium Bomanorum non tulerunt+ "os ereptam "itamneglegetis /@anil. 440 they did not endure the infringement of the itiGensA li&erty+ !ill you disregard the destrution of their li"es

post natos homines /'rut. 22=0 sine the reation of man.

iam a ondita ur&e /hil. .70 e"en from the founding of the ity.

The perfet partiiple !ith a noun in agreement or in the neuter as an a&stratnoun is used in the a&lati"e !ith opus need /f. Set: =44. a0:

opus fato est "iatio /l. Trin. 8850 there is need of laying in pro"ision.

maturato opus est /i". 8.4.450 there is need of haste.

The perfet partiiple !ith ha&eo /rarely !ith other "er&s0 has almost the samemeaning as a perfet ati"e &ut denotes the ontinued effet of the ation of the "er&:

fidem 3uam ha&ent spetatam iam et diu ognitam /Caeil. 440 my fidelity !hihthey ha"e pro"ed and long )no!n.

ohortis in aie [[[ onstitutas ha&e&at /'. C. .870 he had eighty ohorts

stationed in line of &attle.

nefarios dues aptos iam et omprehensos tenetis /Cat. .460 you ha"e no!aptured the infamous leaders and hold them in ustody.

$ "er& of effeting or the li)e may &e used in om&ination !ith the perfetpartiiple of a transiti"e "er& to e%press the ation of that "er& more fori&ly:



SECTION: #=77. 'y later !riters and the poets the >uture artiiple is often usedin simple agreement !ith a su&stanti"e to e%press:pJ

4. i)elihood or ertainty:rem ausus plus famae ha&ituram /i". 2.4;0 ha"ing dared a thing !hih !ouldha"e more repute.

2. urpose intention or readiness:

egreditur astris Bomanus "allum in"asurus /i". .6;.80 the Boman omes out ofthe amp !ith the intention of atta)ing the rampart.

dispersos per agros milites e3uiti&us in"asuris / id. 4.60 !hile the horse !ereready to atta) the soldiers sattered through the fields.

si periturus a&is /$en. 2.65?0 if you are going a!ay to perish.

. $podosis:

dedit mihi 3uantum ma%imum potuit daturus amplius si potuisset /lin. Ep..24.60 he ga"e me as muh as he ould ready to gi"e me more if he had &een a&le.Dere daturus is e3ui"alent to dedisset.F

1erundi"e />uture assi"e artiiple0

NOTE.((The partiiple in (dus ommonly alled the 1erundi"e has t!o distintuses:

/40 Its prediate and attri&ute use as artiiple or $d,eti"e /Set: ?;;0.

/20 Its use !ith the meaning of the 1erund /Set: ?;0. This may &e alled itsgerundi"e use.

.1EBN@9I<E

SECTION: #?;;. The 1erundi"e !hen used as a artiiple or an $d,eti"e is al!ayspassi"e denoting neessity o&ligation or propriety.

In this use of the 1erundi"e the follo!ing points are to &e o&ser"ed:



4. The gerundi"e is sometimes used li)e the present and perfet partiiples insimple agreement !ith a noun:

fortem et onser"andum "irum /@il. 4;=0 a &ra"e man and !orthy to &epreser"ed.

gra"is iniuria fata est et non ferenda />la. 8=0 a gra"e and intolera&le !ronghas &een done.

2. The most fre3uent use of the gerundi"e is !ith the forms of esse in the Seond/or passi"e0 eriphrasti Con,ugation /see Set: 4760:

non agitanda res erit /<err. ?.4570 !ill not the thing ha"e to &e agitated

. The neuter gerundi"e of &oth transiti"e and intransiti"e "er&s may &e usedimpersonally in the seond periphrasti on,ugation.

-ith "er&s that ta)e the dati"e or a&lati"e an o&,et may &e e%pressed in theappropriate ase+ !ith transiti"e "er&s an o&,et in the ausati"e is sometimesfound:

tempori ser"iendum est />am. 7.5.20 one must o&ey the time.

legi&us parendum est the la!s must &e o&eyed.

utendum e%eritationi&us modiis /Cat. @. 60 !e must use moderate e%erise

agitandumst "igilias /l. Trin. 8670 I ha"e got to stand guard.

"ia 3uam no&is ingrediendum sit /Cat. @. 60 the !ay !e ha"e to enter.

=. $fter "er&s signifying to gi"e deli"er agree for ha"e reei"e underta)edemanda gerundi"e in agreement !ith the o&,et is used to e%press purpose:

redemptor 3ui olumnam illam ondu%erat faiendam /9i". 2.=50 the ontrator !ho had underta)en to ma)e that olumn. DThe regular onstrution !ith this lassof "er&s.F

aedem Castoris ha&uit tuendam /<err. 2.4.4?;0 he had the temple of Castor to ta)eare of.

na"is at3ue onera adser"anda ura&at / id. ?.4=60 he too) are that the ships andargoes should &e )ept.

.1EBN9



/inadmissi&le0 onstrution !ith the gerund !ould &e ad su&eundum periula+ adgo"erning the gerund and the gerund go"erning the ausati"e periula.F >ordetails see Set: ?;=(?;5.

NOTE 4.((In this use the gerund and the gerundi"e are translated in the same !ay

&ut ha"e really a different onstrution. The gerundi"e is a passi"e partiiple andagrees !ith its noun though in translation !e hange the "oie ,ust as !e maytranslate "igiliae agitandae sunt /guard must &e )ept0 &y I must stand guard.

NOTE 2.((In the gerundi"e onstrution the "er&s utor fruor et. are treated li)etransiti"e "er&s go"erning the ausati"e as they do in early atin /Set: =4;. a. N.40: as (( ad perfruendas "oluptates /Off. 4.2?0 for en,oying pleasures.

The follo!ing e%amples illustrate the parallel onstrutions of 1erund and1erundi"e:

1EN. onsilium ur&em apiendi ur&is apiendae a design of ta)ing the ity.

9$T. dat operam agros olendo agris olendis he attends to tilling the fields.

$CC. "eniunt ad mihi parendum paem petendam they ome to o&ey me. to see)peae.

$'. terit tempus sri&endo epistulas sri&endis epistulis he spends time in !ritingletters.

NOTE 4.((The gerund !ith a diret o&,et is pratially limited to the 1eniti"e andthe $&lati"e /!ithout a preposition0+ e"en in these ases the gerundi"e isommoner.

NOTE 2.((The gerund or gerundi"e is often found oordinated !ith nominalonstrutions and sometimes e"en in apposition !ith a noun:

/40 in foro in uria in amiorum periulis propulsandis /hil. 5.50 in the forum inthe senate(house in defending my friends in ,eopardy.

/20 ad res di"ersissimas parendum at3ue imperandum /i". 24.=0 for the most !idely different things o&eying and ommanding.

1eniti"e of the 1erund and 1erundi"e

SECTION: #?;=. The 1eniti"e of the 1erund and 1erundi"e is used after nouns orad,eti"es either as su&,eti"e or o&,eti"e geniti"e:

"i"ende Q finis est optimus /Cat. @. 520 it is the &est end of li"ing. DSu&,eti"e.F



ne3ue onsili ha&endi ne3ue arma apiendi spatio dato+ / '. 1. =.4=0 time &einggi"en neither for forming plans nor for ta)ing arms. DO&,eti"e.F

non tam ommutandarum 3uam e"ertendarum rerum upidos /Off. 2.0 desirousnot so muh of hanging as of destroying the state. DO&,eti"e.F

NOTE 4.((In these uses the gerund and the gerundi"e are a&out e3ually ommon.

NOTE 2.((In a fe! phrases the Infiniti"e is used !ith nouns !hih ordinarily ha"ethe geniti"e of the gerund or gerundi"e: as(( tempus est a&ire it is time to go.

The geniti"e of the gerund sometimes ta)es a diret o&,et espeially a neuterpronoun or a neuter ad,eti"e used su&stanti"ely:

nulla ausa iusta ui3uam esse potest ontra patriam arma apiendi+ / hil. 2.?0no one an ha"e a ,ust ause for ta)ing up arms against his ountry.

artem "era a falsa diiudiandi+ /9e Or. 2.4?50 the art of distinguishing true fromfalse.

NOTE 4.((The geniti"e of the gerund or gerundi"e is used /espeially in later atin0as a prediate geniti"e. -hen so used it often e%presses purpose:

3uae post3uam gloriosa modo ne3ue &elli patrandi ogno"it /Iug. 880 !hen heperei"ed that these !ere only &rilliant deeds and not li)ely to end the !ar.

$egyptum profiisitur ognosendae anti3uitatis /Ta. $nn. 2.?70 he sets out forEgypt to study old times.

The geniti"e of the gerund or gerundi"e !ith ausa or gratia e%presses purpose/Set: ?. &0:

pa&ulandi aut frumentandi ausa progressi+ / '. C. 4.=80 ha"ing ad"aned for thepurpose of olleting fodder or supplies.

"itandae suspiionis ausa+ / Cat. 4.470 in order to a"oid suspiion.

simulandi gratia+ /Iug. 50 in order to deei"e.

e%erendae memoriae gratia+ /Cat. @. 80 for the sa)e of training the memory.

The geniti"e of the gerund is oasionally limited &y a noun or pronoun /espeiallya personal pronoun in the plural0 in the o&,eti"e geniti"e instead of ta)ing a direto&,et:

reiiiendi trium iudium potestas /<err. 2.550 the po!er of hallenging three ,urors /of the re,eting of three ,urors0.



sui olligendi faultas /'. 1. .60 the opportunity to reo"er themsel"es.

9ati"e of the 1erund and 1erundi"e

SECTION: #?;?. The 9ati"e of the 1erund and 1erundi"e is used in a fe!e%pressions after "er&s:

diem praestitit operi faiendo /<err. 2.4.4=80 he appointed a day for doing the !or).

praeesse agro olendo /Bos. $m. ?;0 to ta)e harge of ulti"ating the land.

esse sol"endo to &e a&le to pay /to &e for paying0.

NOTE.((The dati"e of the gerund !ith a diret o&,et is ne"er found in lassi atin &ut ours t!ie in lautus.

The dati"e of the gerund and gerundi"e is used after ad,eti"esespeially those !hih denote fitness or adapta&ility:

genus armorum aptum tegendis orpori&us /i". 2.4;0 a sort of armor suited tothe defene of the &ody.

reli3ua tempora demetendis fruti&us et peripiendis aommodata sunt /Cat. @.5;0 the other seasons are fitted to reap and gather in the har"est.

perferendis militum mandatis idoneus /Ta. $nn. 4.20 suita&le for arrying outthe instrutions of the soldiers.

NOTE.((This onstrution is "ery ommon in i"y and later !riters infre3uent inlassial prose.

The dati"e of the gerund and gerundi"e is used in ertain legal phrases after nounsmeaning offiers offies eletions et. to indiate the funtion or sope of theoffie et.:

omitia onsuli&us rogandis /9i". 4.0 eletions for nominating onsuls.

trium"ir oloniis deduundis /Iug. =20 a trium"ir for planting olonies.

trium"iri rei pu&liae onstituendae /title of the Trium"irate0 trium"irs /aommission of three0 for settling the go"ernment.

U



si ho fas est ditu /Tus. ?.80 if this is la!ful to say.

"idetis nefas esse ditu miseram fuisse talem senetutem /Cat. @. 40 you see it isa sin to say that suh an old age !as !rethed.

NOTE 4.((The supine in (u is thus in appearane an $&lati"e of Speifiation /Set:=480.

NOTE 2.((The supine in (u is found espeially !ith suh ad,eti"es as indiate aneffet on the senses or the feelings and those !hih denote ease diffiulty and theli)e. 'ut !ith failis diffiilis and iuundus ad !ith the gerund is more ommon:

ne "isu failis ne ditu adfa&ilis ulli+ / $en. .6240 he is not pleasant for any manto loo) at or address.

diffiilis ad distinguendum similitudo+ /9e Or. 2.2420 a li)eness diffiult todistinguish.

NOTE .((-ith all these ad,eti"es the poets often use the Infiniti"e in the samesense: as((failes aurem prae&ere /rop. 2.24.4?0 indulgent to lend an ear.

NOTE =.((The supine in (u !ith a "er& is e%tremely rare: as(( pudet ditu /Ta. $gr. 20 it is a shame to tell. DOn the analogy of pudendum ditu.F

.CON9ITION$ SENTENCES

SECTION: #?44. The Conditional Sentene differs from other omple% sentenes inthis that the form of the main lause /$O9OSIS0 is determined in some degree &ythe nature of the su&ordinate lause /BOT$SIS0 upon the truth of !hih the !hole statement depends. i)e all omple% sentenes ho!e"er the ConditionalSentene has arisen from the use of t!o independent sentene(forms to e%press theparts of a thought !hih !as too ompliated to &e fully e%pressed &y a simplesentene. 'ut &eause the thoughts thus e%pressed are in reality losely related asparts of a single !hole the sentenes !hih represent them are also felt to &emutually dependent e"en though the relation is not e%pressed &y any onneting !ord. Thus Spea) the !ord: my ser"ant shall &e healed is a simpler and an earlierform of e%pression than If thou spea) the !ord et.

The Conditional artiles !ere originally pronouns !ithout onditional meaning:thus si if is a !ea) demonstrati"e of the same origin as si so /si(e li)e hi(e seeSet: 24?. ?0 and had originally the meaning of in that !ay or in some !ay. Itsrelati"e sense /if0 seems to ha"e ome from its use !ith si to ma)e a pair oforrelati"es: thus ... thus /see Set: ?42. &0.



In its origin the Conditional Sentene assumed one of t!o forms. The ondition !as from the first felt to &e a ondition not a fat or a ommand+ &ut as no speialsentene(form for a ondition !as in use it employed for its e%pression either astatement of fat /!ith the Indiati"e0 or a form of mild ommand /theSu&,unti"e0. >rom the former ha"e ome all the uses of the Indiati"e in protasis+from the latter all the uses of the Su&,unti"e in protasis. The $podosis has either/40 the Indiati"e e%pressing the onlusion as a fat and the resent and erfetSu&,unti"e e%pressing it originally as future((and hene more or less dou&tful((or/20 the Imperfet and luperfet Su&,unti"e e%pressing it as futurum inpraeteritoand so unfulfilled in the present or past. Thus(( rides maiore ahinnoonutitur you laugh he sha)es !ith more &oisterous laughter is the original formfor the Indiati"e in protasis and apodosis+ si rides originally means merely youlaugh in some !ay or other and so later I> you laugh. So roges $ristonem negetas) $risto he !ould say no is the original form of the su&,unti"e in protasis andapodosis+ si roges !ould mean as) in some !ay or other. In si rogares negaret theImperfet rogares transfers the ommand of roges to past time!ith the meaningsuppose you had as)ed and si !ould ha"e the same meaning as &efore+ !hilenegaret transfers the future idea of neget to past time and means he !as going todeny. No! the stating of this supposition at all gi"es rise to the impliation that it isuntrue in point of fat((&eause if it !ere true there !ould ordinarily &e no needto state it as a supposition: for it !ould then &e a simple fat and as suh !ould &eput in the indiati"e.Suh a ondition or onlusion

!as originally past meaning suppose you had as)ed DyesterdayF he !as going todeny0 it ame to e%press an unfulfilled ondition in the present: suppose /or if0 you !ere no! as)ing he !ould Dno!F deny((,ust as in English ought !hih originallymeant o!edhas ome to e%press a present o&ligation.

>or the lassifiation of Conditional Sentenes see Set: ?4.

4 The gerundi"e onstrution is pro&a&ly the original one.

2 Suh are praeesse operam dare diem diere loum apere.

Suh are aommodatus aptus ineptus &onus ha&ilis idoneus par utilisinutilis. 'ut the ausati"e !ith ad is ommon !ith most of these /f. Set: 8?. a0.

= In this use the a&lati"e of the gerund is in later !riters nearly and in medie"al !riters entirely e3ui"alent to a present partiiple: as(( um una dierum >EN9O

sedisset 3uidam miles generosus iu%ta eam EIT$N9O "enit /1estaBomanorum 66 D0 as one day she sat !eeping a ertain )night ame riding &y/ompare Set: ?;5 fourth e%ample0. ene ome the Italian and Spanish forms ofthe present partiiple /as mandando esperando0 the true partiipial form &eoming an ad,eti"e in those languages.



? The only ommon supines in (u are auditu ditu fatu in"entu memoratu natu "isu. In lassi use this supine is found in omparati"ely fe! "er&s. It is ne"erfollo!ed &y an o&,et(ase.

6 The futurum in praeterito is a tense future relati"ely to a time a&solutely past. It

denotes a future at transferred to the point of "ie! of past time and hene isnaturally e%pressed &y a past tense of the Su&,unti"e: thus di%isset he !ould ha"esaidL diturus fuit he !as a&out to say D&ut did notF. $s that !hih loo)s to!ardsthe future from some point in the past has a natural limit in present time suh atense /the imperfet su&,unti"e0 ame naturally to &e used to e%press a presentondition purely ideal that is to say ontrary to fat.

5 Compare potius dieret he should rather ha"e said /Set: =7. &0.

8 There are ho!e"er some ases in !hih this impliation does not arise: as((deiens entena dedisses nil erat in loulis /or. S. 4..4?0 if youAd gi"en him amillion there !as nothing in his offers.

7 KThere !as a ertain lender !hih ought him fi"e hundred piees.M((TyndaleAs Ne! Testament.

.BOT$SIS $N9 .$O9OSIS

SECTION: #?42. $ omplete Conditional Sentene onsists of t!o lauses therotasis and the $podosis.

The lause ontaining the ondition is alled the BOT$SIS the lause ontainingthe onlusion is alled the $O9OSIS:

si 3ui e%ire "olunt D BOT$SISF oni"ere possum D $O9OSISF /Cat. 2.250 if any !ish to depart I an )eep my eyes shut.

si est in e%silio D BOT$SISF 3uid amplius postulatis D $O9OSISF /ig. 40 if heis in e%ile !hat more do you as)

It should &e arefully noted that the $podosis is the main lause and the rotasisthe dependent lause.

The rotasis is regularly introdued &y the onditional partile si if or one of itsompounds.

NOTE.((These ompounds are sin nisi etiam si etsi tametsi tamenetsi /seeConditional and Conessi"e artiles p. 480. $n Indefinite Belati"e or any



relati"e or onessi"e !ord may also ser"e to introdue a onditional lause: seeConditional Belati"e Clauses /Set: ?47 ?=20+ Conessi"e Clauses / Set: ?250.

The $podosis is often introdued &y some orrelati"e !ord or phrase: as ita tum/rarely si0 or ea ondiione et.:

ita enim senetus honesta est si se ipsa defendit /Cat. @. 80 on this ondition isold age honora&le if it defends itself.

si 3uidem me amaret tum istu prodesset /Ter. Eun. ==60 if he lo"ed me then this !ould &e profita&le.

si sri&es ali3uid si "aa&is /$tt. 42.8.20 if you are /shall &e0 at leisure then you !ill !rite something.

The $podosis is the prinipal lause of the onditional sentene &ut may at thesame time &e su&ordinate to some other lause and so appear in the form of aartiiple an Infiniti"e or a hrase:

sepultura 3uo3ue prohi&ituri ni re% humari iussisset /. C. 8.2.420 intending alsoto depri"e him of &urial unless the )ing had ordered him to &e interred.

3uod si praeterea nemo se3uatur tamen se um sola deima legione iturum D esseF/'. 1. 4.=;.4=0 &ut if no one else should follo! he !ould go !ith the tenth legionalone.

si 3uos ad"ersum proelium ommo"eret hos reperire posse / id. =;.80 if the loss ofa &attle alarmed any they might find et.

NOTE.((-hen the $podosis itself is in Indiret 9isourse or in any otherdependent onstrution the "er& of the rotasis is regularly in the Su&,unti"e /asin the a&o"e e%amples see Set: ?870.

.C$SSI>IC$TION O> .CON9ITIONS

SECTION: #?4. Conditions are either /40 artiular or /20 1eneral.

4. $ artiular Condition refers to a definite at or series of ats ourring at somedefinite time.

2. $ 1eneral Condition refers to any one of a lass of ats !hih may our /or mayha"e ourred0 at any time.



SECTION: #?4=. The prinipal or typial forms of Conditional Sentenes may &ee%hi&ited as follo!s:

$BTIC$B CON9ITIONS

$. SI@E CON9ITIONS /nothing implied as to fulfilment04. resent Time

resent Indiati"e in &oth lauses:

si adest &ene est if he is Dno!F here it is !ell.

2. ast Time

Imperfet or erfet Indiati"e in &oth lauses:

si aderat &ene erat if he !as DthenF here it !as !ell.

si adfuit &ene fuit if he has &een D!asF here it has &een D!asF !ell.

'. >TBE CON9ITIONS /as yet unfulfilled0

4. .@ore .<i"id

a. >uture Indiati"e in &oth lauses:

si aderit &ene erit if he is /shall &e0 here it !ill &e !ell.

&. >uture erfet Indiati"e in protasis >uture Indiati"e in apodosis:

si adfuerit &ene erit if he is /shall ha"e &een0 here it !ill DthenF &e !ell

2. .ess .<i"id

a. resent Su&,unti"e in &oth lauses:

si adsit &ene sit if he should &e /or !ere to &e0 here it !ould &e !ell.

&. erfet Su&,unti"e in protasis resent Su&,unti"e in apod osis:

si adfuerit &ene sit if he should &e /should ha"e &een0 here it !ould DthenF &e !ell.

CON9ITIONS .CONTB$B TO .>$CT

4. resent Time



Imperfet Su&,unti"e in &oth lauses:

si adesset &ene esset if he !ere Dno!F here it !ould &e !ell /&ut he is NOT here0.

2. ast Time

luperfet Su&,unti"e in &oth lauses:

si adfuisset &ene fuisset if he had DthenF &een here it !ould ha"e &een !ell /&ut he !as NOT here0.

NOTE.((The use of tenses in rotasis is "ery loose in English. Thus if he is ali"eno! is a BESENT ondition to &e e%pressed in atin &y the resent Indiati"e+ ifhe is ali"e ne%t year is a >TBE ondition e%pressed in atin &y the >utureIndiati"e. $gain if he !ere here no! is a BESENT ondition ontrary to fat and !ould &e e%pressed &y the Imperfet Su&,unti"e+ if he !ere to see me thus is a>TBE ondition less "i"id to &e e%pressed &y the resent Su&,unti"e+ and so U

Jo if you ad"ised him he !ould attend may &e future less "i"id.

.1ENEB$ CON9ITIONS

1eneral Conditions do not usually differ in form from artiular Conditions /$ 'and C0 &ut are sometimes distinguished in the ases follo!ing:

4. resent 1eneral Condition /Indefinite Time0

a. resent Su&,unti"e seond person singular /Indefinite Su&,et0 in protasisresent Indiati"e in apodosis:

si ho dias reditur if any one De"erF says this it is Dal!aysF &elie"ed.

&. erfet Indiati"e in protasis resent Indiati"e in apodosis:

si 3uid di%it reditur if he De"erF says anything it is Dal!aysF &elie"ed.

2. ast 1eneral Condition /Bepeated $tion in ast Time0

a. luperfet Indiati"e in protasis Imperfet Indiati"e in apodosis:

si 3uid di%erat rede&atur if he De"erF said anything it !as Dal!aysF &elie"ed.

&. Imperfet Su&,unti"e in protasis Imperfet Indiati"e in apodosis:

si 3uid dieret rede&atur if he De"erF said anything it !as Dal!aysF &elie"ed /L !hate"er he said !as al!ays &elie"ed0.



Cf. the 1ree) forms orresponding to the "arious types of onditions:

$. 4. ei prassei touto )als ehei. 2. ei eprasse touto )als eihen.

'. 4. ean prassei touto )als he%ei. 2. ei prassoi touto )als an ehoi.

C. 4. ei eprasse touto )als an eihen. 2. ei epra%e touto )als an eshen.

9. 4. ean tis )lept

4 In most English "er&s the reterite /or ast0 Su&,unti"e is idential in form !iththe reterite Indiati"e. Thus in suh a sentene as if he lo"ed his father he !ouldnot say this the "er& lo"ed is really a reterite Su&,unti"e though this does notappear from the infletion. In the "er& to &e ho!e"er the Su&,unti"e !ere has &een preser"ed and differs in form from the indiati"e !as.

$BTIC$B .CON9ITIONS

Simple resent and ast Conditions((Nothing Implied

SECTION: #?4?. In the statement of resent and ast onditions !hose falsity isNOT implied the resent and ast tenses of the Indiati"e are used in &othrotasis and $podosis:

si tu e%eritus3ue "aletis &ene est />am. ?.20 if you and the army are !ell it is !ell. Dresent Condition.F

hae igitur si Bomae es+ sin ades aut etiam si ades hae negotia si se ha&ent /$tt.?.480 this then if you are at Bome+ &ut if you are a!ay((or e"en if you are there((these matters are as follo!s. Dresent Condition.F

si Caesarem pro&atis in me offenditis / '. C. 2.2.4;0 if you fa"or Caesar you findfault !ith me. Dresent Condition.F

si 3ui magnis in eo genere e%stiterunt non satis 1raeorum gloriae responderunt/Tus. 4.0 if any ha"e sho!n themsel"es of great genius in that department theyha"e failed to ompete !ith the glory of the 1ree)s. Dast 1eneral Condition not

distinguished in form from artiular.F

aepi Boma sine epistula tua fasiulum litterarum in 3uo si modo "aluisti etBomae fuisti hilotimi duo esse ulpam non tuam /$tt. ?.450 I ha"e reei"edfrom Bome a &undle of letters !ithout any from you !hih pro"ided you ha"e &een !ell and at Bome I ta)e to &e the fault of hilotimus not yours. D@i%ed: astondition and resent onlusion.F



3uas litteras si Bomae es "ide&is putesne reddendas / id. ?.480 as to this letter if you are at Bome you !ill see !hether in your opinion it ought to &e deli"ered.D@i%ed: resent and >uture.F

si nemo impetra"it adroganter rogo /ig. ;0 if no one has sueeded in o&taining

it my re3uest is presumptuous. Dast and resent.FIn these onditions the apodosis need not al!ays &e in the Indiati"e &ut mayassume any form aording to the sense:

si plaet ... "ideamus /Cat. @. 4?0 if you please let us see. Dortatory Su&,unti"eSet: =7.F

si nondum satis ernitis reordamini /@il. 640 if you do not yet see learlyreollet. DImperati"e.F

si 3uid ha&es ertius "elim sire /$tt. =.4;0 if you ha"e any trust!orthyinformation I should li)e to )no! it. DSu&,unti"e of @odesty Set: ==5. 4.F

NOTE.(($lthough the form of these onditions does not imply anything as to thetruth of the supposition the sense or the onte%t may of ourse ha"e some suhimpliation:

nolite si in nostro omnium fletu nullam larimam aspe%istis @ilonis ho minus eiparere /@il. 720 do not if amid the !eeping of us all you ha"e seen no tear Din theeyesF of @ilo spare him the less for that.

petimus a "o&is iudies si 3ua di"ina in tantis ingeniis ommendatio de&et esse uteum in "estram aipiatis fidem /$rh. 40 !e as) you ,udges if there ought to &eanything in suh genius to reommend it to us as &y a reommendation of the godsthat you reei"e him under your protetion.

In these t!o passages the protasis really e%presses ause: &ut the ause is put &ythe spea)er in the form of a non(ommittal ondition. is hearers are to dra! theinferene for themsel"es. In this !ay the desired impression is made on theirminds more effeti"ely than if an outspo)en ausal lause had &een used.

>uture Conditions

SECTION: #?46. >uture Conditions may &e more "i"id or less "i"id.

4. In a more "i"id future ondition the protasis ma)es a distint supposition of afuture ase the apodosis e%pressing !hat !ill &e the logial result.



si a orona relitus sim non 3ueam diere /'rut. 4720 if I should &e deserted &ythe irle of listeners I should not &e a&le to spea).

NOTE.((The >uture erfet is often used in the apodosis of a future ondition: as(( "ehementer mihi gratum feeris si hun adulesentem humanitate tua

omprehenderis />am. 4.4?0 you !ill do /!ill ha"e done0 me a great fa"or if youreei"e this young man !ith your usual ourtesy.

$ny form denoting or implying future time may stand in the apodosis of a futureondition. So the Imperati"e the partiiples in (dus and ( rus and "er&s ofneessity possi&ility and the li)e:

alius finis onstituendus est si prius 3uid ma%ime reprehendere Sipio solitus sitdi%ero+ /ael. ?70 another limit must &e set if I first state !hat Sipio !as !ontmost to find fault !ith.

si me praeeperit fatum "os mandasse memento /. C. 7.6.260 if fate uts me offtoo soon do you remem&er that I ordered this.

nisi oulis "ideritis insidias @iloni a Clodio fatas ne depreaturi sumus nepostulaturi /@il. 60 unless you see !ith your o!n eyes the plots laid against @ilo &y Clodius I shall neither &eg nor demand et.

non possum istum ausare si upiam /<err. =.850 I annot ause him if Ishould /so0 desire

Barely the erfet Indiati"e is used in apodosis !ith a resent or e"en a >uture /or>uture erfet0 in protasis to represent the onlusion rhetorially as alreadyaomplished:

si ho &ene fi%um in animo est "iistis /i". 24.==0 if this is !ell fi%ed in yourminds you ha"e on3uered. D>or you !ill ha"e on3uered.F

si eundem D animumF ha&ueritis "iimus / id. 24.=0 if you shall ha"e )ept thesame spirit !e ha"e on3uered.

$ future ondition is fre3uently thro!n &a) into past time !ithout implying thatit is ontrary to fat /Set: ?450. In suh ases the Imperfet or luperfetSu&,unti"e may &e used:

non poterat nisi deertare "ellet /'. C. .==0 he !as not a&le unless he !ished tofight.

tumulus apparuit ... si lue palam iretur hostis prae"enturus erat /i". 22.2=0 ahill appeared ... if they should go openly &y daylight the enemy !ould pre"ent.DThe first t!o appear li)e Indiret 9isourse &ut are not. $n o&ser"er desri&ing



the situation in the first e%ample as present !ould say non potest nisi "elit /see d0and no indiret disourse !ould &e thought of.F

Caesar si peteret ... non 3ui3uam profieret /or. S. 4..=0 if e"en Caesar !ere toas) he !ould gain nothing. Dere the onstrution is not ontrary to fat &ut is

simply si petat non profiiat thro!n into past time.FConditions .Contrary to >at

SECTION: #?45. In the statement of a supposition impliedly false the Imperfetand luperfet Su&,unti"e are used in &oth protasis and apodosis.The Imperfetrefers to present time the luperfet to past:

si "i"eret "er&a eiius audiretis /Bos. Com. =20 if he !ere li"ing you !ould hearhis !ords. Dresent.F

nisi tu amisisses num3uam reepissem /Cat. @. 440 unless you had lost it I shouldnot ha"e reo"ered it. Dast.F

si meum onsilium "aluisset tu hodie egeres res pu&lia non tot dues amisisset/hil. 2.50 if my ,udgment had pre"ailed Das it did notF you !ould this day &e a &eggar and the repu&li !ould not ha"e lost so many leaders. D@i%ed resent andast.F

In onditions ontrary to fat the Imperfet often refers to past time &oth inprotasis and apodosis espeially !hen a repeated or ontinued ation is denotedor !hen the ondition if true !ould still e%ist:

si nihil litteris adiu"arentur num3uam se ad earum studium ontulissent /$rh.460 if they had not &een helped at all &y literature they ne"er !ould ha"e gi"entheir attention to the study of it. D-ithout the ondition adiu"a&antur.F

hi si mentis esset suae ausus esset eduere e%eritum /ison. ?;0 if he !ere ofsane mind !ould he ha"e dared to lead out the army Dere esset denotes aontinued state past as !ell as present.F

non onidissent nisi illud reeptaulum lassi&us nostris pateret /<err. 2.0 Dthe

po!er of CarthageF !ould not ha"e fallen unless that station had &een DonstantlyFopen to our fleets. D-ithout the ondition pate&at.F

In the apodosis of a ondition ontrary to fat the past tenses of the Indiati"e may &e used to e%press !hat !as intended or li)ely or already &egun. In this use theImperfet Indiati"e orresponds in time to the Imperfet Su&,unti"e and theerfet or luperfet Indiati"e to the luperfet Su&,unti"e:



si liitum esset matres "enie&ant /<err. ?.4270 the mothers !ere oming if it had &een allo!ed.

in ample%us filiae rue&at nisi litores o&stitissent /Ta. $nn. 46.20 he !as a&outrushing into his daughterAs arms unless the litors had opposed.

iam tuta tene&am ni gens rudelis ferro in"asisset /$en. 6.?80 I !as ,ustreahing a plae of safety had not the fiere people atta)ed me.

NOTE 4.((ere the apodosis may &e regarded as elliptial. Thus(( matres "eniY]&ant / et "enissent0 the matrons !ere oming /and !ould ha"e )ept on0 ifet.

NOTE 2.((-ith paene /and sometimes prope0 almost the erfet Indiati"e isused in the apodosis of a past ondition ontrary to fat: as((pons iter paenehosti&us dedit ni unus "ir fuisset /i". 2.4;0 the &ridge had almost gi"en a passageto the foe if it had not &een for one hero.

<er&s and other e%pressions denoting neessity propriety possi&ility duty !henused in the apodosis of a ondition ontrary to fat may &e put in the Imperfet orerfet Indiati"e.

Suh are oportet deet de&eo possum neesse est opus est and the Seonderiphrasti Con,ugation:

non potuit fieri sapiens nisi natus esset />in. 2.4;0 he ould not ha"e &eome asage if he had not &een &orn.

si pri"atus esset ho tempore tamen is erat deligendus /@anil. ?;0 if he !ere atthis time a pri"ate itiGen yet he ought to &e appointed.

3uod esse aput de&e&at si pro&ari posset />in. =.20 !hat ought to &e the mainpoint if it ould &e pro"ed.

si ita putasset erte opta&ilius @iloni fuit /@il. 40 if he had thought so surely it !ould ha"e &een prefera&le for @ilo.

NOTE 4.((In resent onditions the Imperfet Su&,unti"e / oporteret possemet.0 is the rule the Indiati"e &eing rare+ in ast onditions &oth the Su&,unti"e

/usually luperfet0 and the Indiati"e /usually erfet0 are ommon.

>or par erat melius fuit and the li)e follo!ed &y the infiniti"e see Set: ?24. N.

NOTE 2.((The indiati"e onstrution is arried still further in poetry: as(( si nonalium iataret odorem laurus erat /1eorg. 2.40 it !ere a laurel &ut for gi"ingout a different odor.



J ieally put in the "i"id form to illustrate the a&surdity of some other supposedondition stated &y some one else.

2 The impliation of falsity in this onstrution is not inherent in the su&,unti"e+ &ut omes from the transfer of a future ondition to past time. Thus the time for the

happening of the ondition has at the moment of !riting already passed+ so thatif the ondition remains a ondition it must &e ontrary to fat. So past forms ofthe indiati"e implying a future fre3uently ta)e the plae of the su&,unti"e U

J apodosis in this onstrution /see d &elo! and Set: ?440.

O&ser"e that all these e%pressions ontain the idea of futurity /f. p. 28footnote0. Thus deet me D hodieF ire ras means it is proper for me Dto(dayF to goto(morro!+ and dee&at me D heriF ire hodie it !as proper for me DyesterdayF to goto(day usually !ith the impliation that I ha"e not gone as I !as &ound to do.

.1ENEB$ .CON9ITIONS

SECTION: #?48. 1eneral Conditions / Set: ?4. 20 ha"e usually the same forms asartiular Conditions. 'ut they are sometimes distinguished in the follo!ing ases:

The Su&,unti"e is often used in the seond person singular to denote the at of anindefinite su&,et /you L any one0. ere the resent Indiati"e of a general truthmay stand in the apodosis:

"ita humana prope uti ferrum est: si e%ereas onteritur+ si non e%ereas tamenro&igo interfiit / Cato de @.0 human life is "ery li)e iron: if you use it it !earsa!ay+ if you donAt use it rust still destroys it.

"irtutem neessario gloria etiamsi tu id non agas onse3uitur /Tus. 4.740 gloryneessarily follo!s "irtue e"en if that is not oneAs aim.

si prohi&ita impune transenderis ne3ue metus ultra ne3ue pudor est /Ta. $nn..?=0 if you one o"erstep the &ounds !ith impunity there is no fear or shame anymore.

In a general ondition in present time the protasis often ta)es the erfetIndiati"e and the apodosis the resent Indiati"e. >or past time the luperfet isused in the protasis and the Imperfet in the apodosis:

si 3uos ali3ua parte mem&rorum inutilis nota"erunt neari iu&ent /. C. 7.4.2?0 ifthey De"erF mar) any infirm in any part of their lim&s they Dal!aysF order them to &e put to death. Dresent.F



si a perse3uendo hostis deterrere ne3ui"erant a& tergo irum"enie&ant /Iug. ?;0 if De"erF they !ere una&le to pre"ent the enemy from pursuing they Dal!aysFsurrounded them in the rear. Dast.F

In later !riters /rarely in Ciero and Caesar0 the Imperfet and luperfet

Su&,unti"e are used in protasis !ith the Imperfet Indiati"e in apodosis to statea repeated or ustomary ation in past time /Iterati"e Su&,unti"e0:

si 3uis a domino prehenderetur onursu militum eripie&atur /'. C. .44;0 if any/runa!ay0 !as arrested &y his master he !as /al!ays0 resued &y a mo& ofsoldiers.

ausatores si faultas inideret poenis adfiie&antur /Ta. $nn. 6.;0 theausers !hene"er opportunity offered !ere "isited !ith punishment.

si 3uis ollegam appellasset a& eo ita disede&at ut paeniteret non prioris deretostetisse /i". .6.80 if any one appealed to a olleague he Dal!aysF ame off insuh ase that he repented not ha"ing su&mitted to the deree of the formerdeem"ir. DCf. S orates 3uam se um3ue in partem dedisset omnium fuit faileprineps /9e Or. .6;0 in !hate"er diretion Sorates turned himself he !as/al!ays0 easily the foremost /if in any. et.0.F

Conditional .Belati"e Clauses

SECTION: #?47. $ lause introdued &y a Belati"e ronoun or Belati"e $d"er&may e%press a ondition and ta)e any of the onstrutions of rotasis/Set: ?4=0:

3ui enim "itiis modum adponit is partem susipit "itiorum /Tus. =.=20 he !hoDonlyF sets a limit to faults ta)es up the side of the faults. DL si 3uis adponit.resent nothing implied.F

3ui mentiri solet peierare onsue"it /Bos. Com. =60 !hoe"er is in the ha&it oflying is austomed to s!ear falsely. DL si 3uis solet. resent nothing implied.F

3ui3uid potuit potuit ipsa per se+ /eg. $gr. 4.2;0 !hate"er po!er she had shehad &y herself. DL si 3uid potuit. ast nothing implied.F

3uod 3ui faiet non aegritudine solum "aa&it sed et. /Tus. =.80 and he !hodoes /shall do0 this !ill &e free not only et. DL si 3uis faiet. >uture more "i"id.F

3uis3uis hu "enerit "apula&it /l. $m. ;70 !hoe"er omes here shall get athrashing. DL si 3uis "enerit. >uture more "i"id.F

3uo "oles se3uar /Clu. 540 !hithersoe"er you !ish /shall !ish0 I !ill follo!. DL si3uo "oles. >uture more "i"id.F



philosophia ui 3ui pareat omne tempus aetatis sine molestia possit degere /Cat.@. 20 philosophy !hih if any one should o&ey he !ould &e a&le to spend his !hole life !ithout "e%ation. DL si 3uis pareat. >uture less "i"id.F

3uaeum3ue "os ausa hu attulisset laetarer /9e Or. 2.4?0 I should &e glad

!hate"er ause had &rought you here /i.e. if any other as !ell as the one !hihdid0. DL si ... attulisset. Contrary to fat.F

The relati"e in this onstrution is al!ays indefinite in meaning and "ery often inform.

SECTION: #?2;. The speial onstrutions of 1eneral Conditions are sometimesfound in Conditional Belati"e Clauses:

4. The Seond erson Singular of the Su&,unti"e in the protasis !ith the Indiati"eof a general truth in the apodosis /Set: ?48. a0:

&onus tantum modo segnior fit u&i neglegas at malus impro&ior /Iug. 4.280 agood man merely &eomes less diligent !hen you donAt !ath him &ut a &ad man &eomes more shameless. Dresent 1eneral Condition.F

2. The erfet or luperfet Indiati"e in the protasis and the resent or ImperfetIndiati"e in the apodosis /Set: ?48. &0:

um hu "eni ho ipsum nihil agere me deletat /9e Or. 2.2=0 !hene"er I omehere this "ery doing nothing delights me /!hene"er I ha"e ome et.0. Dresent1eneral Condition.F

um rosam "iderat tum inipere "er ar&itra&atur /<err. ?.250 !hene"er he sa!/had seen0 a rose then he thought spring !as &eginning. Dast 1eneral Condition.F

. In later !riters /rarely in Ciero and Caesar0 the Imperfet or luperfetSu&,unti"e in the protasis and the Imperfet Indiati"e in the apodosis /Set: ?48.0:

u&i im&eillitas materiae postulare "ideretur pilae interponuntur /'. C. 2.460 !here"er the !ea)ness of the tim&er seemed to re3uire piles !ere put &et!een.

Dast 1eneral Condition: interponuntur L interpone&antur.F

3uoum3ue se intulisset "itoriam seum trahe&at /i". 6.80 !here"er head"aned he arried "itory !ith him. Dast 1eneral Condition.F

Condition 9isguised



SECTION: #?24. In many sentenes properly onditional the rotasis is note%pressed &y a onditional lause &ut is stated in some other form of !ords orimplied in the nature of the thought.

The ondition may &e implied in a Clause or in a artiiple Noun $d"er& or some

other !ord or phrase:faile me paterer((illo ipso iudie 3uaerente(( pro Se%. Bosio diere /Bos. $m. 8?0 I should readily allo! myself to spea) for Bosius if that "ery ,udge !ereonduting the trial. Dresent ontrary to fat: si 3uaereret paterer.F

non mihi nisi admonito "enisset in mentem /9e Or. 2.48;0 it !ould not ha"eome into my mind unless DI had &eenF reminded. Dast ontrary to fat: nisiadmonitus essem.F

nulla alia gens tanta mole ladis non o&ruta esset /i". 22.?=0 there is no otherpeople that !ould not ha"e &een rushed &y suh a !eight of disaster. Dastontrary to fat: si alia fuisset.F

nemo um3uam sine magna spe immortalitatis se pro patria offerret ad mortem/Tus. 4.20 no one !ithout great hope of immortality !ould e"er e%pose himselfto death for his ountry. Dresent ontrary to fat: nisi magnam spem ha&eret.F

3uid hun pauorum annorum aessio iu"are potuisset /ael. 440 !hat goodould the addition of a fe! years ha"e done him /if they had &een added0 Dastontrary to fat: si aessissent.F

3uid igitur mihi ferarum laniatus o&erit nihil sentienti /Tus. 4.4;=0 !hat harm !ill the mangling &y !ild &easts do me if I donAt feel anything /feeling nothing0D>uture more "i"id: si nihil sentiam.F

initata semel proli"i la&untur sustineri3ue nullo modo possunt / id. =.=20 if onegi"en a push they slide do!n rapidly and an in no !ay &e he)ed. Dresent1eneral: si initata sunt.F

NOTE.((In se"eral phrases denoting neessity propriety or the li)e the Imperfeterfet or luperfet Indiati"e of esse is used in the apodosis of a onditionontrary to fat the protasis &eing implied in a su&,et infiniti"e /f. ?45. 0:

3uanto melius fuerat promissum non esse ser"atum /Off. .7=0 ho! muh &etter !ould it ha"e &een if the promise had not &een )ept* D promissum ... ser"atumL sipromissum non esset ser"atum.F

mori praelarum fuit /$tt. 8.2.20 it !ould ha"e &een honora&le to die.



sed erat ae3uius Triarium ali3uid de dissensione nostra iudiare />in. 2.4470 &ut it !ould &e more e3uita&le if Triarius passed ,udgment on our dispute. D TriariumiudiareL si Triarius iudiaret.F

satius fuit amittere milites /In". 2.50 it !ould ha"e &een &etter to lose the

soldiers. D amittereL si amisisset.FThe ondition may &e ontained in a !ish /Optati"e Su&,unti"e0 or e%pressed asan e%hortation or ommand /ortatory Su&,unti"e or Imperati"e0:

utinam 3uidem fuissem* molestus no&is non esset />am. 42.0 I !ish I had &eenDhiefF: he !ould not no! &e trou&ling us /i.e. if I had &een0. DOptati"eSu&,unti"e.F

naturam e%pellas fura tamen us3ue reurret /or. Ep. 4.4;.2=0 dri"e out nature !ith a pithfor) still she !ill e"er return. Dortatory.F

roges enim $ristonem neget />in. =.670 for as) $risto he !ould deny.

manent ingenia seni&us modo permaneat studium et industria /Cat. @. 220 oldmen )eep their mental po!ers only let them )eep their Geal and diligene /Set:?28. N.0. Dortatory.F

tolle han opinionem lutum sustuleris /Tus. 4.;0 remo"e this notion and you !ill ha"e done a!ay !ith grief. DImperati"e.F

NOTE.((The so(alled Conessi"e Su&,unti"e !ith ut and ne often has the fore ofprotasis /Set: ?25. a. N.0: as(( ut enim rationem lato nullam adferret ipsaautoritate me frangeret /Tus. 4.=70 e"en if lato ga"e no reasons DstillF he !ouldo"erpo!er me &y his mere authority.

Barely the ondition ta)es the form of an independent lause:

rides: maiore ahinno onutitur /Iu". .4;;0 you laugh+ he sha)es !ith louderlaughter /Lif you laugh he sha)es0.

ommo"e: senties /Tus. =.?=0 stir him up DandF youAll find et.

de paupertate agitur: multi patientes pauperes ommemorantur / id. .?50 !e

spea) of po"erty+ many patient poor are mentioned.

>or Conditional Belati"e Clauses see Set: ?47 ?2;.

Condition Omitted



SECTION: #?22. The rotasis is often !holly omitted &ut may &e inferred from theourse of the argument:

poterat Se%tilius impune negare: 3uis enim redargueret />in. 2.??0 Se%tilius mightha"e denied !ith impunity+ for !ho !ould pro"e him !rong /if he had denied0

In e%pressions signifying neessity propriety and the li)e the Indiati"e may &eused in the apodosis of implied onditions either future or ontrary to fat:

3uod ontra deuit a& illo meum D orpus remariF /Cat. @. 8=0 !hereas on theother hand mine ought to ha"e &een &urnt &y him.

nam nos dee&at domum lugere u&i esset ali3uis in luem editus /Tus. 4.44?0 forit !ere fitting for us to mourn the house !here a man has &een &orn /&ut !e donot0.

3uanto melius fuerat /Off. .7=0 ho! muh &etter it !ould ha"e &een.

illud erat aptius ae3uum ui3ue onedere />in. =.20 it !ould &e more fitting to yield eah one his rights.

ipsum enim e%spetare magnum fuit /hil. 2.4;0 !ould it ha"e &een a greatmatter to !ait for the man himself

longum est ea diere sed ... /Sest. 420 it !ould &e tedious to tell et. D>uture.F

NOTE 4.((In this onstrution the Imperfet Indiati"e refers to present time+ theluperfet to simple past time li)e the erfet. Thus oporte&at means it ought to &eDno!F &ut is not+ oportuerat means it ought to ha"e &een &ut !as not.

NOTE 2.((In many ases it is impossi&le to say !hether a protasis !as present tothe mind of the spea)er or not /see third e%ample a&o"e0.

Comple% Conditions

SECTION: #?2. Either the rotasis or the $podosis may &e a omple% idea in !hih the main statement is made !ith e%pressed or implied 3ualifiations. In suh

ases the true logial relation of the parts is sometimes disguised:

si 3uis horum di%isset ... si "er&um de re pu&lia feisset ... multa plura di%isse3uam di%isset putaretur /Bos. $m. 20 if any of these had spo)en in ase he hadsaid a !ord a&out politis he !ould &e thought to ha"e said muh more than he didsay. Dere the apodosis of di%isset is the !hole of the follo!ing statement / si ...putaretur0 !hih is itself onditioned &y a protasis of its o!n: si "er&um et.F.



3uod si in ho mundo fieri sine deo non potest ne in sphaera 3uidem eosdemmotus sine di"ino ingenio potuisset imitari+ /Tus. 4.60 no! if that annot &edone in this uni"erse !ithout di"ine ageny no more ould D$rhimedesF in hisorrery ha"e imitated the same re"olutions !ithout di"ine genius. Dere si potest /aprotasis !ith nothing implied0 has for its apodosis the !hole lause !hih follo!s &ut potuisset has a ontraryto(fat protasis of its o!n implied in sine ... ingenio.F

peream male si non optimum erat /or. S. 2.4.60 onfound me /may perish !rethedly0 if it !ould nAt &e &etter. Dere peream is apodosis to the rest of thesentene !hile the true protasis to optimum erat ontrary to fat is omitted.F

Clauses of Comparison /Conlusion Omitted0

SECTION: #?2=. Conditional Clauses of Comparison ta)e the Su&,unti"e usuallyin the resent or erfet unless the se3uene of tenses re3uires the Imperfet orluperfet.

Suh lauses are introdued &y the omparati"e partiles tam3uam tam3uam si3uasi a si ut si "elut si /later "elut0 poeti eu /all meaning as if0 and &y 3uam si/than if0:

tam3uam lausa sit $sia />am. 42.70 as if $sia !ere losed.

tam3uam si laudus sim /l. $sin. =250 ,ust as if I !ere lame.

ita hos D honoresF petunt 3uasi honeste "i%erint /Iug. 8?0 they see) them /offies0 ,ust as if they had li"ed honora&ly.

3uasi "ero non speie "isa iudientur /$ad. 2.?80 as if forsooth "isi&le things !ere not ,udged &y their appearane.

similiter fais a si me roges /N. 9. .80 you do e%atly as if you as)ed me.

rudelitatem horrerent "elut si oram adesset /'. 1. 4.20 they dreaded his ruelty/they said0 as if he !ere present in person.

hi ingentem pugnam ernimus eu etera nus3uam &ella forent /$en. 2.=80 here

!e sa! a great &attle as if there !ere no fighting else!here. D'ut sometimes !iththe indiati"e in poetry as id. ?.88.F

magis a me a&esse "ide&are 3uam si domi esses /$tt. 6.?0 you seemed to &e a&sentfrom me more than if you !ere at home.



NOTE 4.((These su&,unti"e lauses are really future onditions !ith apodosisimplied in the partile itself. Thus in tam3uam si laudus sim the protasis isintrodued &y si and the apodosis implied in tam3uam.

NOTE 2.((The English idiom !ould lead us to e%pet the Imperfet and luperfet

Su&,unti"e /ontrary to fat0 !ith these partiles+ &ut the point of "ie! is differentin the t!o languages. Thus the seond e%ample a&o"e is translated ,ust as if I !erelame((as if it !ere a present ondition ontrary to fat+ &ut it really means ,ust asDit !ould &eF if I should Dat some future timeF &e lame and so is a less "i"id futureondition re3uiring the resent Su&,unti"e. Similarly 3uasi honeste "i%erint as ifthey had li"ed honora&ly is really as Dthey !ould do in the futureF if they shouldha"e li"ed honora&ly and so re3uires the erfet Su&,unti"e / Set: ?46. 0.

E"en after a primary tense the Imperfet or luperfet Su&,unti"e /ontrary tofat0 is often used in onditional lauses of omparison:

ae3ue a te peto a si mea negotia essent />am. 4.=0 I entreat you as muh as if it !ere my o!n &usiness.

eiius negotium si "elim susipias ut si esset res mea / id. 5.2;.40 I !ould ha"e youunderta)e his &usiness as though it !ere my affair.

NOTE.((The pratie differs !ith the different partiles. Thus in Ciero a lause !ith tam3uam or 3uasi almost al!ays o&ser"es the se3uene of tenses &ut !ith3uam si the Imperfet or luperfet is the rule.

se of si and its Compounds

SECTION: #?2?. The uses of some of the more ommon Conditional artiles may &e stated as follo!s:

Si is used for affirmati"e nisi / ni0 and si non for negati"e onditions.

4. -ith nisi /generally unless0 the apodosis is stated as uni"ersally true e%ept inthe single ase supposed in !hih ase it is /impliedly0 not true:

nisi Conon adest maereo unless Conon is here I mourn /i.e. I am al!ays in a state

of grief e%ept in the single ase of CononAs presene in !hih ase I am not0.

2. -ith si non /if not0 the apodosis is only stated as true in the /negati"e0 asesupposed &ut as to other ases no statement is made:

si Conon non adest maereo if Conon is not here I mourn /i.e. I mourn in thesingle ase of CononAs a&sene nothing &eing said as to other ases in !hih I mayor may not mourn0.



NOTE.((It often ma)es no differene in !hih of these forms the ondition isstated.

. Sometimes nisi si e%ept if unless ours:

noli putare me ad 3uem3uam longiores epistulas sori&ere nisi si 3uis ad me plurasripsit />am. 4=.20 ... e%ept in ase one !rites more to me.

NOTE.(( Ni is an old form sur"i"ing in a fe! on"entional phrases and reappearingin poets and later !riters.

Nisi "ero and nisi forte regularly introdue an o&,etion or e%eption ironially andta)e the Indiati"e:

nisi "ero . Caesar rudelior "isus est /Cat. =.40 unless indeed uius Caesarseemed too ruel.

nisi forte "olumus Epiureorum opinionem se3ui+ />at. 50 unless to &e sure !ehoose to follo! the notion of the Epiureans.

NOTE.((This is the regular !ay of introduing a redutio ad a&surdum in atin.Nisi alone is sometimes used in this sense: as(( nisi unum ho faiam ut in puteoenam o3uant /l. $ul. 6?0 unless I do this one thing Dma)e themF oo) dinnerin the !ell.

Si"e / seu0 ... si"e / seu0 !hether ... or introdue a ondition in the form of analternati"e. They may &e used !ith any form of ondition or !ith different forms inthe t!o mem&ers. Often also they are used !ithout a "er&:

nam illo loo li&entissime soleo uti si"e 3uid meum ipse ogito si"e 3uid sri&oaut lego+ /egg. 2.40 for I en,oy myself most in that plae !hether I am thin)ing &ymyself or am either !riting or reading.

NOTE.((Si"e ... seu and seu ... si"e are late or poeti.

Sin &ut if often introdues a supposition ontrary to one that preedes:

ausator illum defendet si poterit+ sin minus poterit nega&it /In". 2.880 theauser !ill defend him if he an+ &ut if he annot he !ill deny.

Nisi is often used loosely &y the omi poets in the sense of only !hen a negati"e/usually nesio0 is e%pressed or easily understood in the main lause:

nesio: nisi me di%isse nemini erto sio+ / Ter. h. 7?20 I donAt )no!: only I amsure that I ha"e nAt told any&ody.



.CONCESSI<E C$SES

SECTION: #?26. The onessi"e idea is rather "ague and general and ta)es a

"ariety of forms eah of !hih has its distint history. Sometimes onession ise%pressed &y the ortatory Su&,unti"e in a sentene grammatially independent/Set: ==;0 &ut it is more fre3uently and more preisely e%pressed &y a dependentlause introdued &y a onessi"e partile. The onessi"e fore lies hiefly in theCon,untions /!hih are indefinite or onditional in origin0 and is often madelearer &y an ad"ersati"e partile / tamen erte0 in the main lause. $s theSu&,unti"e may &e used in independ ent lauses to e%press a onession it is alsoemployed in onessi"e lauses and some!hat more fre3uently than the indiati"e.

SECTION: #?25. The artiles of Conession /meaning although granting that0 are3uam"is ut liet etsi tametsi etiam si 3uam3uam and um.

Some of these ta)e the Su&,unti"e others the Indiati"e aording to the natureof the lause !hih eah introdues.

uam"is and ut ta)e the Su&,unti"e:

3uam"is ipsi infantes sint tamen ... /Or. 560 ho!e"er inapa&le of spea)ing theythemsel"es may &e yet et.

3uam"is selerati illi fuissent /9e Or. 4.2;0 ho!e"er guilty they might ha"e &een.

3uam"is omis in amiis tuendis fuerit />in. 2.8;0 amia&le as he may ha"e &een in)eeping his friends.

ut neminem alium rogasset /@il. =60 e"en if he had as)ed no other.

ut enim non effiias 3uod "is tamen mors ut malum non sit effiies /Tus. 4.460 for e"en if you do not aomplish !hat you !ish still you !ill pro"e that death isnot an e"il.

ut rationem lato nullam adferret / id. 4.=70 though lato addued no reasons.

NOTE.(( uam"is means literally as muh as you !ill. Thus in the first e%amplea&o"e let them &e as inapa&le as you !ill still et. The su&,unti"e !ith 3uam"isis hortatory li)e that !ith ne /Set: ==;0+ that !ith ut / ut non0 is of unertainorigin.

iet although ta)es the resent or erfet Su&,unti"e:



liet omnes mihi terrores periula3ue impendeant /Bos. $m. 40 though allterrors and perils should menae me.

NOTE.(( iet is properly a "er& in the present tense meaning it is granted. enethe su&,unti"e is &y the se3uene of tenses limited to the resent and erfet. The

onessi"e lause !ith liet is hortatory in origin &ut may &e regarded as asu&stanti"e lause ser"ing as the su&,et of the impersonal "er& /Set: ?6?. N.40.

Etsi etiam si tametsi e"en if ta)e the same onstrutions as si /see Set: ?4=0:

etsi a&est maturitas tamen non est inutile />am. 6.48.=0 though ripeness of age is !anting yet it is not useless et.

etsi num3uam du&ium fuit tamen perspiio+ / id. ?.470 although it has ne"er &eendou&tful yet I perei"e et.

etsi statueram / id. ?.?0 though I had determined.

etsi nihil aliud a&stulissetis tamen ontentos "os esse oporte&at /Sull. 7;0 e"en if you had ta)en a!ay nothing else you ought to ha"e &een satisfied.

etiam si 3uod sri&as non ha&e&is sri&ito tamen />am. 46.260 e"en if you DshallFha"e nothing to !rite still !rite.

sed ea tametsi "os par"i pende&atis / Sall. Cat. ?2.70 &ut although you regardedthose things as of small aount.

NOTE 4.(( Tametsi !ith the su&,unti"e is "ery rare.

NOTE 2.(($ protasis !ith si often has a onessi"e fore: as(( ego si essentinimiitiae mihi um C. Caesare tamen ho tempore rei pu&liae onsulere ...de&erem /ro". Cons. =50 as for me e"en if I had pri"ate 3uarrels !ith Caesar it !ould still &e my duty to ser"e the &est interests of the state at this risis.

uam3uam although introdues an admitted fat and ta)es the Indiati"e:

omni&us((3uam3uam ruit ipse suis ladi&us((pestem denuntiat /hil. 4=.80 though he is &rea)ing do!n under his disasters still he threatens all !ithdestrution.

NOTE.(( uam3uam more ommonly means and yet introduing a ne!proposition in the indiati"e: as(( 3uam3uam hae 3uidem iam tolera&ilia "ide&antur etsi et. / @il. 560 and yet these in truth seemed no! &eara&lethough et.



The poets and later !riters fre3uently use 3uam"is and 3uam3uam li)e etsionneting them !ith the Indiati"e or the Su&,unti"e aording to the nature ofthe ondition:

3uam3uam mo"eretur /i". 6.=0 although he !as mo"ed.

ollio amat nostram 3uam"is est rustia musam /El. .8=0 ollio lo"es mymuse though she is rusti.

3uam"is per"eneras /i". 2.=;0 though you had ome.

t as !ith the Indiati"e may &e e3ui"alent to a onession:

"erum ut errare potuisti si deipi te non potuisse 3uis non "idet />am. 4;.2;.20 suppose you ould ha"e &een mista)en !ho does not see that you annot ha"e &een deei"ed in this !ay

>or um onessi"e see Set: ?=7+ for 3ui onessi"e see Set: ??. e. >oronession e%pressed &y the ortatory Su&,unti"e /negati"e ne0 see Set: ==;.

C$SES O> .BO<ISO

SECTION: #?28. 9um modo dummodo and tantum ut introduing a ro"isota)e the Su&,unti"e. The negati"e !ith these partiles is ne:

oderint dum metuant /Off. 4.750 let them hate if only they fear.

"aletudo modo &ona sit /'rut. 6=0 pro"ided the health &e good.

dummodo inter me at3ue te murus intersit /Cat. 4.4;0 pro"ided only the !all /ofthe ity0 is &et!een us.

tantum ut siant /$tt. 46.44.40 pro"ided only they )no!.

modo ne sit e% peudum genere /Off. 4.4;?0 pro"ided Din pleasureF he &e not of theherd of attle.

id faiat saepe dum ne lassus fiat / Cato B. B. ?.=0 let him do this often pro"idedhe does not get tired.

dummodo ea / se"eritas0 ne "arietur /. >r. 4.4.2;0 pro"ided only it /stritness0 &enot allo!ed to s!er"e.

tantum ne noeat /O". @. 7.240 only let it do no harm.



NOTE.((The Su&,unti"e !ith modo is hortatory or optati"e+ that !ith dum anddummodo a de"elopment from the use of the Su&,unti"e !ith dum in temporallauses Set: ?? /ompare the ollo3uial so long as my health is good I donAtare0.

The ortatory Su&,unti"e !ithout a partile sometimes e%presses a pro"iso:sint @aeenates non deerunt @arones /@art. 8.?6.? 0 so there &e @aeenases <irgils !ill not &e la)ing.

The Su&,unti"e !ith ut /negati"e ne0 is sometimes used to denote a pro"isousually !ith ita in the main lause:

pro&ata ondiio est sed ita ut ille praesidia dedueret /$tt. 5.4=.40 the terms !ereappro"ed &ut only on ondition that he should !ithdra! the garrisons.

NOTE.((This is a de"elopment of the onstrution of Charateristi or Besult.

>or a lause of Charateristi e%pressing ro"iso see Set: ??. d.

C$SES O> .BOSE /.>IN$ C$SES0

SECTION: #?27. The Su&,unti"e in the lause of urpose is hortatory in originoming through a )ind of indiret disourse onstrution /for !hih see Set: ?720.Thus misit legatos 3ui dierent means he sent am&assadors !ho should say i.e. !ho !ere direted to say+ in the diret orders the "er& !ould &e diite !hih !ould &eome diant in the Indiret 9isourse of narrati"e /Set: ?880 or dierent in thepast /f. hortatory su&,unti"e in past tenses Set: =7. &0. The Su&,unti"e !ith utand ne is in general similar in origin.

SECTION: #?;. $ lause e%pressing purpose is alled a >inal Clause.

SECTION: #?4. >inal Clauses ta)e the Su&,unti"e introdued &y ut / uti0

negati"e ne / ut ne0 or &y a Belati"e ronoun or $d"er&.((

4. ure Clauses of urpose !ith ut / uti0 or ne / ut ne0 e%press the purpose of themain "er& in the form of a modifying lause:

a& aratro a&du%erunt Cininnatum ut ditator esset />in. 2.420 they &roughtCininnatus from the plough that he might &e ditator.



ut sint au%ilio suis su&sistunt /'. C. 4.8;0 they halt in order to support /&e an aidto0 their o!n men.

ne milites oppidum inrumperent portas o&struit / id. 4.250 he &arriaded thegates in order that the soldiers might not &rea) into the to!n.

salas parari iu&et ne 3uam faultatem dimittat / id. 4.280 he orderssalingladders to &e got ready in order not to let slip any opportunity.

ut ne sit impune /@il. 40 that it &e not !ith impunity.

NOTE 4.((Sometimes the on,untion has a orrelati"e / ideo idiro eo onsilioet.0 in the main lause /f. Set: ?64. a0:

legum idiro ser"i sumus ut li&eri simus /Clu 4=60 for this reason !e are su&,etto the la!s that !e may &e free.

opias transdu%it eo onsilio ut astellum e%pugnaret /f. '. 1. 2.70 he led thetroops aross !ith this design((to storm the fort.

NOTE 2.(( t non sometimes ours in lauses of purpose !hen non &elongs tosome partiular !ord: as(( ut plura non diam /@anil. ==0 to a"oid unneessarytal).

2. Belati"e Clauses of urpose are introdued &y the relati"e pronoun 3ui or arelati"e ad"er& / u&i unde 3uo et.0. The anteedent is e%pressed or implied in themain lause:

mittitur . 9eidius Sa%a 3ui loi naturam perspiiat /'. C. 4.660 uius 9eidiusSa%a is sent to e%amine the ground /!ho should e%amine et.0.

sri&e&at orationes 3uas alii dierent /'rut. 2;60 he !rote speehes for other mento deli"er.

eo e%stinto fore unde diserem neminem /Cat. @. 420 that !hen he !as deadthere !ould &e no&ody from !hom /!hene0 I ould learn.

hui ne u&i onsisteret 3uidem ontra te loum reli3uisti+ / uint. 50 you ha"eleft him no ground e"en to ma)e a stand against you.

ha&e&am 3uo onfugerem />am. =.6.20 I had Da retreatF !hither I might flee.

NOTE.((In this onstrution 3uiL ut is /et.0 u&iL ut i&i and so on /Set: ?5. 20.

The a&lati"e 3uo /L ut eo0 is used as a on,untion in final lauses !hih ontain aomparati"e:



omprimere eorum audaiam 3uo failius eterorum animi frangerentur />am.4?.=.4;0 to repress their audaity that the spirit of the others might &e &ro)enmore easily /&y !hih the more easily0.

li&ertate usus est 3uo impunius dia% esset /uint. 440 he too) ad"antage of

li&erty that he might &luster !ith more impunity.NOTE.((Oasionally 3uo introdues a final lause that does not ontain aomparati"e: as((. Sulla e%eritum 3uo si&i fidum faeret lu%uriose ha&uerat/ Sall. Cat. 440 uius Sulla had treated the army lu%uriously in order to ma)e itde"oted to him.

>or 3uominus /L ut eo minus0 after "er&s of hindering see Set: ??8. &.

SECTION: #?2. The prinipal lause on !hih a final lause depends is often to &e supplied from the onte%t:

a ne longum sit ... iussimus /Cat. .4;0 and not to &e tedious !e ordered et.DStritly in order not to &e tedious I say !e ordered.F

sed ut ad 9ionysium redeamus /Tus. ?.60 &ut to return to 9ionysius.

sed ut eodem re"ertar ausa hae fuit timoris />am. 6.5.0 &ut to return to thesame point this !as the ause of fear.

satis inonsiderati fuit ne diam audais /hil. 4.420 it !as the at of one rashenough not to say daring.

NOTE 4.(('y a similar ellipsis the Su&,unti"e is used !ith nedum /sometimes ne0still less not to mention that:

nedum sal"i esse possimus /Clu. 7?0 muh less ould !e &e safe.

nedum isti non statim on3uisituri sint ali3uid seleris et flagiti+ /eg. $gr. 2.750far more !ill they hunt up at one some sort of rime and sandal.

nedum in mari et "ia sit faile />am. 46.80 still less is it easy at sea and on a

,ourney.

3uippe seundae res sapientium animos fatigant+ ne illi orruptis mori&us "itoriaetemperarent / Sall. Cat. 440 for prosperity o"ermasters the soul e"en of the !ise+muh less did they !ith their orrupt morals put any he) on "itory.



NOTE 2.((-ith nedum the "er& itself is often omitted: as(( aptius humanitati tuae3uam tota eloponnesus nedum atrae />am. 5.28.40 fitter for your refinementthan all eloponnesus to say nothing of atrY ^.

>or Su&stanti"e Clauses in"ol"ing purpose see Set: ?6(?66.

SECTION: #?. The urpose of an ation is e%pressed in atin in "arious !ays+ &ut ne"er /e%ept in idiomati e%pressions and rarely in poetry0 &y the simpleInfiniti"e as in English /Set: =6;0.

The sentene they ame to see) peae may &e rendered((

/40 "enerunt ut paem peterent. D>inal lause !ith ut /Set: ?4. 40.F

/20 "enerunt 3ui paem peterent. D>inal lause !ith Belati"e /Set: ?4. 20.F

/0 D "enerunt ad petendum paem.F Not found !ith transiti"e "er&s /Set: ?;6N.20 &ut f. ad parendum senatui. D1erund !ith ad /Set: ?;60.F

/=0 "enerunt ad petendam paem. D1erundi"e !ith ad /Set: ?;60.F

/?0 "enerunt paem petendi ausa / gratia0. D1en. of 1erund !ith ausa /Set: ?;=. &0.F

/60 "enerunt pais petendae ausa / gratia0. D1en. of 1erundi"e !ith ausa /Set:?;=. &0.F

/50 "enerunt paem petituri. D>uture partiiple /Set: =77. 20+ in later !riters.F

/80 "enerunt paem petitum. DSupine in (um /Set: ?;70.F

These forms are not used indifferently &ut:pJ

The usual !ay of e%pressing purpose is &y ut /negati"e ne0 unless the purpose islosely onneted !ith some one !ord in !hih ase a relati"e is more ommon:

legatos ad 9ummnorigem mittunt ut eo depreatore a Se3uanis impetrarent /'. 1.4.70 they send en"oys to 9umnori% in order through his interession to o&tain/this fa"or0 from the Se3uani.

milites misit ut eos 3ui fugerant perse3uerentur / id. ?.4;0 he sent the soldiers tofollo! up those !ho had fled.

Curio praemittit e3uites 3ui primum impetum sustineant /'. C. 2.260 Curio sendsfor!ard a"alry to !ithstand the first atta).



The 1erund and 1erundi"e onstrutions of purpose are usually limited to shorte%pressions !here the literal translation though not the English idiom isne"ertheless not harsh or strange.

The Supine is used to e%press purpose only !ith "er&s of motion and in a fe!

idiomati e%pressions /Set: ?;70.The >uture artiiple used to e%press purpose is a late onstrution of inferiorauthority /Set: =77. 20.

>or the poetial Infiniti"e of urpose see Set: =6;. . >or the resent artiiple ina sense approahing that of purpose see Set: =7;. .

C$SES O> .C$B$CTEBISTIC

SECTION: #?=. The relati"e lause of Charateristi !ith the Su&,unti"e is ade"elopment peuliar to atin. $ relati"e lause in the Indiati"e merely statessomething as a fat !hih is true of the anteedent+ a harateristi lause /in theSu&,unti"e0 defines the anteedent as a person or thing of suh a harater thatthe statement made is true of him or it and of all others &elonging to the samelass. Thus(( non potest e%eritum is ontinere imperator 3ui se ipse non ontinet/indiati"e0 means simply that ommander !ho does not /as a fat0 restrainhimself annot restrain his army+ !hereas non potest e%eritum is ontinereimperator 3ui se ipse non ontineat /su&,unti"e0 !ould mean that ommander !ho is not suh a man as to restrain himself et. that is !ho is not harateriGed &y self(restraint.

This onstrution has its origin in the potential use of the su&,unti"e /Set: ==?0Thus in the e%ample ,ust gi"en 3ui se ipse non ontineat !ould mean literally !ho !ould not restrain himself /in any supposa&le ase0 and this potential idea passeso"er easily into that of general 3uality or harateristi. The harateriGing fore ismost easily felt !hen the anteedent is indefinite or general. 'ut this usage ise%tended in atin to ases !hih differ &ut slightly from statements of fat as insome of the e%amples &elo!.

The use of the Su&,unti"e to e%press Besult omes from its use in Clauses ofCharateristi. Thus non sum ita he&es ut hae diam means literally I am not dull

in the manner /degree0 in !hih I should say this hene I am not so dull as to saythis. Sine then the harateristi often appears in the form of a supposed resultthe onstrution readily passes o"er into ure Besult !ith no idea of harateristi+as(( tantus in uria lamor fatus est ut populus onurreret /<err. 2.=50 suh anoutry !as made in the senate(house that the people hurried together.



'ut(( in"enti multi sunt 3ui "itam profundere pro patria parati essent /Off. 4.8=0 many !ere found of suh a harater as to &e ready to gi"e their li"es for theirountry.

NOTE 2.((Charateristi lauses !ith sunt 3ui et. are sometimes alled Belati"e

Clauses !ith an Indefinite $nteedent &ut are to &e arefully distinguished fromthe Indefinite Belati"e in protasis /Set: ?2;0.

NOTE .((The phrases est um fuit um et. are used li)e est 3ui sunt 3ui: as(( afuit um mihi 3uo3ue initium re3uiesendi fore iustum ar&itrarer /9e Or. 4.40 andthere !as a time !hen I thought a &eginning of rest !ould &e ,ustifia&le on my part.

$ Belati"e Clause of Charateristi may follo! unus and solus:

nil admirari prope res est una sola3ue 3uae possit faere et ser"are &eatum /or.Ep. 4.6.40 to !onder at nothing is almost the sole and only thing that an ma)eand )eep one happy.

solus es uius in "itoria eiderit nemo nisi armatus /9eiot. =0 you are the onlyman in !hose "itory no one has fallen unless armed.

$ lause of Besult or Charateristi !ith 3uam ut 3uam 3ui /rarely !ith 3uamalone0 may &e used after omparati"es:

Canahi signa rigidiora sunt 3uam ut imitentur "eritatem /'rut. 5;0 the statues ofCanahus are too stiff to represent nature /stiffer than that they should0.

maiores ar&ores aede&ant 3uam 3uas ferre miles posset /i". .?0 they ut treestoo large for a soldier to arry /larger than !hat a soldier ould arry0.

NOTE.((This onstrution orresponds in sense to the English too ... to.

$ relati"e lause of harateristi may e%press restrition or pro"iso /f. Set: ?28. &0:

3uod siam so far as I )no! /lit. as to !hat I )no!0.

Catonis orationes 3uas 3uidem in"enerim /'rut. 6?0 the speehes of Cato at leastsuh as I ha"e diso"ered.

ser"us est nemo 3ui modo tolera&ili ondiione sit ser"itutis /Cat. =.460 there isnot a sla"e at least in any tolera&le ondition of sla"ery.

$ Belati"e Clause of Charateristi may e%press ause or onession:

peasse mihi "ideor 3ui a te disesserim />am. 46.40 I seem to myself to ha"edone !rong &eause I ha"e left you. DCausal.F



"irum simpliem 3ui nos nihil elet /Or. 2;0 O guileless man !ho hides nothingfrom us* DCausal.F

egomet 3ui sero 1raeas litteras attigissem tamen omplures $thenis dies sumommoratus /9e Or. 4.820 I myself though I &egan 1ree) literature late yet et.

/lit. Da manF !ho et.0. DConessi"e.FNOTE 4.((In this use the relati"e is e3ui"alent to um is et. It is often preeded &yut utpote or 3uippe:

ne onsul ut 3ui id ipsum 3uaesisset moram ertamini feit /i". =2.50 nor didthe onsul delay the fight sine he had sought that "ery thing /as D&eing oneF !hohad sought et.0.

uius frater eiius utpote 3ui peregre depugnarit familiam duit /hil. ?.;0 uius his &rother leads his household inasmuh as he is a man !ho has fought itout a&road.

on"i"ia um patre non ini&at 3uippe 3ui ne in oppidum 3uidem nisi perraro "eniret /Bos. $m. ?20 he did not go to dinner parties !ith his father sine he didnot e"en ome to to!n e%ept "ery rarely.

NOTE 2.((The Belati"e of Cause or Conession is merely a "ariety of theCharateristi onstrution. The 3uality e%pressed &y the Su&,unti"e is onneted !ith the ation of the main "er& either as ause on aount of !hih /SINCE0 or ashindrane in spite of !hih /$TO10.

9ignus indignus aptus idoneus ta)e a su&,unti"e lause !ith a relati"e /rarelyut0. The negati"e is non:

digna in 3ui&us ela&orarent /Tus. 4.40 /things0 !orth spending their toil on/!orthy on !hih they should et.0.

digna res est u&i tu ner"os intendas tuos /Ter. Eun. 420 the affair is !orthy of your strething your sine!s /!orthy !herein you should et.0.

idoneus 3ui impetret /@anil. ?50 fit to o&tain.

indigni ut redimeremur /i". 22.?7.450 un!orthy to &e ransomed.

NOTE 4.((This onstrution is sometimes e%plained as a relati"e lause of purpose &ut it is more losely related to harateristi.

NOTE 2.((-ith dignus et. the poets often use the Infiniti"e:

fons ri"o dare nomen idoneus /or. Ep. 4.46.420 a soure fit to gi"e a name to astream.



aetas mollis et apta regi /O". $. $. 4.4;0 a time of life soft and easy to &e guided.

"i"ere dignus eras /O". @. 4;.60 you !ere !orthy to li"e.

C$SES O> .BEST /.CONSECTI<E C$SES0

SECTION: #?6. The Su&,unti"e in Conseuti"e Clauses is a de"elopment of theuse of that mood in Clauses of Charateristi /as e%plained in Set: ?=0.

SECTION: #?5. Clauses of Besult ta)e the Su&,unti"e introdued &y ut so that/negati"e ut non0 or &y a relati"e pronoun or relati"e ad"er&.

4. ure Clauses of Besult !ith ut or ut non e%press the result of the main "er& inthe form of a modifying lause:

tanta "is pro&itatis est ut eam in hoste diligamus /ael. 270 so great is the po!er ofgoodness that !e lo"e it e"en in an enemy.

pugnatur ariter ad no"issimum agmen adeo ut paene terga on"ertant /'. C. 4.8;0 there is sharp fighting in the rear so /to suh a degree0 that they almost ta)eflight.

multa rumor adfinge&at ut paene &ellum onfetum "ideretur / id. 4.?0 rumoradded many false reports so that the !ar seemed almost ended.

2. Belati"e Clauses of Besult are introdued &y the relati"e pronoun 3ui or arelati"e ad"er& / u&i unde 3uo et.0. The anteedent is e%pressed or implied in themain lause.

The Belati"e in this onstrution is e3ui"alent to ut !ith the orre spondingdemonstrati"e: 3ui L ut is /et.0 u&i L ut i&i and so on:

nam est innoentia affetio talis animi 3uae noeat nemini+ /Tus. .460 forinnoene is suh a 3uality of mind as to do harm to no one.

sunt aliae ausae 3uae plane effiiant /Top. ?70 there are other auses suh as to &ring to pass.

nulla est eleritas 3uae possit um animi eleritate ontendere /Tus. 4.=0 there isno s!iftness !hih an ompare !ith the s!iftness of the mind.

3uis na"iga"it 3ui non se mortis periulo ommitteret /@anil. 40 !ho !ent to sea !ho did not inur the peril of death



NOTE 4.((Sine the relati"e lause of Besult is a de"elopment from the relati"elause of Charateristi /Set: ?=0 no sharp line an &e dra!n &et!een the t!oonstrutions. In dou&tful ases it is &etter to attempt no distintion or to desri&ethe lause as one of Charateristi.

NOTE 2.((Clauses of Besult are often introdued &y suh orrelati"e !ords as tamtalis tantus ita si adeo. us3ue eo !hih &elong to the main lause.

$ Negati"e Besult is introdued &y ut non ut nemo 3ui non et. not &y ne:

multis gra"i&us3ue "olneri&us onfetus ut iam se sustinere non posset /'. 1. 2.2?0 used up !ith many se"ere !ounds so that he ould no longer stand.

tanta "i in ompeii e3uites impetum feerunt ut eorum nemo onsisteret /'. C..70 they atta)ed ompeyAs a"alry !ith suh "igor that not one of them stoodhis ground.

nemo est tam sene% 3ui se annum non putet posse "i"ere /Cat. @. 2=0 no&ody is soold as not to thin) that he an li"e a year.

NOTE.((-hen the result implies an effet intended /not a simple purpose0 ut ne orne is sometimes used as &eing less positi"e than ut non: D li&rumF ita orrigas nemihi noeat / Caeina >am. 6.5.60 orret the &oo) so that it may not hurt me.

>re3uently a lause of result or harateristi is used in a restriti"e sense and soamounts to a ro"iso /f. Set: ??. d0:

ho ita est utile ut ne plane inludamur a& ausatori&us /Bos. $m. ??0 this is sofar useful that !e are not utterly mo)ed &y the ausers /i.e. useful only on thisondition that et.0.

nihil autem est molestum 3uod non desideres /Cat. @. =50 &ut nothing istrou&lesome !hih /L pro"ided that0 you do not miss.

The lause of result is sometimes e%pressed in English &y the Infiniti"e !ith TO orSO $S TO or an e3ui"alent:

tam longe a&eram ut non "iderem I !as too far a!ay to see /so far that I did notsee+ f. Set: ??. 0.

NOTE.((Besult is ne"er e%pressed &y the Infiniti"e in atin e%ept &y the poets in afe! passages /Set: =64. a0.



olorless relati"e on ,untion /f. English that and see Set: 2220. Its use as aausal partile is an early speial de"elopment. uia is perhaps an ausati"e pluralneuter of the relati"e stem 3ui( and seems to ha"e de"eloped its ausal sense moredistintly than 3uod and at an earlier period. It is used /"ery rarely0 as aninterrogati"e !hy /so in lassial atin !ith nam only0 and may li)e 3uandoha"e de"eloped from an interrogati"e to a relati"e partile.

uoniam /for 3uom iam0 is also of relati"e origin / 3uom &eing a ase(form of thepronominal stem 3uo(0. It ours in old atin in the sense of !hen /f. 3uom um0from !hih the ausal meaning is deri"ed /f. um ausal0. The Su&,unti"e !ith3uod and 3uia depends on the priniple of Informal Indiret 9isourse /Set: ?720.

uando is pro&a&ly the interrogati"e 3uam /ho!0 ompounded !ith a form of thepronominal stem do( /f. dum do( ne0. It originally denoted time /firstinterrogati"ely then as a relati"e0 and thus ame to signify ause. nli)e 3uod and3uia it is not used to state a reason in informal indiret disourse and therefore isne"er follo!ed &y the Su&,unti"e.

SECTION: #?=;. The Causal artiles 3uod and 3uia ta)e the Indiati"e !hen thereason is gi"en on the authority of the !riter or spea)er+ the Su&,unti"e !hen thereason is gi"en on the authority of another:

4. Indiati"e:

um ti&i agam gratias 3uod me "i"ere oegisti /$tt. .0 !hen I may than) youthat you ha"e fored me to li"e.

ur igitur paem nolo 3uia turpis est /hil. 5.70 !hy then do I not !ish for peae'eause it is disgraeful.

ita fit ut adsint propterea 3uod offiium se3uuntur taeant autem 3uia periulum "itant /Bos. $m. 40 so it happens that they attend &eause they follo! duty &utare silent &eause they see) to a"oid danger.

2. Su&,unti"e:

mihi gratula&are 3uod audisses me meam pristinam dignitatem o&tinere />am.

=.4=.40 you ongratulated me &eause Das you saidF you had heard that I hadregained my former dignity.

notu am&ula&at Themistoles 3uod somnum apere non posset /Tus. =.==0 Themistoles used to !al) a&out at night &eause Das he saidF he ould not sleep.

mea mater irata est 3uia non redierim /l. Cist. 4;40 my mother is angry &eause Idid nAt return.



NOTE 4.(( uod introdues either a fat or a statement and aordingly ta)eseither the Indiati"e or the Su&,unti"e. uia regularly introdues a fat+ hene itrarely ta)es the Su&,unti"e. uoniam inasmuh as sine !hen no! no! thathas referene to moti"es e%uses ,ustifiations and the li)e and ta)es theIndiati"e.

NOTE 2.((nder this head !hat the spea)er himself thought under otherirumstanes may ha"e the Su&,unti"e /Set: ?72. . N.0: as(( ego laeta "isa sum3uia soror "enisset /l. @il. 850 I seemed /in my dream0 glad &eause my sisterhad ome.

So !ith 3uod e"en a "er& of saying may &e in the Su&,unti"e: as(( rediit 3uod seo&litum nesio 3uid dieret /Off. 4.=;0 he returned &eause he said he hadforgotten something.

NOTE .(( Non 3uod non 3uia non 3uo introduing a reason e%pressly to deny itta)e the Su&,unti"e+ &ut the Indiati"e sometimes ours !hen the statement is initself true though not the true reason. In the negati"e non 3uin /!ith theSu&,unti"e0 may &e used in nearly the same sense as non 3uod non. $fter aomparati"e 3uam 3uo or 3uam 3uod is used:

pugiles ingemesunt non 3uod doleant sed 3uia profundenda "oe omne orpusintenditur /Tus. 2.?60 &o%ers groan not &eause they are in pain &ut &eause &ygi"ing "ent to the "oie the !hole &ody is put in a state of tension.

non 3uia retior ad $lpis "ia esset sed redens /i". 24.4.20 not &eause the routeto the $lps !as more diret &ut &elie"ing et.

non 3uin pari "irtute et "oluntate alii fuerint sed tantam ausam non ha&uerunt/hil. 5.60 not that there !ere not others of e3ual ourage and good(!ill &ut theyhad not so strong a reason.

hae amore magis impulsus sri&enda ad te puta"i 3uam 3uo te ar&itrarer monitiset praeeptis egere />am. 4;..=0 this I thought I ought to !rite to you ratherfrom the impulse of /prompted &y0 affetion than &eause I thought that youneeded ad"ie and suggestion.

uoniam and 3uando sine introdue a reason gi"en on the authority of the !riteror spea)er and ta)e the Indiati"e:

lous est a me 3uoniam ita @urena "oluit retratandus /@ur. ?=0 I must re"ie!the point sine @urena has so !ished.

3uando ita "is di &ene "ortant /l. Trin. ?50 sine you so !ish may the gods &less the underta)ing.

3uando ad maiora nati sumus />in. ?.240 sine !e are &orn for greater things.



NOTE.((The Su&,unti"e !ith 3uoniam is unlassial. uando sine in the ausalsense is mostly arhai or late. uando !hen is used as interrogati"e relati"eand indefinite: as(( 3uando hodie !hen to(day+ si 3uando if e"er.

Causal lauses introdued &y 3uod 3uia 3uoniam and 3uando ta)e the

Su&,unti"e in Indiret 9isourse li)e any other dependent lause /see Set: ?8;0. $ Belati"e !hen used to e%press ause regularly ta)es the Su&,unti"e /see Set:??. e0.

Cum ausal ta)es the Su&,unti"e /see Set: ?=70.

>or Su&stanti"e Clauses !ith 3uod see Set: ?52.

.TE@OB$ C$SES

SECTION: #?=4. Temporal Clauses are introdued &y partiles !hih are almost allof relati"e origin. They are onstrued li)e other relati"e lauses e%ept !here theyha"e de"eloped into speial idiomati onstrutions.

>or list of Temporal artiles see p. 48.

Temporal Clauses may &e lassified as follo!s:

I. Conditional Belati"e Clauses: u&i ut um 3uando in rotasis /Set: ?=20.

II. Clauses !ith post3uam u&i et. /Indiati"e0 /Set: ?=0.

III. Clauses !ith um 4. Cum temporal /Set: ?=?(?=80. 2. Cum ausal or onessi"e/Set: ?=70.

I<. Clauses !ith ante3uam and prius3uam /Indiati"e or Su&,unti"e0 /Set: ??40.

<. Clauses !ith dum done and 3uoad /Indiati"e or Su&,unti"e0 /Set: ??2(??60.

4 $s in the 1ree) os an hotan et.+ and in statutes in English !here the phrases ifany person shall and !hoe"er shall are used indifferently.

2 -ith all temporal partiles the Su&,unti"e is often found depending on someother priniple of onstrution. /See Intermediate Clauses. Set: ?74.0

Conditional Belati"e Clauses



SECTION: #?=2. The partiles u&i ut um 3uando either alone or ompounded !ith ( um3ue may &e used as Indefinite Belati"es /in the sense of !hene"er0 andha"e the onstrutions of rotasis /f. Set: ?4=0:

um id malum negas esse apior /Tus. 2.270 !hene"er you /the indi"idual

disputant0 deny it to &e an e"il I am misled. Dresent general ondition.F3uod profeto um me nulla "is ogeret faere non auderem /hil. ?.?40 !hih I !ould surely not "enture to do as long as no fore ompelled me. Dresentontrary to fat: f. Set: ?45.F

um "ideas eos dolore non frangi de&eas e%istimare et. /Tus. 2.660 !hen yousee that those are not &ro)en &y pain you ought to infer et. Dresent generalondition: f. Set: ?48. a.F

um rosam "iderat tum inipere "er ar&itra&atur /<err. ?.250 !hene"er he sa! arose he thought spring had &egun. Dast general ondition: f. Set: ?48. &.F

id u&i di%isset hastam in finis eorum emitte&at /i". 4.2.40 !hen he had saidthis he !ould ast the spear into their territories. Dast 1eneral Conditionrepeated ation: see Set: ?48. .F

Temporal Clauses !ith post3uam u&i et.

SECTION: #?=. The partiles post3uam /postea3uam0 u&i ut / ut primum utsemel0 simul at3ue / simul a or simul alone0 ta)e the Indiati"e /usually in theperfet or the historial present0:

milites post3uam "itoriam adepti sunt nihil reli3ui "itis feere / Sall. Cat. 440 !hen the soldiers had !on the "itory they left nothing to the "an3uished.

postea3uam forum attigisti nihil feisti nisi et. />am. 4?.46.0 sine you ame tothe forum you ha"e done nothing e%ept et.

u&i omnis idem sentire intelle%it posterum diem pugnae onstituit /'. 1. .20 !hen he understood that all agreed /thought the same thing0 he appointed thene%t day for the &attle.

Catilina u&i eos on"enisse "idet seedit / Sall. Cat. 2;0 !hen Catiline sees thatthey ha"e ome together he retires.

ompeiius ut e3uitatum suum pulsum "idit aie e%essit /'. C. .7=0 !henompey sa! his a"alry &eaten he left the field.



ut semel e iraeeo elo3uentia e"eta est /'rut. ?40 as soon as elo3uene had setsail from the irKus.

nostri simul in arido onstiterunt in hostis impetum feerunt /'. 1. =.260 ourmen as soon as they had ta)en a position on dry ground made an atta) on the

enemy.simul at3ue introdutus est rem onfeit /Clu. =;0 as soon as he !as &rought inhe did the ,o&.

These partiles less ommonly ta)e the Imperfet or luperfet Indiati"e. TheImperfet denotes a past state of things+ the luperfet an ation ompleted in pasttime:

post3uam struti utrim3ue sta&ant dues in medium proedunt /i". 4.20 !henthey stood in array on &oth sides the generals ad"ane into the midst.

. afrianus postea3uam &is onsul et ensor fuerat /Caeil. 670 !hen $frianushad &een /i.e. had the dignity of ha"ing &een0 t!ie onsul and ensor.

post3uam id diffiilius "isum est ne3ue faultas perfiiendi da&atur adompeiium transierunt /'. C. .6;0 !hen this seemed too hard and no means ofeffeting it !ere gi"en they passed o"er to ompey.

post diem 3uintum 3uam iterum &ar&ari male pugna"erant DL "iti suntF legati a'oho "eniunt /Iug. 4;20 the fifth day after the &ar&arians !ere &eaten theseond time en"oys ome from 'ohus.

hae iu"entutem u&i familiares opes defeerant ad fainora inende&ant / Sall.Cat. 40 !hen their inherited resoures had gi"en out et.

u&i periula "irtute propulerant / id. 60 !hen they had dispelled the dangers &ytheir "alor.

>or the use of u&i ut either alone or ompounded !ith ( um3ue as IndefiniteBelati"es see Set: ?=2.

SES O> .C@

SECTION: #?==. The on,untion um / 3uom0 is a ase(form of the relati"epronoun 3ui. It inherits from 3ui its su&ordinating fore and in general shares itsonstrutions. 'ut it !as early speialiGed to a temporal meaning /f. tum dum0and its range of usage !as therefore less !ide than that of 3ui+ it ould not fore%ample introdue lauses of purpose or of result.



-ith the Indiati"e &esides the simple e%pression of definite time /orrespondingto simple relati"e lauses !ith the Indiati"e0 it has a fe! speial uses((onditional e%pliati"e um in"ersum((all easily deri"ed from the temporal use.

-ith the Su&,unti"e um had a de"elopment parallel to that of the 3ui(lause of

Charateristi((a de"elopment not less e%tensi"e and e3ually peuliar to atin.>rom defining the time the um(lause passed o"er to the desription of the time &y means of its attendant irumstanes of ause or onession /f. sine !hile0.

In partiular um !ith the Su&,unti"e !as used in narrati"e /hene the pasttenses Imperfet and luperfet0 as a desripti"e lause of time. $s ho!e"er thepresent partiiple in atin is restrited in its use and the perfet ati"e partiiple isalmost !holly la)ing the historial or narrati"e um(lause ame into e%tensi"euse to supply the defiieny. In lassial !riters the narrati"e um(lause /!ith theSu&,unti"e0 has pushed &a) the defining lause /!ith the Imperfet or luperfetIndiati"e0 into omparati"e infre3ueny and is itself freely used !here thedesripti"e or harateriGing fore is sarely perepti&le /f. the 3ui(lause ofCharateristi Set: ?=0.

Cum Temporal

SECTION: #?=?. $ temporal lause !ith um !hen and some past tense of theIndiati"e dates or defines the time at !hih the ation of the main "er& ourred:

eo D lituoF regiones dire%it tum um ur&em ondidit /9i". 4.;0 he traed !ith itthe 3uarters Dof the s)yF at the time he founded the ity.

um oiditur Se%. Bosius i&idem fuerunt ser"i+ / Bos. $m. 42;0 !hen Bosius !as slain the sla"es !ere on the spot. D oiditur is historial present.F

3uem 3uidem um e% ur&e pelle&am ho pro"ide&am animo+ / Cat. .460 !hen I !as trying to fore him /onati"e imperfet0 from the ity I loo)ed for!ard to this.

fulgentis gladios hostium "ide&ant 9eii um in aiem eorum inrue&ant /Tus.2.?70 the 9eii sa! the flashing s!ords of the enemy !hen they rushed upon theirline.

tum um in $sia res magnas permulti amiserant /@anil. 470 at that time !henmany had lost great fortunes in $sia.

NOTE 4.((This is the regular use !ith all tenses in early atin and at all times !iththe erfet and the istorial resent /as !ith post3uam et.0. -ith the Imperfetand luperfet the Indiati"e use is /in lassial atin0 muh less ommon than theSu&,unti"e use defined &elo! /Set: ?=60.



NOTE 2.((This onstrution must not &e onfused !ith that of um !hene"er in1eneral Conditions /Set: ?=20.

-hen the time of the main lause and that of the temporal lause are a&solutelyidential um ta)es the Indiati"e in the same tense as that of the main "er&:

ma%ima sum laetitia adfetus um audi"i onsulem te fatum esse />am. 4?.50 I !as "ery muh pleased !hen I heard that you had &een eleted onsul.

SECTION: #?=6. $ temporal lause !ith um and the Imperfet or luperfetSu&,unti"e desri&es the irumstanes that aompanied or preeded the ationof the main "er&:

um essem otiosus in Tusulano aepi tuas litteras />am. 7.48.40 !hen I !asta)ing my ease in my house at Tusulum I reei"ed your letter.

um ser"ili &ello premeretur /@anil. ;0 !hen she / Italy0 !as under the load ofthe Ser"ile -ar.

um id nuntiatum esset maturat /'. 1. 4.50 !hen this had &een reported he made/ma)es0 haste.

um ad Cy&istra 3uin3ue dies essem moratus regem $rio&arGanem insidiisli&era"i+ / >am. 4?.=.60 after remaining at Cy&istra for fi"e days I freed Xing $rio&arGanes from plots.

is um ad me aodieam "enisset meum3ue ego eum "ellem repente perussusest atroissimis litteris / id. 7.2?.0 !hen he had ome to me at aodiea and I !ished him to remain !ith me he !as suddenly et.

NOTE 4.((This onstrution is "ery ommon in narrati"e and um in this use isoften alled narrati"e um.

NOTE 2.(( Cum !ith the Imperfet or luperfet Indiati"e does not /li)e um !iththe Imperfet or luperfet Su&,unti"e0 desri&e the time &y its irumstanes+ itdefines the time of the main "er& &y denoting a oYQ%istent state of things/Imperfet Indiati"e0 or a result attained !hen the ation of the main "er& too)

plae /luperfet0. Thus the onstrution is preisely that of post3uam et. /Set:?=. a0.

NOTE .((The distintion &et!een the uses defined in Set: ?=? ?=6 may &eillustrated &y the follo!ing e%amples: /40 e had a fe"er !hen he !as in Spain/Sha)spere0. ere the !hen(lause defines the time !hen Caesar had the fe"er((namely in the year of his Spanish ampaign /'.C. =70. In atin !e should use um !ith the Imperfet Indiati"e. /20 Colum&us diso"ered $meria !hen he !as



see)ing a ne! route to India+ here the !hen(lause does not define or date the timeof the diso"ery+ it merely desri&es the irumstanes under !hih $meria !asdiso"ered((namely in the ourse of a "oyage underta)en for another purpose. Inatin !e should use the Imperfet Su&,unti"e.

NOTE =.((The distintion e%plained in Note # is un)no!n to early atin. In lautus3uom al!ays has the Indiati"e unless the Su&,unti"e is re3uired for some otherreason.

-hen the prinipal ation is e%pressed in the form of a temporal lause !ith umand the definition of the time &eomes the main lause um ta)es the Indiati"e.

ere the logial relations of the t!o lauses are in"erted+ hene um is in this usealled um in"ersum:

dies nondum deem interesserant um ille alter filius infans neatur /Clu. 280 ten days had not yet passed !hen the other infant son !as )illed. DInstead of !henten days had not yet passed et.F

iam3ue lu% appare&at um proedit ad milites /. C. 5.8.0 and day !as alreadyda!ning !hen he appears &efore the soldiers.

ho faere notu appara&ant um matres familiae repente in pu&liumprourrerunt /'. 1. 5.260 they !ere preparing to do this &y night !hen the !omen suddenly ran out into the streets.

SECTION: #?=5. resent time !ith um temporal is denoted &y the resentIndiati"e+ future time &y the >uture or >uture erfet Indiati"e:

inidunt tempora um ea 3uae ma%ime "identur digna esse iusto homine fiuntontraria /Off. 4.40 times our !hen those things !hih seem espeially !orthyof the upright man &eome the opposite.

non du&ita&o dare operam ut te "ideam um id satis ommode faere potero />am.4.40 I shall not hesitate to ta)e pains to see you !hen I an do it on"eniently.

longum illud tempus um non ero /$tt. 42.480 that long time !hen I shall &e no

more.

um "eneris ognoses />am. ?.5.0 !hen you ome /shall ha"e ome0 you !illfind out.



SECTION: #?=8. Cum !hene"er ta)es the onstrution of a relati"e lause in ageneral ondition /see Set: ?=20.

>or present time either the resent or the erfet Indiati"e is used+ for past timeregularly the luperfet Indiati"e.

>or est um et. see Set: ??. a. N..

Cum Causal or Conessi"e

SECTION: #?=7. Cum ausal or onessi"e ta)es the Su&,unti"e:

id diffiile non est um tantum e3uitatu "aleamus /'. C. .860 this is not diffiultsine !e are so strong in a"alry. DCausal.F

um solitudo insidiarum et metus plena sit ratio ipsa monet amiitias omparare/>in. 4.660 sine solitude is full of treahery and fear reason itself prompts us toontrat friendships. DCausal.F

um primi ordines onidissent tamen aerrime reli3ui resiste&ant /'. 1. 5.620 though the first ran)s had fallen still the others resisted "igorously. DConessi"e.F

&re"i spatio legiones numero hominum e%ple"erat um initio non amplius duo&usmili&us ha&uisset / Sall. Cat. ?60 in a short time he had filled out the legions !iththeir omplement of men though at the start he had not had more than t!othousand. DConessi"e.F

Cum ausal may usually &e translated &y sine+ um onessi"e &y although or !hile+ either oasionally &y !hen.

NOTE 4.(( Cum in these uses is often emphasiGed &y ut utpote 3uippe praesertim+as(( ne reprehendo: 3uippe um ipse istam reprehensionem non fugerim / $tt.4;.$0 I find no fault+ sine I myself did not esape that &lame.

NOTE 2.((These ausal and onessi"e uses of um are of relati"e origin and areparallel to 3ui ausal and onessi"e /Set: ??. e0. The attendant irumstanesare regarded as the ause of the ation or as tending to hinder it.

NOTE .((In early atin um / 3uom0 ausal and onessi"e usually ta)es theIndiati"e: as(( 3uom tua res distrahitur utinam "ideam /l. Trin. 6450 sine yourproperty is &eing torn in piees O that I may see et.

Cum !ith the Indiati"e fre3uently introdues an e%planatory statement and issometimes e3ui"alent to 3uod on the ground that:



um taent lamant /Cat. 4.240 !hen they are silent they ry out /i.e. their sileneis an emphati e%pression of their sentiments0.

gratulor ti&i um tantum "ales apud 9ola&ellam />am. 7.4=.0 I ongratulate youthat you are so strong !ith 9ola&ella.

NOTE.((This is merely a speial use of um temporal e%pressing oinident time/Set: ?=?. a0.

Cum ... tum signifying &oth ... and usually ta)es the Indiati"e+ &ut !hen umapproahes the sense of !hile or though the Su&,unti"e is used /Set: ?=70:

um multa non pro&o tum illud in primis />in. 4.480 !hile there are many things Ido not appro"e there is this in hief. DIndiati"e.F

um diffiile est tum ne ae3uum 3uidem /ael. 260 not only is it diffiult &ut e"enun,ust.

um res tota fita sit pueriliter tum ne effiit 3uidem 3uod "ult />in. 4.470 !hilethe !hole thing is hildishly got up he does not e"en ma)e his point /aomplish !hat he !ishes0. DSu&,unti"e+ approahing um ausal.F

$nte3uam and rius3uam

SECTION: #??;. $nte3uam and prius3uam &efore introdue Clauses of Time !hih resem&le those !ith um temporal in their onstrutions. rius3uamonsists of t!o parts /often !ritten separately and sometimes separated &y other !ords0 the omparati"e ad"er& prius sooner /&efore0 !hih really modifies themain "er& and the relati"e partile 3uam than !hih introdues the su&ordinatelause. The latter is therefore a relati"e lause and ta)es the Indiati"e or theSu&,unti"e /li)e other relati"e lauses0 aording to the sense intended. TheSu&,unti"e !ith prius3uam is related to that of purpose /Set: ?270 and issometimes alled the $ntiipatory or rospeti"e Su&,unti"e. $nte3uam li)eprius3uam onsists of t!o !ords the first of !hih is the ad"er& ante &eforemodifying the main "er&. Its onstrutions are the same as those of prius3uam &utthe latter is ommoner in lassi prose.

SECTION: #??4. $nte3uam and prius3uam ta)e sometimes the Indiati"esometimes the Su&,unti"e.

-ith ante3uam or prius3uam the erfet Indiati"e states a fat in past time:



ante3uam tuas legi litteras hominem ire upie&am /$tt. 2.5.20 &efore I read yourletter I !ished the man to go.

ne3ue ante dimisit eum 3uam fidem dedit adulesens /i". 7.4;0 and she did notlet the young man go till he pledged his faith.

ne3ue prius fugere destiterunt 3uam ad flumen per"enerunt /'. 1. 4.?0 nor didthey stop running until they reahed the ri"er.

NOTE.((The erfet Indiati"e in this onstrution is regular !hen the main lauseis negati"e and the main "er& is in an historial tense. The Imperfet Indiati"e israre+ the luperfet Indiati"e "ery rare. The erfet Su&,unti"e is rare and ante(lassial e%ept in Indiret 9isourse.

-ith ante3uam or prius3uam the Imperfet Su&,unti"e is ommon !hen thesu&ordinate "er& implies purpose or e%petany in past time or !hen the ationthat it denotes did not ta)e plae:

ante pugnari oeptum est 3uam satis instrueretur aies /i". 22.=.50 the fight !as &egun &efore the line ould &e properly formed.

prius3uam tu suum si&i "enderes ipse possedit /hil. 2.760 &efore you ould sellhim his o!n property he too) possession of it himself.

prius3uam telum a&ii posset aut nostri propius aederent omnis <ari aies terga "ertit /'. C. 2.=0 &efore a !eapon ould &e thro!n or our men approahednearer the !hole line a&out <arus too) flight.

NOTE 4.((The luperfet Su&,unti"e is rare e%ept in Indiret 9isourse &yse3uene of tenses for the >uture erfet Indiati"e /Set: =8=. 0: as(( ante3uamhomines nefarii de meo ad"entu audire potuissent in @aedoniam perre%i /lan.780 &efore those e"il men ould learn of my oming I arri"ed in @aedonia.

NOTE 2.(($fter an historial present the resent Su&,unti"e is used instead of theImperfet: as(( ne3ue a& eo prius 9omitiani milites disedunt 3uam inonspetum Caesaris deduatur /'. C. 4.220 and the soldiers of 9omitius did /do0not lea"e him until he !as /is0 onduted into CaesarAs presene. So rarely theerfet Su&,unti"e /as '. 1. .480.

$nte3uam and prius3uam !hen referring to future time ta)e the resent or>uture erfet Indiati"e+ rarely the resent Su&,unti"e:

prius3uam de eteris re&us respondeo de amiitia paua diam /hil. 2.0 &efore Ireply to the rest I !ill say a little a&out friendship.

non defatiga&or ante3uam illorum anipites "ias perepero /9e Or. .4=?0 I shallnot !eary till I ha"e traed out their dou&tful !ays.



ante3uam "eniat litteras mittet /eg. $gr. 2.?0 &efore he omes he !ill send aletter.

NOTE 4.((The >uture Indiati"e is "ery rare.

NOTE 2.((In a fe! ases the Su&,unti"e of present general ondition is found !ithante3uam and prius3uam /f. Set: ?48. a0: as((in omni&us negotiis prius3uamaggrediare adhi&enda est praeparatio diligens /Off. 4.50 in all underta)ings &efore you proeed to ation areful preparation must &e used.

9um 9one and uoad

SECTION: #??2. $s an ad"er& meaning for a time a!hile dum is found in oldatin hiefly as an enliti /f. "i%dum nondum0. Its use as a on,untion omeseither through orrelation /f. um ... tum si ... si0 or through su&stitution for aon,untion as in the English the moment I sa! it I understood. uoad is aompound of the relati"e 3uo up to !hih point !ith ad. The origin and earlyhistory of done are un)no!n.

SECTION: #??. 9um and 3uoad until ta)e the resent or Imperfet Su&,unti"ein temporal lauses implying intention or e%petany:

e%spetas fortasse dum diat /Tus. 2.450 you are !aiting perhaps for him to say/until he say0. D 9um is espeially ommon after e%speto.F

dum reli3uae na"es on"enirent ad horam nonam e%speta"it /'. 1. =.20 he !aited till the ninth hour for the rest of the ships to ,oin him.

omitia dilata D suntF dum le% ferretur /$tt. =.45.0 the eletion !as postponeduntil a la! should &e passed.

an id e%spetamus 3uoad ne "estigium 3uidem $siae i"itatum at3ue ur&iumrelin3uatur /hil. 44.2?0 shall !e !ait for this until not a trae is left of the statesand ities of $sia

Epaminondas e%ere&atur plurimum lutando ad eum finem 3uoad stans ompletiposset at3ue ontendere /Nep. Epam. 20 Epaminondas trained himself in !restling so far as to &e a&le /until he should &e a&le0 to grapple standing and fight/in that !ay0.

NOTE 4.(( 9one is similarly used in poetry and later atin: as(( et du%it longedone ur"ata oirent inter se apita / $en. 44.86;0 and dre! it /the &o!0 until theour"ed tips touhed eah other.



NOTE 2.(( 9um until may &e used !ith the resent or >uture erfet Indiati"e tostate a future fat !hen there is no idea of intention or e%petany+ &ut thisonstrution is rare in lassi prose. The >uture is also found in early atin. 9oneuntil is similarly used in poetry and early atin !ith the resent and >utureerfet Indiati"e rarely !ith the >uture:

ego in $rano opperior dum ista ognoso /$tt. 4;.0 I am !aiting in the "illa at $raeuntil I find this out. DThis is really dum !hile.F

mihi us3ue urae erit 3uid agas dum 3uid egeris siero />am. 42.47.0 I shallal!ays feel an%ious as to !hat you are doing until I atually )no! /shall ha"e)no!n0 !hat you ha"e done.

delita maiorum lues done templa refeeris /or. Od. .6.40 you shall suffer forthe sins of your anestors until you re&uild the temples.

ter entum regna&itur annos done geminam partu da&it I lia prolem /$en. 4.2520 s!ay shall &e held for thrie a hundred years until Ilia shall gi"e &irth to t!inoffspring.

SECTION: #??=. 9one and 3uoad until !ith the erfet Indiati"e denote anatual fat in past time:

done rediit silentium fuit /i". 2.4.70 there !as silene until he returned.

us3ue eo timui done ad reiiiendos iudies "enimus /<err. 2.4.450 I !as an%iousuntil the moment !hen !e ame to hallenge the ,urors.

Bomae fuerunt 3uoad . @etellus in pro"iniam profetus est / id. 2.620 theyremained at Bome until uius @etellus set out for the pro"ine.

NOTE.(( 9um until !ith the erfet Indiati"e is rare: as(( mansit in ondiioneus3ue ad eum finem dum iudies reiieti sunt /<err. 4.460 he remained true to theagreement until the ,urors !ere hallenged.

SECTION: #???. 9um done and 3uoad as long as ta)e the Indiati"e:

dum anima est spes esse diitur /$tt. 7.4;.0 as long as there is life there is saidto &e hope.

dum praesidia ulla fuerunt in Sullae praesidiis fuit /Bos. $m. 4260 so long asthere !ere any garrisons he !as in the garrisons of Sulla.



dum longius a munitione a&erant 1alli plus multitudine telorum profiie&ant /'.1. 5.820 so long as the 1auls !ere at a distane from the fortifiations they hadthe ad"antage &eause of their missiles.

done gratus eram ti&i ersarum "igui rege &eatior /or. Od. .7.40 as long as I

en,oyed thy fa"or I flourished happier than the )ing of the ersians.3uoad potuit fortissime restitit /'. 1. =.420 he resisted &ra"ely as long as he ould.

NOTE 4.(( 9one in this use is onfined to poetry and later !riters.

NOTE 2.(( uam diu as long as ta)es the Indiati"e only: as(( se oppido tam diutenuit 3uam diu in pro"inia arthi fuerunt />am. 42.47.20 he )ept himself !ithinthe to!n as long as the arthians !ere in the pro"ine.

SECTION: #??6. 9um !hile regularly ta)es the resent Indiati"e to denoteontinued ation in past time.

In translating the English Imperfet must generally &e used:

dum hae geruntur Caesari nuntiatum est /'. 1. 4.=60 !hile this !as going on amessage !as &rought to Caesar.

hae dum aguntur interea Cleomenes iam ad Elori litus per"enerat /<err. ?.740 !hile this !as going on Cleomenes mean!hile had ome do!n to the oast atElorum.

ho dum narrat forte audi"i+ / Ter. aut. 2520 I happened to hear this !hile she !as telling it.

NOTE.((This onstrution is a speial use of the istorial resent /Set: =670.

$ past tense !ith dum /usually so long as0 ma)es the time emphati &y ontrast+ &ut a fe! irregular ases of dum !ith a past tense our !here no ontrast isintended:

ne enim dum eram "o&isum animum meum "ide&atis /Cat. @. 570 for !hile I

!as !ith you you ould not see my soul. Dere the time !hen he !as ali"e isontrasted !ith that after his death.F

oY_rta est pugna par dum onsta&ant ordines /i". 22.=50 a onflit &egan !ellmathed as long as the ran)s stood firm.

'ut(( dum oulos hostium ertamen a"erterat / id. 2.2=0 !hile the struggle )eptthe eyes of the enemy turned a!ay.



dum unum adsendere gradum onatus est "enit in periulum /@ur. ??0 !hile heattempted to lim& one step Din ran)F he fell into danger.

NOTE.((In later !riters dum sometimes ta)es the Su&,unti"e !hen the lassialusage !ould re3uire the Indiati"e and done until is freely used in this manner

/espeially &y Taitus0:dum ea in Samnio gererentur in Etruria interim &ellum ingens onitur /i".4;.480 !hile this !as &eing done in Samnium mean!hile a great !ar !as stirredup in Etruria.

illa 3uidem dum te fugeret hydrum non "idit /1eorg. =.=?50 !hile she !as fleeingfrom you she did not see the serpent.

dum per "ios deportaretur ondormie&at /Suet. $ug. 580 !hile he !as &eingarried through the streets he used to fall dead asleep.

Bhenus ser"at nomen et "iolentiam ursus / 3ua 1ermaniam prae"ehitur0 doneOeano miseatur /Ta. $nn. 2.60 the Bhine )eeps its name and rapid ourse/!here it &orders 1ermany0 until it mingles !ith the oean.

tempori&us3ue $ugusti diendis non defuere deora ingenia done glisenteadulatione deterrerentur / id. 4.40 for desri&ing the times of $ugustus there !asno la) of talent until it !as frightened a!ay &y the inreasing ser"ility of the age.

>or dum pro"ided that see Set: ?28.

.C$SES -IT .IN $N9 .O@INS

SECTION: #??5. The original meaning of 3uin is ho! not !hy not /3ui( ne0 and !hen used !ith the Indiati"e or /rarely0 !ith the Su&,unti"e it regularly implies ageneral negati"e. Thus 3uin ego ho rogem !hy should nAt I as) this implies thatthere is no reason for not as)ing. The implied negati"e !as then e%pressed in amain lause li)e nulla ausa est or fieri non potest. ene ome the "ariousdependent onstrutions introdued &y 3uin.

uominus is really a phrase / 3uo minus0 and the dependent onstrutions !hihit introdues ha"e their origin in the relati"e lause of purpose !ith 3uo and aomparati"e /see Set: ?4. a0.



SECTION: #??8. $ su&,unti"e lause !ith 3uin is used after "er&s and othere%pressions of hindering resisting refusing dou&ting delaying and the li)e !henthese are negati"ed either e%pressly or &y impliation:

non humana ulla ne3ue di"ina o&stant 3uin soios amios trahant e%sindant / Sall.

Ep. @ith. 450 no human or di"ine la!s pre"ent them from ta)ing apti"e ande%terminating their friendly allies.

ut ne Suessiones 3uidem deterrere potuerint 3uin um his onsentirent /'. 1. 2.0 that they !ere una&le to hinder e"en the Suessiones from ma)ing ommon ause !ith them.

non posse milites ontineri 3uin in ur&em inrumperent /'. C. 2.420 that thesoldiers ould not &e restrained from &ursting into the ity.

non reusat 3uin iudies /9eiot. =0 he does not o&,et to your ,udging.

ne3ue reusare 3uin armis ontendant /'. 1. =.50 and that they did not refuse tofight.

praeterire non potui 3uin sri&erem ad te+ / Caesar ap. Ci. $tt. 7.6$0 I ould notneglet to !rite to you.

Tre"eri totius hiemis nullum tempus intermiserunt 3uin legatos mitterent /'. 1.?.??0 the Tre"eri let no part of the !inter pass !ithout sending am&assadors. DCf.'. 1. ?.?+ '. C. 4.58.F

non untandum e%istima"it 3uin pugna deertaret /'. 1. .20 he thought heought not to delay ris)ing a deisi"e &attle.

paulum afuit 3uin <arum interfieret /'. C. 2.?0 he ,ust missed )illing <arus /itla)ed little &ut that he should )ill0.

ne3ue multum afuit 3uin astris e%pellerentur / id. 2.?0 they ame near &eingdri"en out of the amp.

faere non possum 3uin otidie ad te mittam /$tt. 42.25.20 I annot help sendingto you e"ery day.

fieri nullo modo poterat 3uin Cleomeni pareretur /<err. ?.4;=0 it !as out of the3uestion that Cleomenes should not &e spared.

ut effii non possit 3uin eos oderim /hil. 44.60 so that nothing an pre"ent myhating them.

uin is espeially ommon !ith non du&ito I do not dou&t non est du&ium thereis no dou&t and similar e%pressions:



non du&ita&at 3uin ei rederemus /$tt. 6.2.0 he did not dou&t that !e &elie"edhim.

illud a"e du&ites 3uin ego omnia faiam />am. ?.2;.60 do not dou&t that I !ill doall.

3uis ignorat 3uin tria 1raeorum genera sint />la. 6=0 !ho is ignorant that thereare three raes of 1ree)s

non erat du&ium 3uin el"etii plurimum possent /f. '. 1. 4.0 there !as no dou&tthat the el"etians !ere most po!erful.

ne3ue Caesarem fefellit 3uin a& iis ohorti&us initium "itoriae oriretur /'. C. .7=0 and it did not esape CaesarAs notie that the &eginning of the "itory ame fromthose ohorts.

NOTE 4.(( 9u&ito !ithout a negati"e is regularly follo!ed &y an Indiret uestion+so sometimes non du&ito and the li)e:

non nulli du&itant an per Sardiniam "eniat />am. 7.50 some dou&t !hether he isoming through Sardinia.

du&itate si potestis a 3uo sit Se%. Bosius oisus /Bos. $m. 580 dou&t if youan &y !hom Se%tus Bosius !as murdered.

du&ita&am tu has ipsas litteras essesne aepturus /$tt. 4?.70 I dou&t !hether you !ill reei"e this "ery letter. DEpistolary Imperfet /Set: =570.F

3ualis sit futurus ne "os 3uidem du&itatis /'. C. 2.20 and !hat it /the outome0 !ill &e you yoursel"es do not dou&t.

non du&ito 3uid sentiant />am. 4?.70 I do not dou&t !hat they thin).

du&ium illi non erat 3uid futurum esset / id. 8.8.40 it !as not dou&tful to him !hat !as going to happen.

NOTE 2.(( Non du&ito in the sense of I do not hesitate ommonly ta)es theInfiniti"e &ut sometimes 3uin !ith the Su&,unti"e:

ne du&itare illum appellare sapientem /ael. 40 and not to hesitate to all him asage.

du&itandum non e%istima "it 3uin profliseretur /'. 1. 2.20 he did not thin) heought to hesitate to set out.

3uid du&itas uti temporis opportunitate /'. C. 2.=0 !hy do you hesitate to ta)ead"antage of the fa"ora&le moment D$ 3uestion implying a negati"e.F



<er&s of hindering and refusing often ta)e the su&,unti"e !ith ne or 3uominus /Lut eo minus0 espeially !hen the "er& is not negati"ed:

plura ne diam tuae me larimae impediunt /lan. 4;=0 your tears pre"eni mefrom spea)ing further.

ne aetas impedit 3uominus agri olendi studia teneamus /Cat. @. 6;0 nor doesage pre"ent us from retaining an interest in tilling the soil.

nihil impedit 3uominus id faere possimus />in. 4.0 nothing hinders us from &eing a&le to do that.

o&stitisti ne transire opiae possent /<err. ?.?0 you opposed the passage of thetroops /opposed lest the troops should ross0.

NOTE.((Some "er&s of hindering may ta)e the Infiniti"e:

nihil o&est diere />am. 7.4.=0 there is nothing to pre"ent my saying it.

prohi&et aedere /Cae. =60 pre"ents him from approahing.

SECTION: #??7. $ lause of Besult or Charateristi may &e introdued U

J 3uin after a general negati"e !here 3uin is e3ui"alent to 3ui / 3uae 3uod0 non:

4. Clauses of Besult:

nemo est tam fortis 3uin DL 3ui nonF rei no"itate pertur&etur /'. 1. 6.70 no one isso &ra"e as not to &e distur&ed &y the une%peted ourrene.

nemo erat adeo tardus 3uin putaret /'. C. 4.670 no one !as so slothful as not tothin) et.

3uis est tam demens 3uin sentiat /'al&. =0 !ho is so senseless as not to thin)et.

nil tam diffiilest 3uin 3uaerendo in"estigari possiet /Ter. aut. 65?0 nothingAs sohard &ut searh !ill find it out / erri)0.

2. Clauses of Charateristi:

nemo nostrum est 3uin DL 3ui nonF siat /Bos. $m. ??0 there is no one of us !hodoes not )no!.



nemo fuit militum 3uin "ulneraretur /'. C. .?0 there !as not one of the soldiers !ho !as not !ounded.

e3uis fuit 3uin larimaret /<err. ?.4240 !as there any one !ho did not shed tears

3uis est 3uin intellegat />in. ?.6=0 !ho is there !ho does not understandhorum nihil est 3uin DL 3uod nonF intereat /N. 9. .;0 there is none of these/elements0 !hih does not perish.

nihil est illorum 3uin DL 3uod nonF ego illi di%erim /l. 'a. 4;420 there is nothingof this that I ha"e not told him.

NOTE.(( uin sometimes introdues a pure lause of result !ith the sense of utnon: as(( num3uam tam male est Siulis 3uin ali3uid faete et ommode diant/<err. =.7?0 things are ne"er so &ad !ith the Siilians &ut that they ha"esomething pleasant or !itty to say.

>or 3uin in independent onstrutions. see Set: ==;

.S'ST$NTI<E C$SES

SECTION: #?6;. $ lause !hih is used as a noun may &e alled a Su&stanti"eClause as ertain relati"e lauses are sometimes alled ad,eti"e lauses. 'ut inpratie the term is restrited to lauses !hih represent a nominati"e or anausati"e ase the lauses !hih stand for an a&lati"e &eing sometimes alledad"er&ial lauses.

E"en !ith this limitation the term is not 3uite preise /see p. 65 footnote 40. Thefat is rather that the lause and the leading "er& are mutually omplementary+eah reinfores the other. The simplest and pro&a&ly the earliest form of suhsentenes is to &e found in the paratati use /see Set: 2680 of t!o "er&s li)e "oloa&eas diamus enseo adeam optimum est. >rom suh "er&s the usage spread &yanalogy to other "er&s /see lists on pp. 6 65 footnotes0 and theomplementary relation of the lause to the "er& ame to resem&le theomplementary fore of the ausati"e espeially the ausati"e of ognatemeaning /Set: 7;0.

SECTION: #?64. $ lause used as a noun is alled a Su&stanti"e Clause.

$ Su&stanti"e Clause may &e used as the Su&,et or O&,et of a "er& as an $ppositi"e or as a rediate Nominati"e or $usati"e.



NOTE 4.((@any ideas !hih in English ta)e the form of an a&strat noun may &erendered &y a su&stanti"e lause in atin. Thus he demanded an in"estigation may &e postula&at ut 3uaestio ha&eretur. The ommon English e%pression for !ith theinfiniti"e also orresponds to a atin su&stanti"e lause: as((it remains for me tospea) of the pirati !ar reli3uum est ut de &ello diam piratio.

NOTE 2.((-hen a Su&stanti"e Clause is used as su&,et the "er& to !hih it issu&,et is alled impersonal and the sign of the onstrution in English isommonly the so(alled e%pleti"e IT.

SECTION: #?62. Su&stanti"e Clauses are lassified as follo!s:

4. Su&,unti"e Clauses / ut ne ut non et.0. a. Of purpose /ommand !ish fear0/Set: ?6 ?6=0. &. Of result /happen effet et.0 /Set: ?680.

2. Indiati"e Clauses !ith 3uod: >at Speifiation >eeling /Set: ?520.

. Indiret uestions: Su&,unti"e introdued &y an Interrogati"e -ord /Set: ?5(?560.

=. Infiniti"e Clauses a. -ith "er&s of ordering !ishing et. /Set: ?60. &. Indiret9isourse /Set: ?57 ff.0.

NOTE.((The Infiniti"e !ith Su&,et $usati"e is not stritly a lause &ut in atin ithas undergone so e%tensi"e a de"elopment that it may &e so lassed. The uses ofthe Infiniti"e Clause are of t!o )inds: /40 in onstrutions in !hih it replaes asu&,unti"e lause !ith ut et.+ /20 in the Indiret 9isourse. The first lass !ill &edisussed in onnetion !ith the appropriate su&,unti"e onstrutions /Set: ?60+for Indiret 9isourse see Set: ?57 ff.

Su&stanti"e Clauses of urpose

SECTION: #?6. Su&stanti"e Clauses of urpose !ith ut /negati"e ne0 are used asthe o&,et of "er&s denoting an ation direted to!ard the future.

Suh are "er&s meaning to admonish as) &argain ommand deree determinepermit persuade resol"e urge and !ish:

monet ut omnes suspiiones "itet /'. 1. 4.2;0 he !arns him to a"oid all suspiion.

hortatur eos ne animo defiiant /'. C. 4.470 he urges them not to lose heart.

te rogo at3ue oro ut eum iu"es />am. 4.660 I &eg and pray you to aid him.



his uti on3uirerent impera"it /'. 1. 4.280 he ordered them to searh.

persuadet Castio ut regnum ouparet / id. 4.0 he persuades Castius to usurproyal po!er.

suis impera"it ne 3uod omnino telum reiierent / id. 4.=60 he ordered his men notto thro! &a) any !eapon at all.

NOTE.((-ith any "er& of these lasses the poets may use the Infiniti"e instead ofan o&,et lause:

hortamur fari /$en. 2.5=0 !e urge DhimF to spea).

ne 3uaere doeri / id. 6.64=0 see) not to &e told.

temptat prae"ertere / id. 4.5240 she attempts to turn et.

>or the Su&,unti"e !ithout ut !ith "er&s of ommanding see Set: ?6?. a.

Iu&eo order and "eto for&id ta)e the Infiniti"e !ith Su&,et $usati"e:

a&ienum iugum montis asendere iu&et /'. 1. 4.240 he orders a&ienus to asendthe ridge of the hill.

li&eros ad se addui iussit / id. 2.?0 he ordered the hildren to &e &rought to him.

a& opere legatos disedere "etuerat / id. 2.2;0 he had for&idden the lieutenants tolea"e the !or).

"etuere D &onaF reddi /i". 2.?0 they for&ade the return of the goods /that thegoods &e returned0.

NOTE.((Some other "er&s of ommanding et. oasionally ta)e the Infiniti"e:

pontem imperant fieri /'. C. 4.640 they order a &ridge to &e &uilt.

res monet a"ere / Sall. Cat. ?2.0 the oasion !arns us to &e on our guard.

<er&s of !ishing ta)e either the Infiniti"e or the Su&,unti"e.

-ith "olo / nolo malo0 and upio the Infiniti"e is ommoner and the su&,et of theinfiniti"e is rarely e%pressed !hen it !ould &e the same as that of the main "er&.

-ith other "er&s of !ishing the Su&,unti"e is ommoner !hen the su&,ethanges the Infiniti"e !hen it remains the same.

4. Su&,et of dependent "er& same as that of the "er& of !ishing:



augur fieri "olui+ / >am. 4?.=.40 I !ished to &e made augur.

upio "igiliam meam ti&i tradere / id. 44.2=0 I am eager to hand o"er my !ath to you.

iudiem me esse non dotorem "olo+ /Or. 4450 I !ish to &e a ,udge not a teaher.me Caesaris militem dii "olui+ / '. C. 2.2.40 I !ished to &e alled a soldier ofCaesar.

upio me esse lementem /Cat. 4.=0 I desire to &e meriful. D'ut regularly upioesse lemens /see Set: =?50.F

omnis homines 3ui sese student praestare eteris animali&us / Sall. Cat. 40 all men !ho !ish to e%el other li"ing reatures.

2. Su&,et of dependent "er& different from that of the "er& of !ishing:

"olo te sire />am. 7.2=.40 I !ish you to )no!.

"im "olumus e%stingui /Sest. 720 !e !ish "iolene to &e put do!n.

te tua frui "irtute upimus /'rut. 40 !e !ish you to reap the fruits of your "irtue.

upio ut impetret /l. Capt. 4;20 I !ish he may get it.

num3uam opta&o ut audiatis /Cat. 2.4?0 I !ill ne"er desire that you shall hear.

>or "olo and its ompounds !ith the Su&,unti"e !ithout ut see Set: ?6?.

<er&s of permitting ta)e either the Su&,unti"e or the Infiniti"e. atior ta)esregularly the Infiniti"e !ith Su&,et $usati"e+ so often sino:

permisit ut faeret /9e Or. 2.660 permitted him to ma)e.

onedo ti&i ut ea praetereas /Bos. $m. ?=0 I allo! you to pass &y these matters.

ta&ernaula statui passus non est /'. C. 4.840 he did not allo! tents to &e pithed.

"inum importari non sinunt /'. 1. =.20 they do not allo! !ine to &e imported.

<er&s of determining dereeing resol"ing &argaining ta)e either the Su&,unti"eor the Infiniti"e:

onstituerant ut . 'estia 3uereretur / Sall. Cat. =0 they had determined thatuius 'estia should omplain.



In this use ne is ommonly to &e translated &y that ut and ne non &y that not:

timeo ne <erres feerit /<err. ?.0 I fear that <erres has done et.

ne animum offenderet "ere&atur /'. 1. 4.470 he feared that he should hurt the

feelings et.ne e%heredaretur "eritus est /Bos. $m. ?80 he feared that he should &edisinherited.

orator metuo ne languesat senetute /Cat. @. 280 I fear the orator gro!s fee&lefrom old age.

"ereor ut ti&i possim onedere /9e Or. 4.?0 I fear that I annot grant you.

haud sane periulum est ne non mortem optandam putet /Tus. ?.4480 there is nodanger that he !ill not thin) death desira&le.

NOTE.((The su&,unti"e in ne(lauses after a "er& of fearing is optati"e in origin.To an independent ne(sentene as ne aidat may it not happen a "er& may &eprefi%ed /f. Set: ?6;0 ma)ing a omple% sentene. Thus "ide ne aidat+ oro neaidat+ a"et ne aidat+ !hen the prefi%ed "er& is one of fearing timeo ne aidat &eomes let it not happen &ut I fear that it may. The origin of the ut(lause issimilar.

SECTION: #?6?. <olo and its ompounds the impersonals liet and oportet andthe imperati"es di and fa often ta)e the Su&,unti"e !ithout ut:

"olo ames /$tt. 2.4;0 I !ish you to lo"e.

3uam "ellem me in"itasses />am. 4;.28.40 ho! I !ish you had in"ited me*

mallem Cer&erum metueres /Tus. 4.420 I had rather you feared Cer&erus.

sint enim oportet / id. 4.420 for they must e%ist.

3ueramur liet /Cae. =40 !e are allo!ed to omplain.

fa diligas /$tt. .4.20 do lo"e* D$ periphrasis for the imperati"e dilige lo"e /f.Set: ==7. 0.F

di e%eat tell him to go out.

NOTE 4.((In suh ases there is no ellipsis of ut. The e%pressions are idiomatiremnants of an older onstrution in !hih the su&,unti"es !ere hortatory or



optati"e and thus really independent of the "er& of !ishing et. In the lassialperiod ho!e"er they !ere dou&tless felt as su&ordinate. Compare the use of a"eand the su&,unti"e /!ithout ne0 in rohi&itions /Set: =?;0 !hih appears tofollo! the analogy of fa.

NOTE 2.(( iet may ta)e /40 the Su&,unti"e usually !ithout ut+ /20 the simpleInfiniti"e+ /0 the Infiniti"e !ith Su&,et $usati"e+ /=0 the 9ati"e and theInfiniti"e /see Set: =??. 40. Thus I may go is liet eam liet ire liet me ire or lietmihi ire.

>or liet in onessi"e lauses see Set: ?25. &.

NOTE .(( Oportet may ta)e /40 the Su&,unti"e !ithout ut+ /20 the simpleInfiniti"e+ /0 the Infiniti"e !ith Su&,et $usati"e. Thus I must go is oportet eamoportet ire or oportet me ire.

<er&s of ommanding and the li)e often ta)e the su&,unti"e !ithout ut:

hui mandat Bemos adeat /'. 1. .440 he orders him to "isit the Bemi.

rogat finem faiat / id. 4.2;0 he as)s him to ease.

@nesthea "oat lassem aptent soii+ / $en. =.2870 he alls @nestheus Dandorders thatF his omrades shall ma)e ready the fleet.

NOTE.((The su&,unti"e in this onstrution is the hortatory su&,unti"e used toe%press a ommand in Indiret 9isourse /Set: ?880.

Su&stanti"e Clauses of urpose !ith assi"e <er&s

SECTION: #?66. $ Su&stanti"e Clause used as the o&,et of a "er& &eomes thesu&,et !hen the "er& is put in the passi"e /Impersonal Constrution0:

Caesar ut ognoseret postulatum est /'. C. 4.850 Caesar !as re3uested to ma)ean in"estigation /it !as re3uested that Caesar should ma)e an in"estigation0.

si erat eralio a& senatu mandatum ut emeret /<err. .880 if eralius had &een

instruted &y the senate to &uy.

si persuasum erat Clu"io ut mentiretur /Bos. Com. ?40 if Clu"ius had &eenpersuaded to lie.

puto onedi no&is oportere ut 1raeo "er&o utamur />in. .4?0 I thin) !e must &e allo!ed to use a 1ree) !ord.



ne 3uid eis noeatur a Caesare a"etur /'. C. 4.860 Caesar ta)es are that no harmshall &e done them /are is ta)en &y Caesar lest et.0.

-ith "er&s of admonishing the personal o&,et &eomes the su&,et and the o&,etlause is retained:

admoniti sumus ut a"eremus / $tt. 8.449. 0 !e !ere !arned to &e areful.

um moneretur ut autior esset /9i". 4.?40 !hen he !as ad"ised to &e moreautious.

moneri "isus est ne id faeret / id. ?60 he seemed to &e !arned not to do it.

Some "er&s that ta)e an infiniti"e instead of a su&,unti"e are used impersonally inthe passi"e and the infiniti"e &eomes the su&,et of the sentene:

lo3ui non oneditur /'. 1. 6.2;0 it is not allo!ed to spea).

-ith iu&eo "eto and ogo the su&,et ausati"e of the infiniti"e &eomes thesu&,et nominati"e of the main "er& and the infiniti"e is retained asomplementary /ersonal Constrution0:

adesse iu&entur postridie+ / <err. 2.=40 they are ordered to &e present on thefollo!ing day.

ire in e%silium iussus est /Cat. 2.420 he !as ordered to go into e%ile.

Simonides "etitus est na"igare /9i". 2.4=0 Simonides !as for&idden to sail.

@andu&ii e%ire oguntur /'. 1. 5.580 the @andu&ii are ompelled to go out.

Su&stanti"e Clauses of Besult /Conseuti"e Clauses0

SECTION: #?65. Clauses of Besult may &e used su&stanti"ely /40 as the o&,et offaio et. /Set: ?680+ /20 as the su&,et of these same "er&s in the passi"e as !ell asof other "er&s and "er&al phrases /Set: ?670+ /0 in apposition !ith anothersu&stanti"e or as prediate nominati"e et. /see Set: ?5; ?540.

SECTION: #?68. Su&stanti"e Clauses of Besult !ith ut /negati"e ut non0 are usedas the o&,et of "er&s denoting the aomplishment of an effort.

Suh are espeially faio and its ompounds / effiio onfiio et.0:



effiiam ut intellegatis /Clu. 50 I !ill ma)e you understand /lit. effet that youet.0. DSo faiam ut intellegatis / id. 70.F

ommeatus ut portari possent effiie&at /'. 1. 2.?0 made it possi&le that suppliesould &e &rought.

perfei ut e regno ille disederet />am. 4?.=.60 I &rought a&out his departure fromthe )ingdom.

3uae li&ertas ut laetior esset regis super&ia feerat /i". 2.40 the arrogane of the)ing had made this li&erty more !elome.

e"inunt instando ut litterae darentur / id. 2.=0 &y insisting they gain their point((that letters should &e sent. Dere e"inunt L effiiunt.F

NOTE 4.((The e%pressions faere ut ommittere ut !ith the su&,unti"e oftenform a periphrasis for the simple "er&: as(( in"itus fei ut >laminium e senatueierem /Cat. @. =20 it !as !ith relutane that I e%pelled >laminius from thesenate.

SECTION: #?67. Su&stanti"e Clauses of Besult are used as the su&,et of thefollo!ing:

4. Of passi"e "er&s denoting the aomplishment of an effort:

impetratum est ut in senatu reitarentur / litterae0 / '. C. 4.40 they sueeded inha"ing the letter read in the senate /it !as &rought a&out that et.0.

ita effiitur ut omne orpus mortale sit /N. 9. .;0 it therefore is made out thate"ery &ody is mortal.

2. Of Impersonals meaning it happens it remains it follo!s it is neessary it isadded and the li)e /Set: ?68 footnote0:

aidit ut esset luna plena /'. 1. =.270 it happened to &e full moon /it happenedthat it !as et.0. Dere ut esset is su&,et of aidit.F

reli3uum est ut offiiis ertemus inter nos />am. 5.40 it remains for us to "ie !itheah other in ourtesies.

restat ut ho du&itemus /Bos. $m. 880 it is left for us to dou&t this.

se3uitur ut doeam /N. 9. 2.840 the ne%t thing is to sho! /it follo!s et.0.



NOTE 4.((The infiniti"e sometimes ours: as(( ne enim aiderat mihi opus esse/>am. 6.44.40 for it had not happened to &e neessary to me.

NOTE 2.(( Neesse est often ta)es the su&,unti"e !ithout ut: as(( onedasneesse est /Bos. $m. 850 you must grant.

. Of est in the sense of it is the fat that et. /mostly poeti0:

est ut "iro "ir latius ordinet ar&usta /or. Od. .4.70 it is the fat that one manplants his "ineyards in !ider ro!s than another.

>ore /or futurum esse0 ut !ith a lause of result as su&,et is Often used instead ofthe >uture Infiniti"e ati"e or passi"e+ so neessarily in "er&s !hih ha"e no supinestem:

spero fore ut ontingat id no&is /Tus. 4.820 I hope that !ill &e our happy lot.

um "iderem fore ut non possem /Cat. 2.=0 !hen I sa! that I should not &e a&le.

SECTION: #?5;. $ su&stanti"e lause of result may &e in apposition !ith anothersu&stanti"e /espeially a neuter pronoun0:

illud etiam restiterat ut te in ius eduerent /uint. 0 this too remained(( forthem to drag you into ourt.

SECTION: #?54. $ su&stanti"e lause of result may ser"e as prediate nominati"eafter mos est and similar e%pressions:

est mos hominum ut nolint eundem pluri&us re&us e%ellere /'rut. 8=0 it is the !ay of men to &e un!illing for one man to e%el in se"eral things.

$ result lause !ith or !ithout ut fre3uently follo!s 3uam after a omparati"e/&ut see Set: ?8. 0:

Canahi signa rigidiora sunt 3uam ut imitentur "eritatem /'rut. 5;0 the statues ofCanahus are too stiff to represent nature /stiffer than that they should0.

perpessus est omnia potius 3uam indiaret /Tus. 2.?20 he endured all rather than &etray et. DBegularly !ithout ut e%ept in i"y.F

The phrase tantum a&est it is so far Dfrom &eing the aseF regularly ta)es t!olauses of result !ith ut: one is su&stanti"e the su&,et of a&est+ the other isad"er&ial orrelati"e !ith tantum:



tantum a&est ut nostra miremur ut us3ue eo diffiiles a morosi simus ut no&isnon satis faiat ipse 9emosthenes /Or. 4;=0 so far from admiring my o!n !or)s Iam diffiult and aptious to that degree that not 9emosthenes himself satisfies me.Dere the first ut(lause is the su&,et of a&est /Set: ?67. 20+ the seond a resultlause after tantum /Set: ?50+ and the third after us3ue eo.F

Barely a thought or an idea is onsidered as a result and is e%pressed &y thesu&,unti"e !ith ut instead of the ausati"e and infiniti"e /Set: ?8;0. In this asea demonstrati"e usually preedes:

praelarum illud est ut eos ... amemus /Tus. .50 this is a no&le thing that !eshould lo"e et.

"eri simile non est ut ille anteponeret /<err. =.440 it is not li)ely that he preferred.

>or Belati"e Clauses !ith 3uin after "er&s of hindering et. see Set: ??8.

Indiati"e !ith uod

SECTION: #?52. $ peuliar form of Su&stanti"e Clause onsists of 3uod /in thesense of that the fat that0 !ith the Indiati"e.

The lause in the Indiati"e !ith 3uod is used !hen the statement is regarded as afat:

alterum est "itium 3uod 3uidam nimis magnum studium onferunt /Off. 4.470 it isanother fault that some &esto! too muh Geal et. Dere ut onferant ould &eused meaning that some should &esto!+ or the ausati"e and infiniti"e meaningto &esto! /a&stratly0+ 3uod ma)es it a fat that men do &esto! et.F

inter inanimum et animal ho ma%ime interest 3uod animal agit ali3uid /$ad.2.50 this is the hief differene &et!een an inanimate o&,et and an animal thatan animal aims at something.

3uod rediit no&is mira&ile "idetur /Off. .4440 that he /Begulus0 returned seems !onderful to us.

aidit perinommode 3uod eum nus3uam "idisti /$tt. 4.45.20 it happened "eryunlu)ily that you no!here sa! him.

opportunissima res aidit 3uod 1ermani "enerunt /'. 1. =.40 a "ery fortunatething happened /namely0 that the 1ermans ame.

praetereo 3uod eam si&i domum sedem3ue delegit /Clu. 4880 I pass o"er the fatthat she hose that house and home for herself.



mitto 3uod possessa per "im />la. 570 I disregard the fat that they !ere seiGed &y "iolene.

NOTE.((i)e other su&stanti"e lauses the lause !ith 3uod may &e used assu&,et as o&,et as appositi"e et. &ut it is ommonly either the su&,et or in

apposition !ith the su&,et. $ su&stanti"e lause !ith 3uod sometimes appears as an ausati"e ofspeifiation orresponding to the English !hereas or as to the fat that:

3uod mihi de nostro statu gratularis minime miramur te tuis praelaris operi&uslaetari+ / >am. 4.5.50 as to your ongratulating me on our ondition !e are not atall surprised that you are pleased !ith your o!n no&le !or)s.

3uod de domo sri&is ego et. />am. 4=.2.0 as to !hat you !rite of the house Iet.

<er&s of feeling and the e%pression of feeling ta)e either 3uod / 3uia0 or theausati"e and infiniti"e /Indiret 9isourse0:

3uod sri&is ... gaudeo+ / . >r. .4.70 I am glad that you !rite.

faio li&enter 3uod eam non possum praeterire /egg. 4.60 I am glad that Iannot pass it &y.

3uae perfeta esse "ehementer laetor /Bos. $m. 460 I greatly re,oie that this isfinished.

3ui 3uia non ha&uit a me turmas e3uitum fortasse susenset /$tt. 6..?0 !hoperhaps feels angry that he did not reei"e s3uadrons of a"alry from me.

moleste tuli te senatui gratias non egisse />am. 4;.25.40 I !as displeased that youdid not return than)s to the senate.

NOTE.(( @iror and similar e%pressions are sometimes follo!ed &y a lause !ithsi.This is apparently su&stanti"e &ut really protasis /f. Set: ?6. e. N. 40. Thus((miror si 3uem3uam amium ha&ere potuit /ael. ?=0 I !onder if he ould e"erha"e a friend. DOriginally If this is so I !onder at it.F

.Indiret uestions

SECTION: #?5. $n Indiret uestion is any sentene or lause !hih isintrodued &y an interrogati"e !ord /pronoun ad"er& et.0 and !hih is itself the



su&,et or o&,et of a "er& or depends on any e%pression implying unertainty ordou&t.

In grammatial form e%lamatory sentenes are not distinguished frominterrogati"e /see the third e%ample &elo!0.

SECTION: #?5=. $n Indiret uestion ta)es its "er& in the Su&,unti"e:

3uid ipse sentiam e%ponam /9i". 4.4;0 I !ill e%plain !hat I thin). D9iret: 3uidsentioF

id possetne fieri onsuluit / id. 4.20 he onsulted !hether it ould &e done.D9iret: potestneF

3uam sis auda% omnes intellegere potuerunt /Bos. $m. 850 all ould understandho! &old you are. D9iret: 3uam es auda%*F

doleam nene doleam nihil interest /Tus. 2.270 it is of no aount !hether Isuffer or not. D9ou&le 3uestion.F

3uaesi"i a Catilina in on"entu apud @. aeam fuisset nene /Cat. 2.40 I as)edCatiline !hether he had &een at the meeting at @arus KaAs or not. D9ou&le3uestion.F

rogat me 3uid sentiam he as)s me !hat I thin). DCf. rogat me sententiam he as)sme my opinion.F

ho du&ium est uter nostrum sit in"ereundior /$ad. 2.4260 this is dou&tful !hih of us t!o is the less modest.

inerti 3uatenus <olero e%ereret "itoriam /i". 2.??0 unertain ho! far <olero !ould push "itory. D$s if du&itantes 3uatenus et.F

NOTE.(($n Indiret uestion may &e the su&,et of a "er& /as in the fourthe%ample0 the diret o&,et /as in the first0 the seondary o&,et /as in the si%th0 anappositi"e /as in the se"enth0.

SECTION: #?5?. The Se3uene of Tenses in Indiret uestion is illustrated &y thefollo!ing e%amples:

dio 3uid faiam I tell you !hat I am doing.

dio 3uid faturus sim I tell you !hat I !ill /shall0 do.



dio 3uid feerim I tell you !hat I did /ha"e done !as doing0.

di%i 3uid faerem I told you !hat I !as doing.

di%i 3uid feissem I told you !hat I had done /had &een doing0.

di%i 3uid faturus essem I told you !hat I !ould /should0 do /!as going to do0.

di%i 3uid faturus fuissem I told you !hat I !ould /should0 ha"e done.

Indiret uestions referring to future time ta)e the su&,unti"e of the >irsteriphrasti Con,ugation:

prospiio 3ui onursus futuri sint /Caeil. =20 I foresee !hat throngs there !ill &e. D9iret: 3ui eruntF

3uid sit futurum ras fuge 3uaerere /or. Od. 4.7.40 for&ear to as) !hat !ill &eon the morro!. D9iret: 3uid erit or futurum estF

postha non sri&am ad te 3uid faturus sim sed 3uid feerim /$tt. 4;.480 hereafter I shall not !rite to you !hat I am going to do &ut !hat I ha"e done.D9iret: 3uid faies /or faturus eris0 3uid feistiF

NOTE.((This eriphrasti >uture a"oids the am&iguity !hih !ould &e aused &yusing the resent Su&,unti"e to refer to future time in suh lauses.

The 9eli&erati"e Su&,unti"e /Set: ===0 remains unhanged in an Indiretuestion e%ept sometimes in tense:

3uo me "ertam nesio+ / Clu. =0 I do not )no! !hih !ay to turn. D9iret: 3uo me "ertamF

ne3ue satis onsta&at 3uid agerent /'. 1. .4=0 and it !as not "ery lear !hat they !ere to do. D9iret: 3uid agamusF

ne 3uis3uam satis ertum ha&et 3uid aut speret aut timeat /i". 22.5.4;0 nor isany one !ell assured !hat he shall hope or fear. Dere the future partiiple !ith sitould not &e used.F

inerto 3uid peterent aut "itarent / id. 28.6.420 sine it !as dou&tful /a&lati"ea&solute0 !hat they should see) or shun.

Indiret uestions often ta)e the Indiati"e in early atin and in poetry:

"ineam 3uo in agro onseri oportet si o&ser"ato+ / Cato B. B. 6.=0 in !hat soil a "ineyard should &e set you must o&ser"e thus.



Nesio 3uis !hen used in an indefinite sense /some&ody or other0 is not follo!ed &y the Su&,unti"e.

So also nesio 3uo / unde an et.0 and the follo!ing idiomati phrases !hih arepratially ad"er&s:

mirum / nimirum0 3uam mar"ellously /mar"ellous ho!0.

mirum 3uantum tremendously /mar"ellous ho! muh0.

immane 3uantum monstrously /monstrous ho! muh0.

sane 3uam immensely.

"alde 3uam enormously.

E%amples are:

3ui istam nesio 3uam indolentiam magnopere laudant /Tus. .420 !ho greatlye%tol that freedom from pain !hate"er it is.

mirum 3uantum profuit /i". 2.40 it helped prodigiously.

ita fato nesio 3uo ontigisse ar&itror />am. 4?.40 I thin) it happened so &y somefatality or other.

nam suos "alde 3uam pauos ha&et / id. 44.4$. 0 for he has unommonly fe! ofhis o!n.

sane 3uam sum ga"isus / id. 44.4$. =0 I !as immensely glad.

immane 3uantum disrepat /or. Od. 4.25.?0 is monstrously at "ariane.

SECTION: #?56. In ollo3uial usage and in poetry the su&,et of an In diretuestion is often attrated into the main lause as o&,et /$usati"e of $ntiipation0:

nosti @arellum 3uam tardus sit />am. 8.4;.0 you )no! ho! slo! @arellus is.D>or nosti 3uam tardus sit @arellus. Cf. KI )no! thee !ho thou art.MF

Cf. potestne igitur earum rerum 3ua re futurae sint ulla esse praesensio+ /9i".2.4?0 an there &e then any fore)no!ledge as to those things !hy they !ill ourD$ similar use of the O&,eti"e 1eniti"e.F



NOTE.((In some ases the O&,et of $ntiipation &eomes the Su&,et &y a hangeof "oie and an apparent mi%ture of relati"e and interrogati"e onstrutions is theresult:

3uidam saepe in par"a peunia perspiiuntur 3uam sint le"es /ael. 60 it is often

seen in a trifling matter of money ho! unprinipled some people are /some peopleare often seen through ho! unprinipled they are0.

3uem ad modum ompeiium oppugnarent a me indiati sunt /eg. $gr. 4.?0 it has &een sho!n &y me in !hat !ay they atta)ed ompey /they ha"e &een sho!n &yme ho! they atta)ed0.

$n indiret 3uestion is oasionally introdued &y si in the sense of !hether /li)e ifin English f. Set: ?52. &. N.0:

irumfunduntur hostes si 3uem aditum reperire possent /'. 1. 6.50 the enemypour round Dto seeF if they an find entrane.

"isam si domi est /Ter. aut. 45;0 I !ill go see if he is at home.

NOTE.((This is stritly a rotasis &ut usually no $podosis is thought of and thelause is "irtually an Indiret uestion.

>or the otential Su&,unti"e !ith forsitan /originally an Indiret uestion0 seeSet: ==5. a.

4 Suh "er&s or "er&al phrases are id ago ad id "enio a"eo / ne0 enseo ogoonedo onstituo uro deerno edio flagito hortor impero insto mandometuo / ne0. moneo negotium do operam do oro persuadeo peto postulopraeipio preor pronuntio. 3uaero rogo siso timeo / ne0 "ereor / ne0 "ideo "olo.

2 In all these ases the lause is not stritly su&,et or o&,et. The main "er&originally on"eyed a meaning suffiient in itself and the result lause !as merelyomplementary. This is seen &y the fre3uent use of ita and the li)e !ith the main "er& / ita aidit ut et.0. In li)e manner purpose lauses are only apparentlysu&,et or o&,et of the "er& !ith !hih they are onneted.

<er&s and phrases ta)ing an ut(lause of result as su&,et or o&,et are aedit

aidit additur altera est res ommitto onse3uor ontingit effiio e"enit faiofit fleri potest fore impetro integrum est mos est munus est neesse est propeest retum est relin3uitur reli3uum est restat tanti est tantum a&est and a fe!others.

= Cf. the 1ree) thaumaGo ei.



SECTION: #?55. The use of the $usati"e and Infiniti"e in Indiret 9isourse/ oratio o&li3ua0 is a omparati"ely late form of speeh de"eloped in the atin and1ree) only and perhaps separately in eah of them. It is !holly !anting inSans)rit &ut some forms li)e it ha"e gro!n up in English and 1erman.

The essential harater of Indiret 9isourse is that the language of some otherperson than the !riter or spea)er is ompressed into a )ind of Su&stanti"e Clausethe "er& of the main lause &eoming Infiniti"e !hile modifying lauses as !ell asall hortatory forms of speeh ta)e the Su&,unti"e. The person of the "er&neessarily onforms to the ne! relation of persons.

The onstrution of Indiret 9isourse ho!e"er is not limited to reports of thelanguage of some person other than the spea)er+ it may &e used to e%press !hatany one((!hether the spea)er or some one else((says thin)s or perei"es !hene"er that !hih is said thought or perei"ed is apa&le of &eing e%pressed inthe form of a omplete sentene. >or anything that an &e said et. an also &ereported indiretly as !ell as diretly.

The use of the Infiniti"e in the main lause undou&tedly omes from its use as aase(form to omplete or modify the ation e%pressed &y the "er& of saying and itso&,et together. This o&,et in time ame to &e regarded as and in fat to all intents &eame the su&,et of the infiniti"e. $ transition state is found in Sans)rit !hihthough it has no indiret disourse proper yet allo!s an indiret prediation after "er&s of saying and the li)e &y means of a prediati"e apposition in suhe%pressions as KThe maids told the )ing DthatF his daughter D!asF &ereft of hersenses.M

The simple form of indiret statement !ith the ausati"e and infiniti"e !as

after!ards amplified &y introduing dependent or modifying lauses+ and in atinit &eame a ommon onstrution and ould &e used to report !hole speehes et. !hih in other languages !ould ha"e the diret form. /Compare the style ofreporting speehes in English !here only the person and tense are hanged.0

The Su&,unti"e in the su&ordinate lauses of Indiret 9isourse has nosignifiane e%ept to ma)e more distint the fat that these lauses aresu&ordinate+ onse3uently no diret onnetion has &een traed &et!een them andthe uses of the mood in simple sentenes. It is pro&a&le that the su&,unti"e inindiret 3uestions /Set: ?5=0 in informal indiret disourse /Set: ?720 and inlauses of the integral part /Set: ?70 represents the earliest steps of a mo"ement

&y !hih the su&,unti"e &eame in some degree a mood of su&ordination.

The Su&,unti"e standing for hortatory forms of speeh in Indiret 9isourse issimply the usual hortatory su&,unti"e !ith only a hange of person and tense /ifneessary0 as in the reporterAs style.



SECTION: #?58. $ 9iret uotation gi"es the e%at !ords of the original spea)eror !riter /Oratio Beta0.

$n Indiret uotation adapts the !ords of the spea)er or !riter to the onstrutionof the sentene in !hih they are 3uoted /` ratio O&li3ua0.

NOTE.((The term Indiret 9isourse / oratio o&li3ua0 is used in t!o senses. In the !ider sense it inludes all lauses((of !hate"er )ind((!hih e%press the !ords orthought of any person indiretly that is in a form different from that in !hih theperson said the !ords or onei"ed the thought. In the narro!er sense the termIndiret 9isourse is restrited to those ases in !hih some omplete propositionis ited in the form of an Indiret uotation !hih may &e e%tended to a narrati"eor an address of any length as in the speehes reported &y Caesar and i"y. In this &oo) the term is used in the restrited sense.

>OB@$ .IN9IBECT 9ISCOBSE

SECTION: #?57. <er&s and other e%pressions of )no!ing thin)ing telling andperei"inggo"ern the Indiret 9isourse.

NOTE.(( In3uam said I /et.0 ta)es the 9iret 9isourse e%ept in poetry.

9elaratory Sentenes in Indiret 9isourse

SECTION: #?8;. In Indiret 9isourse the main lause of a 9elaratory Sentene isput in the Infiniti"e !ith Su&,et $usati"e. $ll su&ordinate lauses ta)e theSu&,unti"e:

sio me paene inredi&ilem rem pollieri /'. C. .860 I )no! that I am promisingan almost inredi&le thing. D9iret: pollieor.F

non ar&itror te ita sentire />am. 4;.26.20 I do not suppose that you feel thus.D9iret: sentis.F

spero me li&eratum D esseF de metu+ /Tus. 2.650 I trust I ha"e &een freed from

fear. D9iret: li&eratus sum.F

D diitF esse non nullos 3uorum autoritas plurimum "aleat /'. 1. 4.450 he saysthere are some !hose influene most pre"ails. D9iret: sunt non nulli ... "alet.F

nisi iurasset selus se faturum D esseF ar&itra&atur /<err. 2.4.420 he thought heshould inur guilt unless he should ta)e the oath. D9iret: nisi iura"ero faiam.F



The "er& of saying et. is often not e%pressed &ut implied in some !ord or in thegeneral drift of the sentene:

onsulis alterius nomen in"isum i"itati fuit: nimium Tar3uinios regno adsuesse+initium a riso fatum+ regnasse dein Ser. Tullium et. /i". 2.20 the name of the

other onsul !as hateful to the state+ the Tar3uins /they thought0 had &eome toomuh austomed to royal po!er et. Dere in"isum implies a thought and thisthought is added in the form of Indiret 9isourse.F

orantes ut ur&i&us saltem((iam enim agros deploratos esse(( opem senatus ferret/ id. =4.60 praying that the senate !ould at least &ring aid to the ities((for thefields Dthey saidF !ere already gi"en up as lost.

The "er& nego deny is ommonly used in preferene to dio !ith a negati"e:

D StoiiF negant 3uid3uam D esseF &onum nisi 3uod honestum sit />in. 2.680 theStois assert that nothing is good &ut !hat is right.

<er&s of promising hoping e%peting threatening s!earing and the li)eregularly ta)e the onstrution of Indiret 9isourse ontrary to the English idiom:

minatur sese a&ire /l. $sin. 6;=0 he threatens to go a!ay. D9iret: a&eo I amgoing a!ay.F

sperant se ma%imum frutum esse apturos /ael. 570 they hope to gain theutmost ad"antage. D9iret: apiemus.F

sperat se a&solutum iri /Sull. 240 he hopes that he shall &e a3uitted. D9iret:a&sol"ar.F

3uem inimiissimum futurum esse promitto a spondeo+ / @ur. 7;0 !ho I promiseand !arrant !ill &e the &itterest of enemies. D9iret: erit.F

dolor fortitudinem se de&ilitaturum minatur /Tus. ?.560 pain threatens to !eardo!n fortitude. D9iret: de&ilita&o.F

onfido me 3uod "elim faile a te impetraturum />am. 44.46.40 I trust I shall easilyo&tain from you !hat I !ish. D9iret: 3uod "olo impetra&o.F

NOTE.((These "er&s ho!e"er often ta)e a simple Complementary Infiniti"e /Set:=?60 So regularly in early atin /e%ept spero0:

pollientur o&sides dare /'. 1. =.240 they promise to gi"e hostages.

promisi dolium "ini dare /l. Cist. ?=20 I promised to gi"e a ,ar of !ine.



Some "er&s and e%pressions may &e used either as "er&s of saying or as "er&s ofommanding effeting and the li)e. These ta)e as their o&,et either an Infiniti"e !ith su&,et ausati"e or a Su&stanti"e lause of urpose or Besult aording tothe sense.

4. Infiniti"e !ith Su&,et $usati"e /Indiret 9isourse0: ((laudem sapientiae statuo esse ma%imam />am. ?.40 I hold that the glory of !isdom is the greatest. DIndiret 9isourse.F

res ipsa mone&at tempus esse /$tt. 4;.8.40 the thing itself !arned that it !as time.DCf. monere ut !arn to do something.F

fa mihi esse persuasum /N. 9. 4.5?0 suppose that I am persuaded of that. DCf.faere ut &ring it a&out that.F

ho "olunt persuadere non interire animas /'. 1. 6.4=0 they !ish to on"ine thatsouls do not perish.

2. Su&,unti"e /Su&stanti"e Clause of urpose or Besult0:

statuunt ut deem milia hominum mittantur /'. 1. 5.240 they resol"e that 4;;;;men shall &e sent. Durpose lause /f. Set: ?60.F

hui persuadet uti ad hostis transeat / id. .480 he persuades him to pass o"er tothe enemy.

ompeiius suis praedi%erat ut Caesaris impetum e%iperent /'. C. .720 ompeyhad instruted his men &eforehand to a!ait CaesarAs atta).

denuntia"it ut essent animo parati+ / id. .860 he &ade them &e alert and steadfast/ready in spirit0.

NOTE.((The infiniti"e !ith su&,et ausati"e in this onstrution is Indiret9isourse and is to &e distinguished from the simple infiniti"e sometimes found !ith these "er&s instead of a su&,unti"e lause /Set: ?6. d0.

SECTION: #?84. The Su&,et $usati"e of the Infiniti"e is regularly e%pressed inIndiret 9isourse e"en if it is !anting in the diret:

orator sum I am an orator+ diit se esse oratorem he says he is an orator.

NOTE 4.(('ut the su&,et is often omitted if easily understood:

ignosere imprudentiae di%it /'. 1. =.250 he said he pardoned their rashness.



eadem a& aliis 3uaerit: reperit esse "era / id. 4.480 he in3uires a&out these samethings from others+ he finds that they are true.

NOTE 2.(($fter a relati"e or 3uam /than0 if the "er& !ould &e the same as that ofthe main lause it is usually omitted and its su&,et is attrated into the

ausati"e:te suspior eisdem re&us 3ui&us me ipsum ommo"eri+ /Cat. @. 40 I suspet that you are distur&ed &y the same things as I.

onfido tamen hae 3uo3ue ti&i non minus grata 3uam ipsos li&ros futura /lin. Ep..?.2;0 I trust that these fats too !ill &e no less pleasing to you than the &oo)sthemsel"es.

NOTE .((In poetry &y a 1ree) idiom a rediate Noun or $d,eti"e in the indiretdisourse sometimes agrees !ith the su&,et of the main "er&:

"ir &onus et sapiens ait esse paratus /or. Ep. 4.5.220 a good and !ise man says heis prepared et. DIn prose: ait se esse paratum.F

sensit medios delapsus in hostis /$en. 2.550 he found himself fallen among thefoe. DIn prose: se esse delapsum.F

SECTION: #?82. -hen the "er& of saying et. is passi"e the onstrution may &eeither ersonal or Impersonal. 'ut the ersonal onstrution is more ommon andis regularly used in the tenses of inomplete ation:

&eate "i%isse "ideor /ael. 4?0 I seem to ha"e li"ed happily.

Epaminondas fidi&us praelare einisse diitur /Tus. 4.=0 Epaminondas is saidto ha"e played e%ellently on the lyre.

multi idem faturi esse diuntur />am. 46.42.=0 many are said to &e a&out to dothe same thing. D$ti"e: diunt multos faturos / esse0.F

primi traduntur arte 3uadam "er&a "in%isse /Or. =;0 they first are related to ha"e ,oined !ords !ith a ertain s)ill.

'i&ulus audie&atur esse in Syria+ / $tt. ?.480 it !as heard that 'i&ulus !as in Syria/ 'i&ulus !as heard et.0. D9iret: 'i&ulus est.F

eterae Illyrii legiones seuturae spera&antur /Ta. . 2.5=0 the rest of the legionsof Illyrium !ere e%peted to follo!.



"idemur enim 3uieturi fuisse nisi essemus laessiti /9e Or. 2.2;0 it seems that !e should ha"e )ept 3uiet if !e had not &een molested /!e seem et.0. D9iret:3uiessemus ... nisi essemus laessiti.F

NOTE.((The poets and later !riters e%tend the personal use of the passi"e to "er&s

!hih are not properly "er&a sentiendi et.: as(( olligor dominae plauisse /O". $m. 2.6.640 it is gathered Dfrom this memorialF that I pleased my mistress.

In the ompound tenses of "er&s of saying et. the impersonal onstrution is moreommon and !ith the gerundi"e is regular:

traditum est etiam omerum aeum fuisse /Tus. ?.44=0 it is a tradition too thatomer !as &lind.

u&i tyrannus est i&i non "itiosam sed diendum est plane nullam esse rempu&liam /Bep. .=0 !here there is a tyrant it must &e said not that theommon!ealth is e"il &ut that it does not e%ist at all.

NOTE.(($n indiret narrati"e &egun in the personal onstrution may &e ontinued !ith the Infiniti"e and $usati"e /as 9e Or. 2.277+ i". ?.=4.70.

4 Suh are: /40 )no!ing sio ognoso ompertum ha&eo et.+ /20 thin)ing putoe%istimo ar&itror et.+ /0 telling dio nuntio refero pollieor promittoertiorem faio et.+ /=0 perei"ing sentio omperio "ideo audio et. So ingeneral any !ord that denotes thought or mental and "isual pereption or theire%pression may go"ern the Indiret 9isourse.

2 Compare the 1ree) aorist infiniti"e after similar "er&s.

9elaratory Sentenes in Indiret 9isourse

SECTION: #?8. $ Su&ordinate Clause merely e%planatory or ontainingstatements !hih are regarded as true independently of the 3uotation ta)es theIndiati"e:

3uis neget hae omnia 3uae "idemus deorum potestate administrari+ / Cat. .240 !ho an deny that all these things !e see are ruled &y the po!er of the gods

uius ingenio puta&at ea 3uae gesserat posse ele&rari+ / $rh. 2;0 &y !hose geniushe thought that those deeds !hih he had done ould &e ele&rated. Dere the fate%pressed &y 3uae gesserat though not e%planatory is felt to &e true !ithoutregard to the 3uotation: 3uae gessisset !ould mean !hat @arius laimed to ha"edone.F



NOTE.((Suh a lause in the indiati"e is not regarded as a part of the Indiret9isourse+ &ut it often depends merely upon the feeling of the !riter !hether heshall use the Indiati"e or the Su&,unti"e /f. Set: ?74(?70.

$ su&ordinate lause in Indiret 9isourse oasionally ta)es the Indiati"e !hen

the fat is emphasiGed:fatum eiius hostis periulum ... um Cim&ris et Teutonis ... pulsis non minoremlaudem e%eritus 3uam ipse imperator meritus "ide&atur /'. 1. 4.=;0 that a trialof this enemy had &een made !hen on the defeat of the Cim&ri and Teutoni thearmy seemed to ha"e deser"ed no less redit than the ommander himself.

Clauses introdued &y a relati"e !hih is e3ui"alent to a demonstrati"e !ith aon,untion are not properly su&ordinate and hene ta)e the $usati"e andInfiniti"e in Indiret 9isourse /see Set: ;8. f0:

@arellus re3uisisse diitur $rhimedem illum 3uem um audisset interfetumpermoleste tulisse /<err. =.440 @arellus is said to ha"e sought for $rhimedesand !hen he heard that he !as slain to ha"e &een greatly distressed. D 3uemL eteum.F

ensent unum 3uem3ue nostrum mundi esse partem e% 3uo DL et e% eoF illudnatura onse3ui />in. .6=0 they say that eah one of us is a part of the uni"ersefrom !hih this naturally follo!s.

NOTE.((Beally su&ordinate lauses oasionally ta)e the ausati"e and infiniti"e.as(( 3uem ad modum si non dedatur o&ses pro rupto foedus se ha&iturum sideditam in"iolatam ad suos remissurum /i". 2.40 Dhe saysF as in ase the

hostage is not gi"en up he shall onsider the treaty as &ro)en so if gi"en up he !illreturn her unharmed to her friends.

The infiniti"e onstrution is regularly ontinued after a omparati"e !ith 3uam:

addit se prius oisum iri a& eo 3uam me "iolatum iri /$tt. 2.2;.20 he adds that hehimself !ill &e )illed &y him &efore I shall &e in,ured.

nonne adfirma"i 3uid"is me potius perpessurum 3uam e% I talia e%iturum />am.2.46.0 did I not assert that I !ould endure anything rather than lea"e Italy

NOTE.((The su&,unti"e !ith or !ithout ut also ours !ith 3uam /see Set: ??.0.

Tenses of the Infiniti"e in Indiret 9isourse



SECTION: #?8=. The resent the erfet or the >uture Infiniti"eis used inIndiret 9isourse aording as the time indiated is present past or future !ithreferene to the "er& of saying et. &y !hih the Indiret 9isourse is introdued:

ado I am falling.

diit se adere he says he is falling.

di%it se adere he said he !as falling.

ade&am I !as falling+ eidi I fell ha"e fallen+ eideram I had fallen.

diit se eidisse he says he !as falling fell has fallen had fallen.

di%it se eidisse he said he fell had fallen.

adam I shall fall.

diit se asurum D esseF he says he shall fall.

di%it se asurum D esseF he said he should fall.

eidero I shall ha"e fallen.

diit fore ut eiderit DrareF he says he shall ha"e fallen.

di%it fore ut eidisset DrareF he said he should ha"e fallen.

$ll "arieties of past time are usually e%pressed in Indiret 9isourse &y the erfetInfiniti"e !hih may stand for the Imperfet the erfet or the luperfetIndiati"e of the 9iret.

NOTE.((Continued or repeated ation in past time is sometimes e%pressed &y theresent Infiniti"e !hih in suh ases stands for the Imperfet Indiati"e of the9iret 9isourse and is often alled the Imperfet Infiniti"e.

This is the regular onstrution after memini !hen referring to a matter of atuale%periene or o&ser"ation: as(( te memini hae diere I remem&er your saying this/that you said this0. D9iret: di%isti or die&as.F

The present infiniti"e posse often has a future sense:

totius 1alliae sese potiri posse sperant /'. 1. 4.0 they hope that they shall &e a&leto get possession of all 1aul.

4 >or "arious !ays of e%pressing the >uture Infiniti"e see Set: 46=. . .



Tenses of the Su&,unti"e in Indiret 9isourse

SECTION: #?8?. The tenses of the Su&,unti"e in Indiret 9isourse follo! the rule

for the Se3uene of Tenses /Set: =820. They depend for their se3uene on the "er&of saying et. &y !hih the Indiret 9isourse is introdued.

Thus in the sentene di%it se Bomam iturum ut onsulem "ideret he said heshould go to Bome in order that he might see the onsul "ideret follo!s these3uene of di%it !ithout regard to the >uture Infiniti"e iturum D esseF on !hih itdiretly depends.

NOTE.((This rule applies to the su&,unti"e in su&ordinate lauses to that !hihstands for the imperati"e et. /see e%amples Set: ?880 and to that in 3uestions/Set: ?860.

$ su&,unti"e depending on a erfet Infiniti"e is often in the Imperfet orluperfet e"en if the "er& of saying et. is in a primary tense /f. Set: =8?. ,0+ soregularly !hen these tenses !ould ha"e &een used in 9iret 9isourse:

Tar3uinium di%isse ferunt tum e%sulantem se intelle%isse 3uos fidos amiosha&uisset /ael. ?0 they tell us that Tar3uin said that then in his e%ile he hadfound out !hat faithful friends he had had. Dere the main "er& of saying ferunt isprimary &ut the time is arried &a) &y di%isse and intelle%isse and the se3uenethen &eomes seondary.F

tantum profeisse "idemur ut a 1raeis ne "er&orum 3uidem opia "ineremur /N.9. 4.80 !e seem to ha"e ad"aned so far that e"en in a&undane of !ords !e $BEnot surpassed &y the 1ree)s.

NOTE 4.((The proper se3uene may &e seen in eah ase &y turning the erfetInfiniti"e into that tense of the Indiati"e !hih it represents. Thus if it stands foran imperfet or an historial perfet the se3uene !ill &e seondary+ if it stands fora perfet definite the se3uene may &e either primary or seondary /Set: =8?. a0.

NOTE 2.((The so(alled imperfet infiniti"e after memini /Set: ?8=. a. N.0 ta)esthe seondary se3uene: as(( ad me adire 3uosdam memini 3ui dierent />am..4;.60 I remem&er that some persons "isited me to tell me et.

The resent and erfet Su&,unti"e are often used in dependent lauses of theIndiret 9isourse e"en !hen the "er& of saying et. is in a seondary tense:

die&ant ... totidem Ner"ios / pollieri0 3ui longissime a&sint /'. 1. 2.=0 they saidthat the Ner"ii !ho li"e farthest off promised as many.



NOTE.((This onstrution omes from the tendeny of language to refer all time innarration to the time of the spea)er / repraesentatio0. In the ourse of a long passage in the Indiret 9isourse the tenses of the su&,unti"e often "ary sometimesfollo!ing the se3uene and sometimes affeted &y repraesentatio. E%amples may &e seen in '. 1. 4.4 5.2; et.

Certain onstrutions are ne"er affeted &y repraesentatio. Suh are the Imperfetand luperfet Su&,unti"e !ith um temporal ante3uam and prius3uam.

uestions in Indiret 9isourse

SECTION: #?86. $ uestion in Indiret 9isourse may &e either in the Su&,unti"eor in the Infiniti"e !ith Su&,et $usati"e.

$ real 3uestion as)ing for an ans!er is generally put in the Su&,unti"e+ arhetorial 3uestion as)ed for effet and implying its o!n ans!er is put in theInfiniti"e:

3uid si&i "ellet ur in suas possessiones "eniret /'. 1. 4.==0 !hat did he !ant !hy did he ome into his territories DBeal 3uestion. 9iret: 3uid "is ur "enisF

num reentium iniuriarum memoriam D seF deponere posse / id. 4.4=0 ould he layaside the memory of reent !rongs DBhetorial uestion. 9iret: num possumF

3uem signum daturum fugienti&us 3uem ausurum $le%andro suedere /. C..?.50 !ho !ill gi"e the signal on the retreat !ho !ill dare sueed $le%anderDBhetorial. 9iret: 3uis da&it ... aude&it.F

NOTE 4.((No sharp line an &e dra!n &et!een the Su&,unti"e and the Infiniti"e in3uestions in the Indiret 9isourse. -hether the 3uestion is to &e regarded asrhetorial or real often depends merely on the !riterAs point of "ie!:

utrum partem regni petiturum esse an totum erepturum /i". =?.47.4?0 !ill youas) part of the regal po!er /he said0 or seiGe the !hole

3uid tandem praetori faiendum fuisse / id. 4.=80 !hat pray ought a praetor toha"e done

3uid repente fatum D esseF ur et. / id. =.?=0 !hat had suddenly happened thatet.

NOTE 2.((uestions oming immediately after a "er& of as)ing are treated asIndiret uestions and ta)e the Su&,unti"e /see Set: ?5=0. This is true e"en !henthe "er& of as)ing ser"es also to introdue a passage in the Indiret 9isourse. The3uestion may &e either real or rhetorial. See 3uaesi"it et. / i". 5.4?0.



2. The $podosis if independent and not hortatory or optati"e is al!ays in someform of the Infiniti"e.

The resent Su&,unti"e in the apodosis of less "i"id future onditions /Set: ?46. &0 &eomes the >uture Infiniti"e li)e the >uture Indiati"e in the apodosis of more

"i"id future onditions.Thus there is no distintion &et!een more and less "i"id future onditions in theIndiret 9isourse.

E%amples of Conditional Sentenes in Indiret 9isourse are:pJ

4. Simple resent Condition /Set: ?4?0:

/ di%it0 si ipse populo Bomano non praesri&eret 3uem ad modum suo iureuteretur non oportere sese a populo Bomano in suo iure impediri /'. 1. 4.60 hesaid that if he did not ditate to the Boman people ho! they should use their rightshe ought not to &e interfered !ith &y the Boman people in the e%erise of his rights.D9iret: si non praesri&o ... non oportet.F

praedia"it ... si pae uti "elint ini3uum esse et. / id. 4.==0 he asserted that if they !ished to en,oy peae it !as unfair et. D9iret: si "olunt ... est. resent tense )ept &y repraesentatio /Set: ?8?. &. N.0.F

2. Simple ast Condition /Set: ?4?0:

non diam ne illud 3uidem si ma%ime in ulpa fuerit $pollonius tamen inhominem honestissimae i"itatis honestissimum tam gra"iter animad"erti ausaindita non oportuisse /<err. ?.2;0 I !ill not say this either that e"en if $pollonius !as "ery greatly in fault still an honora&le man from an honora&le stateought not to ha"e &een punished so se"erely !ithout ha"ing his ase heard. D9iret:si fuit ... non oportuit.F

. >uture Conditions /Set: ?460:

/ di%it0 3uod si praeterea nemo se3uatur tamen se um sola deima legione iturum/'. 1. 4.=;0 &ut if no&ody else should follo! still he !ould go !ith the tenthlegion alone. D9iret: si se3uetur ... i&o. resent tense &y repraesentatio /Set: ?8?. &. N.0.F

aeduis se o&sides redditurum non esse ne3ue eis ... &ellum illaturum si in eomanerent 3uod on"enisset stipendium3ue 3uotannis penderent: si id nonfeissent longe eis fraternum nomen populi Bomani afuturum / id. 4.60 he saidthat he !ould not gi"e up the hostages to the aedui &ut !ould not ma)e !arupon them if they o&ser"ed the agreement !hih had &een made and paid tri&ute yearly+ &ut that if they should not do this the name of &rothers to the Bomanpeople !ould &e far from aiding them. D9iret: reddam ... inferam ... si mane&unt ...



pendent: si non feerint ... a&erit. 9atames ut audi"it sensit si in tur&am e%isset a&homine tam neessario se relitum futurum D esseF ut eteri onsilium se3uantur/Nep. 9at. 60 !hen 9atames heard this he sa! that if it should get a&road that hehad &een a&andoned &y a man so losely onneted !ith him e"ery&ody else !ouldfollo! his e%ample. D9iret: si e%ierit ... se3uentur.

/ puta"erunt0 nisi me i"itate e%pulissent o&tinere se non posse lientiamupiditatum suarum /$tt. 4;.=0 they thought that unless they dro"e me out of thestate they ould not ha"e free play for their desires. D9iret: nisi / Cieronem0e%pulerimus o&tinere non poterimus.F

In hanging a Condition ontrary to fat /Set: ?450 into the Indiret 9isourse thefollo!ing points re3uire notie:

4. The rotasis al!ays remains unhanged in tense.

2. The $podosis if ati"e ta)es a peuliar infiniti"e form made &y om&ining theartiiple in ( Qrus !ith fuisse.

. If the "er& of the $podosis is passi"e or has no supine stem the periphrasisfuturum fuisse ut /!ith the Imperfet Su&,unti"e0 must &e used.

=. $n Indiati"e in the $podosis &eomes a erfet Infiniti"e.

E%amples are:

ne se superstitem filiae futurum fuisse nisi spem ulisendae mortis eiius inau%ilio ommilitonum ha&uisset /i". .?;.50 and that he should not no! &e asur"i"or et. unless he had had hope et. D9iret: non superstes essem nisiha&uissem.F

illud $sia ogitet nullam a se ne3ue &elli e%terni ne3ue disordiarumdomestiarum alamitatem afuturam fuisse si ho imperio non teneretur /. >r.4.4.=0 let $sia /personified0 thin) of this that no disaster et. !ould not &e hersif she !ere not held &y this go"ernment. D9iret: a&esset si non tenerer.F

3uid inimiitiarum reditis D meF e%epturum fuisse si insontis laessissem /. C.6.4;.480 !hat enmities do you thin) I should ha"e inurred if I had !antonlyassailed the innoent D e%epissem ... si laessissem.F

in"itum se diere ne diturum fuisse ni aritas rei pu&liae "ineret /i". 2.20 that he spo)e un!illingly and should not ha"e spo)en did not lo"e for the statepre"ail. D9iret: ne di%issem ... ni "ineret.F

nisi eo tempore 3uidam nuntii de Caesaris "itoria ... essent allati e%istima&antpleri3ue futurum fuisse uti D oppidumF amitteretur /'. C. .4;40 most people



thought that unless at that time reports of CaesarAs "itory had &een &rought theto!n !ould ha"e &een lost. D9iret: nisi essent allati ... amissum esset.F

3uorum si aetas potuisset esse longin3uior futurum fuisse ut omni&us perfetisarti&us hominum "ita erudiretur /Tus. .670 if life ould ha"e &een longer

human e%istene !ould ha"e &een em&ellished &y e"ery art in its perfetion.D9iret: si potuisset ... erudita esset.F

at pleri3ue e%istimant si arius inse3ui "oluisset &ellum eo die potuisse finire /'.C. .?40 &ut most people thin) that if he had hosen to follo! up the pursuit more "igorously he ould ha"e ended the !ar on that day. D9iret: si "oluisset ... potuit.F

Caesar respondit ... si aliuius iniuriae si&i onsius fuisset non fuisse diffiilea"ere /'. 1. 4.4=0 Caesar replied that if Dthe Boman peopleF had &een a!are ofany !rong at it !ould not ha"e &een hard for them to ta)e preautions. D9iret: sifuisset non diffiile fuit /Set: ?45. 0.F

NOTE 4.((In Indiret 9isourse resent Conditions ontrary to fat are notdistinguished in the apodosis from ast Conditions ontrary to fat &ut theprotasis may )eep them distint.

NOTE 2.((The periphrasis futurum fuisse ut is sometimes used from hoie !henthere is no neessity for resorting to it &ut not in Caesar or Ciero.

NOTE .((<ery rarely the >uture Infiniti"e is used in the Indiret 9isourse toe%press the $podosis of a resent Condition ontrary to fat. Only four or fi"ee%amples of this use our in lassi authors: as(( Titurius lama&at si Caesaradesset ne3ue Carnutes et. ne3ue E&urones tanta um ontemptione nostra ad

astra "enturos esse /'. 1. ?.270 Titurius ried out that if Caesar !ere presentneither !ould the Carnutes et. nor !ould the E&urones &e oming to our amp !ith suh ontempt D9iret: si adesset ... "enirent.F

SECTION: #?7;. The follo!ing e%ample illustrates some of the foregoing priniplesin a onneted address:

.IN9IBECT 9ISCOBSE "s. .9IBECT 9ISCOBSE

Si paem populus Bomanus um el"etiis faeret in eam partem ituros at3ue i&ifuturos el"etios u&i eos Caesar onstituisset at3ue esse "oluisset: sin &elloperse3ui perse"eraret reminiseretur et "eteris inommodi populi Bomani etpristinae "irtutis el"etiorum. uod impro"iso unum pagum adortus esset um ei3ui flumen transissent suis au%ilium ferre non possent ne o& eam rem aut suaemagno opere "irtuti tri&ueret aut ipsos despieret: se ita a patri&us maiori&us3uesuis didiisse ut magis "irtute 3uam dolo ontenderent aut insidiis niterentur.



ua re ne ommitteret ut is lous u&i onstitissent e% alamitate populi Bomani etinterneione e%eritus nomen aperet aut memoriam proderet. (( '. 1. 4.4. Sipaem populus Bomanus um el"etiis faiet in eam partem i&unt at3ue i&i eruntel"etii u&i eos tu onstitueris at3ue esse "olueris: sin &ello perse3ui perse"era&isreminisere D in3uitF et "eteris inommodi populi Bomani et pristinae "irtutisel"etiorum. uod impro"iso unum pagum adortus es um ei 3ui flumentransierant suis au%ilium ferre non possent ne o& eam rem aut tuae magno opere "irtuti tri&ueris aut nos despe%eris: nos ita a patri&us maiori&us3ue nostrisdidiimus ut magis "irtute 3uam dolo ontendamus aut insidiis nitamur. ua renoli ommittere ut hi lous u&i onstitimus e% alamitate populi Bomani etinterneione e%eritus nomen apiat aut memoriam prodat.

.INTEB@E9I$TE C$SES

SECTION: #?74. $ Su&ordinate lause ta)es the Su&,unti"e:pJ

4. -hen it e%presses the thought of some other person than the spea)er or !riter/Informal Indiret 9isourse0 or

2. -hen it is an integral part of a Su&,unti"e lause or e3ui"alent Infiniti"e/$ttration0.

4 See note on Indiret 9isourse /Set: ?550.

Informal Indiret 9isourse

SECTION: #?72. $ Su&ordinate Clause ta)es the Su&,unti"e !hen it e%presses thethought of some other person than the !riter or spea)er:

4. -hen the lause depends upon another ontaining a !ish a ommand or a3uestion e%pressed indiretly though not stritly in the form of Indiret 9isourse:

animal sentit 3uid sit 3uod deeat /Off. 4.4=0 an animal feels !hat it is that is fit.

hui imperat 3uas possit adeat i"itates /'. 1. =.240 he orders him to "isit !hatstates he an.

hun si&i e% animo srupulum 3ui se dies notis3ue stimulat a pungit ut e"ellatispostulat /Bos. $m. 60 he &egs you to plu) from his heart this dou&t that goadsand stings him day and night. Dere the relati"e lause is not a part of the urposee%pressed in e"ellatis &ut is an assertion made &y the su&,et of postulat.F



2. -hen the main lause of a 3uotation is merged in the "er& of saying or somemodifier of it:

si 3uid de his re&us diere "ellet fei potestatem /Cat. .440 if he !ished to sayanything a&out these matters I ga"e him a hane.

tulit de aede 3uae in $ppia "ia fata esset /@il. 4?0 he passed a la! onerningthe murder !hih /in the language of the &ill0 too) plae in the $ppian -ay.

nisi restituissent statuas "ehementer minatur /<err. 2.4620 he threatens them "iolently unless they should restore the statues. Dere the main lause Kthat he !illinflit punishmentK is ontained in minatur.F

iis au%ilium suum polliitus si a& Sue&is premerentur /'. 1. =.470 he promisedthem his aid if they should &e molested &y the Sue"i. DL polliitus se au%iliumlaturum et.F

prohi&itio tollendi nisi patus esset "im adhi&e&at pationi+ / <err. .50 thefor&idding to ta)e a!ay unless he ame to terms ga"e fore to the &argain.

. -hen a reason or an e%planatory fat is introdued &y a relati"e or &y 3uod/rarely 3uia0 /see Set: ?=;0:

aetus omnis li&ros 3uos frater suus reli3uisset mihi dona"it /$tt. 2.4.420 Ktuspresented to me all the &oo)s !hih /he said0 his &rother had left.

NOTE.((nder this head e"en !hat the spea)er himself thought under otherirumstanes may ha"e the Su&,unti"e. So also !ith 3uod e"en the "er& of sayingmay &e in the Su&,unti"e /Set: ?=;. N.20. ere &elong also non 3uia non 3uodintroduing a reason e%pressly to deny it. /See Set: ?=;. N..0

ISu&,unti"e of Integral art /$ttration0

SECTION: #?7. $ lause depending upon a Su&,unti"e lause or an e3ui"alentInfiniti"e !ill itself ta)e the Su&,unti"e if regarded as an integral part of thatlause:

imperat dum res iudietur hominem adser"ent: um iudiata sit ad se utadduant /<err. .??0 he orders them till the affair should &e deided to )eep theman+ !hen it is ,udged to &ring him to him.

etenim 3uis tam dissoluto animo est 3ui hae um "ideat taere a neglegerepossit /Bos. $m. 20 for !ho is so re)less of spirit that !hen he sees thesethings he an )eep silent and pass them &y



. Superlati"es /more rarely Comparati"es0 denoting order and suession((alsomedius / eterus0 reli3uus((usually designate not !hat o&,et &ut !hat part of itis meant /Set: 270.

=. The ersonal ronouns ha"e t!o forms for the geniti"e plural that in (um &eing

used partiti"ely and that in ( i oftenest o&,eti"ely /Set: 27?. &0.?. The Befle%i"e ronoun / se0 and usually the orresponding possessi"e / suus0are used in the prediate to refer to the su&,et of the sentene or lause /Set:2770.

6. To e%press ossession and similar ideas the ossessi"e ronouns must &e usednot the geniti"e of the personal or refle%i"e pronouns /Set: ;2. a0.

5. $ ossessi"e ronoun or an $d,eti"e implying possession may ta)e anappositi"e in the geniti"e ase agreeing in gender num&er and ase !ith animplied noun or pronoun /Set: ;2. e0.

8. $ Belati"e ronoun agrees !ith its $nteedent in 1ender and Num&er &ut itsCase depends on its onstrution in the lause in !hih it stands /Set: ;?0.

7. $ >inite <er& agrees !ith its Su&,et in Num&er and erson /Set: 460.

4;. $d"er&s are used to modify <er&s $d,eti"es and other $d"er&s /Set: 240.

44. $ uestion of simple fat re3uiring the ans!er yes or no is formed &y addingthe enlii ( ne to the emphati !ord /Set: 20.

42. -hen the enliti ( ne is added to a negati"e !ord((as in nonne(( anaffirmati"e ans!er is e%peted. The partile num suggests a negati"e ans!er /Set:2. &0.

4. The Su&,et of a finite "er& is in the Nominati"e /Set: 70.

4=. The <oati"e is the ase of diret address /Set: =;0.

4?. $ noun used to limit or define another and not meaning the same person orthing is put in the 1eniti"e /Set: =20.

46. The ossessi"e 1eniti"e denotes the person or thing to !hih an o&,et 3ualityfeeling or ation &elongs /Set: =0.

45. The geniti"e may denote the Su&stane or @aterial of !hih a thing onsists/Set: ==0.

48. The geniti"e is used to denote uality &ut only !hen the 3uality is modified &yan ad,eti"e /Set: =?0.



47. -ords denoting a part are follo!ed &y the 1eniti"e of the !hole to !hih thepart &elongs /artiti"e 1eniti"e Set: =60.

2;. Nouns of ation ageny and feeling go"ern the 1eniti"e of the o&,et/O&,eti"e 1eniti"e Set: =80.

24. $d,eti"es denoting desire )no!ledge memory fulness po!er sharing guiltand their opposites+ partiiples in (ns !hen used as ad,eti"es+ and "er&als in (a%go"ern the 1eniti"e /Set: =7. a & 0.

22. <er&s of remem&ering and forgetting ta)e either the $usati"e or the 1eniti"eof the o&,et /Set: ?;0.

2. <er&s of reminding ta)e !ith the $usati"e of the person a 1eniti"e of thething /Set: ?40.

2=. <er&s of ausing ondemning and a3uitting ta)e the 1eniti"e of the hargeor penalty /Set: ?20.

2?. The 9ati"e is used of the o&,et indiretly affeted &y an ation /Indiret O&,etSet: 640.

26. @any "er&s signifying to fa"or help please trust and their ontraries+ also to &elie"e persuade ommand o&ey ser"e resist en"y threaten pardon and spareta)e the 9ati"e /Set: 650.

25. @any "er&s ompounded !ith ad ante on in inter o& post prae pro su&super and some !ith irum admit the 9ati"e of the indiret o&,et /Set: 5;0.

28. The 9ati"e is used !ith esse and similar !ords to denote ossession /Set:50.

27. The 9ati"e of the $gent is used !ith the 1erundi"e to denote the person on !hom the neessity rests /Set: 5=0.

;. The 9ati"e often depends not on any partiular !ord &ut on the generalmeaning of the sentene /9ati"e of Beferene Set: 560.

4. @any "er&s of ta)ing a!ay and the li)e ta)e the 9ati"e /espeially of a person0

instead of the $&lati"e of Separation / Set: 840.

2. The 9ati"e is used to denote the urpose or End often !ith another 9ati"e ofthe person or thing affeted /Set: 820.

. The 9ati"e is used !ith ad,eti"es /and a fe! ad"er&s0 of fitness nearnessli)eness ser"ie inlination and their opposites /Set: 8=0.



=. The 9iret O&,et of a transiti"e "er& is put in the $usati"e /Set: 850.

?. $n intransiti"e "er& often ta)es the $usati"e of a noun of )indred meaningusually modified &y an ad,eti"e or in some other manner /Cognate $usati"eSet: 7;0.

6. <er&s of naming hoosing appointing ma)ing esteeming sho!ing and theli)e may ta)e a rediate $usati"e along !ith the diret o&,et /Set: 70.

5. Transiti"e "er&s ompounded !ith prepositions sometimes ta)e /in addition tothe diret o&,et0 a Seondary O&,et originally go"erned &y the preposition /Set:7=0.

8. Some "er&s of as)ing and teahing may ta)e t!o $usati"es one of the ersonand the other of the Thing /Set: 760.

7. The su&,et of an Infiniti"e is in the $usati"e /Set: 75. e0.

=;. 9uration of Time and E%tent of Spae are e%pressed &y the $usati"e /Set:=2=. =2?0.

=4. -ords signifying separation or pri"ation are follo!ed &y the $&lati"e /$&lati"eof Separation Set: =;;0.

=2. The $&lati"e usually !ith a preposition is used to denote the soure from !hih anything is deri"ed or the material of !hih it onsists /Set: =;0.

=. The $&lati"e !ith or !ithout a preposition is used to e%press ause /Set:=;=0.

==. The <oluntary $gent after a passi"e "er& is e%pressed &y the $&lati"e !ith a ora& /Set: =;?0.

=?. The Comparati"e degree is often follo!ed &y the $&lati"e signifying than /V W=;60.

=6. The Comparati"e may &e follo!ed &y 3uam than. -hen 3uam is used the t!othings ompared are put in the same ase /Set: =;50.

=5. The $&lati"e is used to denote the means or instrument of an ation /Set: =;70.

=8. The deponents utor fruor fungor potior and "esor !ith se"eral of theirompounds go"ern the $&lati"e /Set: =4;0.

=7. Opus and usus signifying need are follo!ed &y the $&lati"e /Set: =440.



?;. The manner of an ation is denoted &y the $&lati"e usually !ith um unless alimiting ad,eti"e is used !ith the noun /Set: =420.

?4. $ompaniment is denoted &y the $&lati"e regularly !ith um /Set: =40.

?2. -ith Comparati"es and !ords implying omparison the $&lati"e is used todenote the degree of differene /Set: =4=0.

?. The 3uality of a thing is denoted &y the $&lati"e !ith an ad,eti"e or geniti"e@odifier /Set: =4?0.

?=. The prie of a thing is put in the $&lati"e /Set: =460.

??. The $&lati"e of Speifiation denotes that in respet to !hih anything is or isdone /Set: =480.

?6. The ad,eti"es dignus and indignus ta)e the $&lati"e /Set: =48. &0.

?5. $ noun or pronoun !ith a partiiple in agreement may &e put in the $&lati"eto define the time or irumstanes of an ation /$&lati"e $&solute Set: =470.

$n ad,eti"e or a seond noun may ta)e the plae of the partiiple in the a&lati"ea&solute onstrution /Set: =47. a0.

?8. Time !hen or !ithin !hih is denoted &y the $&lati"e+ time ho! long &y the $usati"e /Set: =20.

?7. Belations of lae are e%pressed as follo!s:

4. The plae from !hih &y the $&lati"e !ith a& de e%.

2. The plae to !hih /or end of motion0 &y the $usati"e !ith ad or in.

. The plae !here &y the $&lati"e !ith in /oati"e $&lati"e0. /Set: =26.0

6;. -ith names of to!ns and small islands and !ith domus and rus the relationsof plae are e%pressed as follo!s:

4. The plae from !hih &y the $&lati"e !ithout a preposition.

2. The plae to !hih &y the $usati"e !ithout a preposition.

. The plae !here &y the oati"e. /Set: =25.0

64. The ortatory Su&,unti"e is used in the present tense to e%press ane%hortation a ommand or a onession. /Set: =7 ==;0.



62. The Optati"e Su&,unti"e is used to e%press a !ish. The present tense denotesthe !ish as possi&le the imperfet as unaomplished in present time thepluperfet as unaomplished in past time /Set: ==40.

6. The Su&,unti"e is used in 3uestions implying /40 dou&t indignation or /20 an

impossi&ility of the thingAs &eing done /9eli&erati"e Su&,unti"e Set: ===0.6=. The otential Su&,unti"e is used to suggest an ation as possi&le oronei"a&le /Set: ==60.

6?. The Imperati"e is used in ommands and entreaties /Set: ==80.

66. rohi&ition is regularly e%pressed in lassi prose /40 &y noli !ith the Infiniti"e/20 &y a"e !ith the resent Su&,unti"e /0 &y ne !ith the erfet Su&,unti"e/ Set: =?;0.

65. The Infiniti"e !ith or !ithout a su&,et ausati"e may &e used !ith est andsimilar "er&s /40 as the Su&,et /20 in $pposition !ith the su&,et or /0 as arediate Nominati"e /Set: =?20.

68. <er&s !hih imply another ation of the same su&,et to omplete theirmeaning ta)e the Infiniti"e !ithout a su&,et ausati"e /ComplementaryInfiniti"e Set: =?60.

67. The Infiniti"e !ith su&,et ausati"e is used !ith "er&s and other e%pressionsof )no!ing thin)ing telling and perei"ing /Indiret 9isourse see Set: =?70.

5;. The Infiniti"e is often used for the Imperfet Indiati"e in narration and ta)esa su&,et in the Nominati"e /istorial Infiniti"e Set: =60.

54. SEENCE O> TENSES. In omple% sentenes a primary tense in the mainlause is follo!ed &y the resent or erfet Su&,unti"e in the dependent lause+ aseondary tense &y the Imperfet or luperfet /Set: =80.

52. artiiples denote time as present past or future !ith respet to the time of the "er& in their lause /Set: =870.

5. The 1erund and the 1erundi"e are used in the o&li3ue ases in many of theonstrutions of nouns /Set: ?;4(?;50.

5=. The Supine in (um is used after "er&s of motion to e%press urpose /Set: ?;70.

5?. The Supine in (u is used !ith a fe! ad,eti"es and !ith the nouns fas nefas andopus to denote Speifiation /V W ?4;0.

56. 9um modo dummodo and tantum ut introduing a ro"iso ta)e theSu&,unti"e /Set: ?280.



55. >inal lauses ta)e the Su&,unti"e introdued &y ut / uti0 negati"e ne / ut ne0or &y a Belati"e ronoun or Belati"e $d"er& /Set: ?40.

58. $ Belati"e Clause !ith the Su&,unti"e is often used to indiate a harateristiof the anteedent espeially !here the anteedent is other!ise undefined /Set:

??0.57. 9ignus indignus aptus and idoneus ta)e a Su&,unti"e lause !ith a relati"e/rarely !ith ut0 /Set: ??. f0.

8;. Clauses of Besult ta)e the Su&,unti"e introdued &y ut so that /negati"e utnon0 or &y a Belati"e ronoun or Belati"e $d"er& /Set: ?50.

84. The Causal artiles 3uod 3uia and 3uoniam ta)e the Indiati"e !hen thereason is gi"en on the authority of the !riter or spea)er+ the Su&,unti"e !hen thereason is gi"en on the authority of another /Set: ?=;0.

82. The partiles post3uam /postea3uam0 u&i ut / ut primum ut semel0 simulat3ue / simul a or simul alone0 ta)e the Indiati"e /usually in the perfet or thehistorial present0 /V W ?=0.

8. $ Temporal lause !ith um !hen and some past tense of the Indiati"e datesor defines the time at !hih the ation of the main "er& ourred /Set: ?=?0.

8=. $ Temporal lause !ith um and the Imperfet or luperfet Su&,unti"edesri&es the irumstanes that aompanied or preeded the ation of the main "er& /Set: ?=60.

8?. Cum Causal or Conessi"e ta)es the Su&,unti"e /Set: ?=70.

>or other onessi"e partiles see Set: ?25.

86. In Indiret 9isourse the main lause of a 9elaratory Sentene is put in theInfiniti"e !ith Su&,et $usati"e. $ll su&ordinate lauses ta)e the Su&,unti"e/Set: ?8;0.

85. The resent the erfet or the >uture Infiniti"e is used in Indiret 9isourseaording as the time indiated is present past or future !ith referene to the "er&of saying et. &y !hih the Indiret 9isourse is introdued /Set: ?8=0.

88. In Indiret 9isourse a real 3uestion is generally put in the Su&,unti"e+ arhetorial 3uestion in the Infiniti"e /Set: ?860.

87. $ll Imperati"e forms of speeh ta)e the Su&,unti"e in Indiret 9isourse /Set:?880.



7;. $ Su&ordinate lause ta)es the Su&,unti"e !hen it e%presses the thought ofsome other person than the !riter or spea)er /Informal Indiret 9isourse Set:?720.

74. $ lause depending on a Su&,unti"e lause or an e3ui"alent Infiniti"e !ill itself

ta)e the Su&,unti"e if regarded as an integral part of that lause /$ttration Set:?70.

>or repositions and their ases see Set: 22; 224.

>or Conditional Sentenes see Set: ?42 ff. /Sheme in Set: ?4=.0

>or !ays of e%pressing urpose see Set: ?.

4 The su&,unti"e in this use is of the same nature as the su&,unti"e in the mainlause. $ dependent lause in a lause of purpose is really a part of the purpose asis seen from the use of should and other au%iliaries in English. In a result lausethis is less lear &ut the result onstrution is a &ranh of the harateristi /Set:?=0 to !hih ategory the dependent lause in this ase e"idently &elongs !hen itta)es the su&,unti"e.

ON TE BES O> SNT$[

SECTION: #?7?. atin differs from English in ha"ing more freedom in thearrangement of !ords for the purpose of sho!ing the relati"e importane of theideas in a sentene.

SECTION: #?76. $s in other languages the Su&,et tends to stand first therediate last. Thus((

ausanias aedaemonius magnus homo sed "arius in omni genere "itae fuit /Nep.aus. 40 ausanias the aedKmonian !as a great man &ut inonsistent in the !hole ourse of his life.

NOTE.((This happens &eause from the spea)erAs ordinary point of "ie! the

su&,et of his disourse is the most important thing in it as singled out from allother things to &e spo)en of.

There is in atin ho!e"er a speial tendeny to plae the "er& itself last of all afterall its modifiers. 'ut many !riters purposely a"oid the monotony of thisarrangement &y putting the "er& last &ut one follo!ed &y some single !ord of theprediate.



SECTION: #?75. In onneted disourse the !ord most prominent in the spea)erAsmind omes first and so on in order of prominene.

This relati"e prominene orresponds to that indiated in English &y a graduatedstress of "oie /usually alled emphasis0.

The differene in emphasis e%pressed &y differene in order of !ords is illustratedin the follo!ing passages:

apud [enophontem autem moriens Cyrus maior hae diit /Cat. @. 570 IN[ENOON too on his death(&ed Cyrus the elder utters these !ords.

Cyrus 3uidem hae moriens+ nos si plaet nostra "ideamus / id. 820 CBS to &esure utters these !ords on his death(&ed+ let S if you please onsider our o!nase.

Cyrus 3uidem apud [enophontem eo sermone 3uem moriens ha&uit / id. ;0CBS to &e sure in [enophon in that speeh !hih he uttered on his death(&ed.

NOTE.((This stress or emphasis ho!e"er in English does not neessarily sho! any "iolent ontrast to the rest of the !ords in the sentene &ut is infinitely "ariedonstantly inreasing and diminishing and often so su&tle as to &e unnotiede%ept in areful study. So as a general rule the preedene of !ords in a atinsentene is not mehanial &ut orresponds to the prominene !hih a goodspea)er !ould mar) &y s)ilfully managed stress of "oie. $ atin !ritten sentenetherefore has all the learness and e%pression !hih ould &e gi"en to a spo)endisourse &y the &est ator in English. Some e%eptions to the rule !ill &e treatedlater.

The first hapter of CaesarAs 1alli -ar if rendered so as to &ring out as far aspossi&le the shades of emphasis !ould run thus:

1$in the !idest sense is di"ided into three parts!hih are inha&ited/asfollo!s0: one&y the 'elgians another&y the $3uitani the third &y a people alled intheir o!nlanguage Celts in ours 1auls. TESE in their languageinstitutions andla!s are all of them 4; different. The 1$S 44 /proper0 are separated 42 from the $3uitani &y the ri"er 1aronne from the 'elgians &y the @arne and Seine. Of

TESE 4 /TBI'ES0 the &ra"est of all 4= are the 'elgians for the reason that theyli"e farthest 4? a!ayfrom the CI<II$TION and BE>INE@ENT of the ro"ineand &eause they are E$ST 46 of all of them su&,et to the "isits of traders 45 andto the /onse3uent0 importation of suh things as 48 tend to soften 47 their !arli)espirit+ and are also nearest 2; to the 1ermans !ho li"e aross the Bhine 24 and !ith !hom they are inessantly 22 at !ar. >or the same reason the E<ETI$NSas !ell are superior to all the other 1auls in "alor &eause they are engaged inalmost daily &attles !ith the 1ermans either defending their o!n &oundaries from



them or themsel"es ma)ing !ar on those of the 1ermans. Of $ TIS ountryone part((the one !hih as has &een said the 1auls /proper0 oupy(('E1INS atthe ri"er Bhone. Its &oundaries are the ri"er 1aronne the oean and the onfinesof the 'elgians. It e"en BE$CES on the side of the Se3uani and el"etians theri"er Bhine. Its general diretion is to!ards the north. The 'E1I$NS &egin at thee%treme limits of 1aul+ they reah /on this side0 as far as the lo!er part of theBhine. They spread to the north!ard and east!ard. $IT$NI$ e%tends from the1aronne to the yrenees and that part of the oean that lies to!ards Spain. It runsoff !est!ard and north!ard. 1allia est omnis di"isa in partis tris 3uarum unaminolunt 'elgae aliam $3uitani tertiam 3ui ipsorum lingua Celtae nostra 1alliappellantur. i omnes lingua institutis legi&us inter se differunt. 1allos a& $3uitanis 1arumna flumen a 'elgis @atrona et Se3uana di"idit. orum omniumfortissimi sunt 'elgae propterea 3uod a ultu at3ue humanitate pro"iniaelongissime a&sunt minime3ue ad eos meratores saepe ommeant at3ue ea 3uaead effeminandos animos pertinent important pro%imi3ue sunt 1ermanis 3ui transBhenum inolunt 3ui&usum ontinenter &ellum gerunt. ua de ausa el"etii3uo3ue reli3uos 1allos "irtute praeedunt 3uod fere otidianis proeliis um1ermanis ontendunt um aut suis fini&us eos prohi&ent aut ipsi in eorum fini&us &ellum gerunt. Eorum una pars 3uam 1allos o&tinere ditum est initium apit aflumine Bhodano+ ontinetur 1arumna flumine Oeano fini&us 'elgarum+ attingitetiam a& Se3uanis et el"etiis flumen Bhenum+ "ergit ad septentriones. 'elgae a&e%tremis 1alliae fini&us oriuntur: pertinent ad inferiorem partem fluminis Bheni+spetant in septentrionem et orientem solem. $3uitania a 1arumna flumine adyrenaeos montis et eam partem Oeani 3uae est ad ispaniam pertinet+ spetatinter oasum solis et septentriones.

The more important !ord is ne"er plaed last for emphasis. The apparent ases ofthis usage /!hen the emphasis is not misonei"ed0 are ases !here a !ord is

added as an afterthought either real or affeted and so has its position not in thesentene to !hih it is appended &ut as it !ere in a ne! one.

.-OB9 .OB9EB IN $TIN

SECTION: #?78. The main rules for the .Order of -ords are as follo!s:

In any phrase the determining and most signifiant !ord omes first:

4. $d,eti"e and Noun:

omnis homines deet E<EB man ought /opposed to some !ho do not0.

uius Catilina no&ili genere natus fuit magna "i et animi et orporis sed ingeniomalo pra"o3ue / Sall. Cat. ?0 uius Catiline !as &orn of a NO'E family !ith1BE$T fore of mind and &ody &ut !ith a N$TBE that !as e"il and depra"ed.



Dere the ad,eti"es in the first part are the emphati and important !ords noantithesis &et!een the nouns &eing as yet thought of+ &ut in the seond &ranh thenoun is meant to &e opposed to those &efore mentioned and immediately ta)es theprominent plae as is seen &y the natural English emphasis thus ma)ing ahiasmus. 2 F

2. -ord !ith modifying ase:

3uid magis Epaminondam The&anorum imperatorem 3uam "itoriaeThe&anorum onsulere deuit /In". 4.670 !hat should Epaminondas ommanderof the TE'$NS ha"e aimed at more than the <ICTOB of the The&ans

larima nihil itius aresit / id. 4.4;70 nothing dries 3ui)er than a TE$B.

nemo fere laudis upidus /9e Or. 4.4=0 hardly any one desirous of 1OB /f.@anil. 5 a"idi laudis E$1EB for glory0.

Numeral ad,eti"es ad,eti"es of 3uantity demonstrati"e relati"e andinterrogati"e pronouns and ad"er&s tend to preede the !ord or !ords to !hihthey &elong:

um ali3ua pertur&atione /Off. 4.450 !ith SO@E distur&ane.

ho uno praestamus /9e Or. 4.20 in TIS one thing !e e%el.

eterae fere artes the OTEB arts.

NOTE.((This happens &eause suh !ords are usually emphati+ &ut often the !ords onneted !ith them are more so and in suh ases the pronouns et. yieldthe emphati plae:

ausa ali3ua /9e Or. 4.2?;0 some C$SE.

stilus ille tuus / id. 4.2?50 that !ell()no!n STE of yours /in an antithesis+ seepassage0. D Ille is idiomati in this sense and position.F

Bomam 3uae apportata sunt /<err. =.4240 !hat !ere arried to BO@E /in ontrastto !hat remained at Syrause0.

-hen sum is used as the Su&stanti"e "er& /Set: 28=. &0 it regularly stands first orat any rate &efore its su&,et:

est "iri magni punire sontis /Off. 4.820 it is the duty of a great man to punish theguilty.



The "er& may ome first or ha"e a prominent position either /40 &eause the ideain it is emphati+ or /20 &eause the prediation of the !hole statement is emphati+or /0 the tense only may &e emphati:

/40 die&at idem Cotta /Off. 2.?70 Cotta used to S$ the same thing /opposed to

othersA &oasting0.idem feit adulesens @. $ntonius / id. 2.=70 the same thing !as 9ONE &y @ar) $ntony in his youth. DOpposed to di%i ,ust &efore.F

fais amie+ /ael. 70 you $CT )indly. DCf. amie fais you are "ery XIN9 /you atXIN90.F

/20 propensior &enignitas esse de&e&it in alamitosos nisi forte erunt dignialamitate /Off. 2.620 li&erality ought to &e readier to!ard the unfortunate unlessperhane they BE$ 9ESEB<E their misfortune.

praesertim um sri&at / anaetius0 / id. .80 espeially !hen he 9OES S$ /in his &oo)s0. DOpposed to something omitted &y him.F

/0 fuimus Troes fuit Ilium /$en. 2.2?0 !e ha"e CE$SE9 to &e Tro,ans Troy isno! no @OBE.

lo3uor autem de ommuni&us amiitiis /Off. .=?0 &ut I am SE$XIN1 NO- ofommon friendships.

Often the onnetion of t!o emphati phrases is &rought a&out &y gi"ing thepreedene to the most prominent part of eah and lea"ing the less prominentparts to follo! in inonspiuous plaes:

plures solent esse ausae /Off. 4.280 there are S$ SE<EB$ reasons.

3uos amisimus i"is eos @artis "is perulit /@ar. 450 -$T fello!(itiGens !eha"e OST ha"e &een stri)en do!n &y the "iolene of !ar.

ma%imas ti&i omnes gratias agimus / id. 0 !e $ render you the -$B@ESTthan)s.

hae res unius est propria Caesaris / id. 440 TIS e%ploit &elongs to CY ^sar

$ONE.

o&iurgationes etiam non num3uam inidunt neessariae /Off. 4.460 OCC$SIONS>OB BE'XE also SO@ETI@ES our !hih are una"oida&le.

$ntithesis &et!een t!o pairs of ideas is indiated &y plaing the pairs either /40 inthe same order /anaphora0 or /20 in e%atly the opposite order /hiasmus0:



res pu&lia+ populus Bomanus+ honoris ausa+ pae tanti "iri.

NOTE.((These had no dou&t originally an emphasis !hih re3uired suh anarrangement &ut in the ourse of time ha"e hanged their shade of meaning. Thussenatus populus3ue Bomanus originally stated !ith emphasis the offiial &odies

&ut &eame fi%ed so as to &e the only permissi&le form of e%pression.The Bomans had a fondness for emphasiGing persons so that a name or a pronounoften stands in an emphati plae:

D di%itF "enalis 3uidem se hortos non ha&ere /Off. .?80 DsaidF that he did nAt ha"eany gardens for sale to &e sure.

Xindred !ords often ome together / figura etymologia0:

ita sensim sine sensu aetas senesit /Cat. @. 80 thus gradually !ithout &eingperei"ed manAs life gro!s old.

.Speial Bules of .$rrangement

SECTION: #?77. The follo!ing are speial rules of arrangement:

The negati"e preedes the !ord it espeially affets+ &ut if it &elongs to no one !ordin partiular it generally preedes the "er&+ if it is espeially emphati it &egins thesentene. /See e%ample ?78. f. N.0

Ita3ue regularly omes first in its sentene or lause+ enim autem "ero 3uo3uene"er first &ut usually seond sometimes third if the seond !ord is emphati+3uidem ne"er first &ut after the emphati !ord+ igitur usually seond+ ne ...3uidem inlude the emphati !ord or !ords.

In3uam in3uit are al!ays used parenthetially follo!ing one or more !ords. Sooften redo opinor and in poetry sometimes preor.

/40 repositions /e%ept tenus and "ersus0 regularly preede their nouns+ /20 &ut amonosylla&i preposition is often plaed &et!een a noun and its ad,eti"e orlimiting geniti"e:

3uem ad modum+ 3uam o& rem+ magno um metu+ omni&us um opiis+ nulla inre+ /f. Set: ?78. i0.

In the arrangement of lauses the Belati"e lause more often omes first in atinand usually ontains the anteedent noun:



3uos amisimus i"is eos @artis "is perulit /@ar. 450 those itiGens !hom !eha"e lost et.

ersonal or demonstrati"e pronouns tend to stand together in the sentene:

um "os mihi essetis in onsilio+ / Bep. .280 !hen you attended me in ounsel.Struture of the eriod

SECTION: #6;;. atin unli)e modern languages e%presses the relation of !ordsto eah other &y infletion rather than &y position. ene its struture not onlyadmits of great "ariety in the arrangement of !ords &ut is espeially fa"ora&le tothat form of sentene !hih is alled a eriod. In a period the sense is e%pressed &ythe sentene as a !hole and is held in suspense till the deli"ery of the last !ord.

$n English sentene does not often e%hi&it this form of struture. It !as imitatedsometimes !ith great s)ill and &eauty &y many of the earlier !riters of Englishprose+ &ut its effet is &etter seen in poetry as in the follo!ing passage:

igh on a throne of royal state !hih far

Outshone the !ealth of Ormus and of Ind

Or !here the gorgeous East !ith rihest hand

Sho!ers on her )ings &ar&ari pearl and gold

Satan e%alted sat.((aradise ost ii. 4(?.

'ut in argument or narrati"e the &est English !riters more ommonly gi"e shortlear sentenes eah distint from the rest and saying one thing &y itself. In atinon the ontrary the story or argument is "ie!ed as a !hole+ and the logial relationamong all its parts is arefully indiated.

SECTION: #6;4. In the struture of the eriod the follo!ing rules are to &eo&ser"ed:

In general the main su&,et or o&,et is put in the main lause not in a su&ordinateone:

anni&al um reensuisset au%ilia 1ades profetus est /i". 24.240 !hen anni&alhad re"ie!ed the au%iliaries he set out for CadiG.



<olsi e%iguam spem in armis alia undi3ue a&sissa um tentassent praeteretera ad"ersa loo 3uo3ue ini3uo ad pugnam ongressi ini3uiore ad fugam uma& omni parte aederentur ad prees a ertamine "ersi dedito imperatoretraditis3ue armis su& iugum missi um singulis "estimentis ignominiae ladis3uepleni dimittuntur /i". =.4;0 . Dere the main fat is the return of the <olsians. 'utthe stri)ing irumstanes of the surrender et. !hih in English !ould &e detailedin a num&er of &rief independent sentenes are put into the se"eral su&ordinatelauses !ithin the main lause so that the passage gi"es a omplete piture in onesentene.F

Clauses are usually arranged in the order of prominene in the mind of the spea)er+so usually ause &efore result+ purpose manner and the li)e &efore the at.

In oordinate lauses the opulati"e on,untions are fre3uently omitted/asyndeton0. In suh ases the onnetion is made lear &y some antithesisindiated &y the position of !ords.

$ hange of su&,et !hen re3uired is mar)ed &y the introdution of a pronoun ifthe ne! su&,et has already &een mentioned. 'ut suh hange is often purposelya"oided &y a hange in struture((the less important &eing merged in the moreimportant &y the aid of partiiples or of su&ordinate phrases:

3uem ut &ar&ari inendium effugisse "iderunt telis eminus missis interfeerunt/Nep. $l. 4;0 !hen the &ar&arians sa! that he had esaped TE thre! darts atI@ at long range and )illed I@.

eleriter onfeto negotio in hi&erna legiones redu%it /'. 1. 6.0 the matter !assoon finished $N9 he led the legions et.

So the repetition of a noun or the su&stitution of a pronoun for it is a"oided unlessa different ase is re3uired:

dolorem si non potuero frangere oulta&o+ / hil. 42.240 if I annot on3uer thepain I !ill hide IT. DCf. if I annot on3uer I !ill hide the pain.F

The Bomans !ere areful to lose a period !ith an agreea&le suession of long andshort sylla&les. Thus((

3uod sis nihil prodest 3uod nesis multum o&est /Or. 4660 !hat you )no! is of

no use !hat you do not )no! does great harm.

NOTE.((In rhetorial !riting partiularly in oratory the Bomans influened &ytheir study of the 1ree) orators ga"e more attention to this matter than in otherforms of omposition. uintilian /i%. =.520 lays do!n the general rule that a lauseshould not open !ith the &eginning of a "erse or lose !ith the end of one.

BOSO9



SECTION: #6;2. The poetry of the Indo(European people seems originally to ha"e &een some!hat li)e our o!n depending on aent for its metre and disregardingthe natural 3uantity of sylla&les. The 1ree)s ho!e"er de"eloped a form of poetry

!hih li)e musi pays lose attention to the natural 3uantity of sylla&les+ and theBomans &orro!ed their metrial forms in lassial times from the 1ree)s. eneatin poetry does not depend li)e ours upon aent and rhyme+ &ut is measuredli)e musial strains &y the length of sylla&les. Espeially does it differ from our "erse in not regarding the prose aent of the !ords &ut su&stituting for that anentirely different system of metrial aent or itus /see Set: 644. a0. This dependsupon the harater of the measure used falling at regular inter"als of time on along sylla&le or its e3ui"alent. Eah sylla&le is ounted as either long or short inuantity+ and a long sylla&le is generally re)oned e3ual in length to t!o short ones/for e%eptions see Set: 6;8. ( e0.

The 3uantity of radial /or stem0 sylla&les((as of short a in peater or of long a inmater((an &e learned only &y o&ser"ation and pratie unless determined &y thegeneral rules of 3uantity. @ost of these rules are only ar&itrary formulas de"ised toassist the memory+ the sylla&les &eing long or short &eause the anientspronouned them so. The atual pratie of the Bomans in regard to the 3uantity ofsylla&les is asertained hiefly from the usage of the poets+ &ut the anientgrammarians gi"e some assistane and in some insriptions long "o!els aredistinguished in "arious !ays(( &y the ape% for instane or &y dou&ling /Set: 4;.e. N.0.

Sine Boman poets &orro! "ery largely from the poetry and mythology of the1ree)s numerous 1ree) !ords espeially proper names ma)e an important part

of atin poetry. These !ords are generally employed in aordane !ith the 1ree)and not the atin la!s of 3uantity. -here these la!s "ary in any important pointthe "ariations !ill &e notied in the rules &elo!.

.$NTIT .1ENEB$ BES

SECTION: #6;. The follo!ing are 1eneral Bules of uantity /f. Set: 7(440:

4 1$: emphati as the su&,et of disourse as !ith a title or the li)e.

2 9i"ided: opposed to the false oneption /implied in the use of omnis0 that theountry alled 1allia &y the Bomans is one. This appears more learly from the fatthat Caesar later spea)s of the 1alli in a narro!er sense as distint from the othert!o tri&es !ho !ith them inha&it 1allia in the !ider sense.



arts: ontinuing the emphasis &egun in di"isa. Not three parts as opposed to anyother num&er &ut into parts at all.

= Inha&ited: emphati as the ne%t su&,et KThe inha&itants of these parts are et.M

? One: gi"en more prominene than it other!ise !ould ha"e on aountof its loseonnetion !ith 3uarum.

6 $nother et.: opposed to one.

5 Their o!n ours: strongly opposed to eah other.

8 TESE /tri&es0: the main su&,et of disourse again olleting under one headthe names pre"iously mentioned.

7 anguage et.: these are the most prominent ideas as gi"ing the stri)ing points !hih distinguish the tri&es. The emphasis &eomes natural in English if !e sayKthese ha"e a different language different institutions different la!s.M

4; $ll of them: the emphasis on all mar)s the distri&uti"e harater of the ad,eti"eas if it !ere ue"ery one has its o!n et.M

44 1$S: emphati as referring to the 1auls proper in distintion from the othertri&es.

42 Separated: though this !ord ontains an indispensa&le idea in the onnetion yet it has a su&ordinate position. It is not emphati in atin as is seen from the fatthat it annot &e made emphati in English. The sense is: The 1auls lie &et!een the $3uitani on the one side and the 'elgians on the other.

4 Of TESE: the su&,et of disourse.

4= $ll: emphasiGing the superlati"e idea in K&ra"estM+ they as 1auls areassumed to &e !arli)e &ut the most so of all of them are the 'elgians.

4? >arthest a!ay: one might e%pet a&sunt /are a!ay0 to ha"e a more emphatiplae &ut it is d!arfed in importane &y the predominane of the main idea theeffeminating influenes from !hih the 'elgians are said to &e free. It is not that

they li"e farthest off that is insisted on &ut that the i"iliGation of the ro"ine et. !hih !ould soften them omes less in their !ay. It is to &e notied also thata&sunt has already &een antiipated &y the onstrution of ultu and still more &ylongissime so that !hen it omes it amounts only to a formal part of the sentene.Thus((K&eause the i"iliGation et. of the ro"ine /!hih !ould soften them0 isfarthest from them.M



46 E$ST: made emphati here &y a ommon atin order the hiasmus /Set: ?78.f0.

45 Traders: the fourth mem&er of the hiasmus opposed to ultu and humanitate.

48 Suh things as: the importane of the nature of the importations o"ershado!sthe fat that they are imported !hih fat is antiipated in traders.

47 Soften: f. !hat is said in note 4? p. 7=. They are &ra"e &eause they ha"e lessto soften them their nati"e &ar&arity &eing ta)en for granted.

2; Nearest: the same idiomati prominene as in notea&o"e &ut "aried &y a speialusage om&ining hiasmus and anaphora /Set: ?78. f0.

24 $ross the Bhine: i.e. and so are perfet sa"ages.

22 Inessantly: the ontinuane of the !arfare &eomes the all(important idea as ifit !ere Kand not a day passes in !hih they are not at !ar !ith them.M

2 So alled from the 1ree) letter h /hi0 on aount of the riss(rossarrangement of the !ords. Thus a &

.BOSO9 and .$NTIT

SECTION: #6;=. The uantity of >inal Sylla&les is as follo!s:

@onosylla&les ending in a "o!el are long: as me tu hi ne.

4. The attahed partiles (ne (3ue ("e (e (pte and re( /re bd(0 are short+ se(/sed(0 and de Q( are long. Thus seedit seditio e%eritum3uereduit dimitto. 'utre( is often long in religio / relligio0 retuli / rettuli0 repuli / reppuli0.

Nouns and ad,eti"es of one sylla&le are long: as sol os / oris0 &os par "as/ "asis0 "er "e Qs.

E%eptions.((or fel la mel os / ossis0 "as /"edis0 "ir tot 3uot.

@ost monosylla&i artiles are short: as in in is ne. 'ut ras ur en non3uin sin((!ith ad"er&s in : as hi hu si((are long.

>inal a in !ords delined &y ases is short e%ept in the a&lati"e sin gular of thefirst delension+ in all other !ords final a is long. Thus eea stellea /nominati"e0um ea stella /a&lati"e0+ frustra "oa /imperati"e0 postea triginta.



E%eptions.((ei$ ita 3uiia putcput+ a /suppose0+ and in late use triginta et.

>inal e is short: as in nu&e duite saepe b.

E%eptions.((>inal e is long((4. In ad"er&s formed from ad,eti"es of the first and

seond delension !ith others of li)e form: as alte longe misere apertesaepissime. So fere ferme.

'ut it is short in &ene male+ inferne superne.

2. In nouns of the fifth delension: as fide /also fame0 faie hodie 3uare / 3ua re0.

. In 1ree) neuters plural of the seond delension: as ete+ and in some other1ree) !ords: hoe&e Cir e $ndromahe et.

=. In the imperati"e singular of the seond on,ugation: as "ide.

'ut sometimes a"e ha&e tae "ale "ide/f. Set: 627. &. 40.

>inal i is long: as in turri fili aude Q.

E%eptions.((>inal i is ommon in mihi ti&i si&i i&i u&i+ and short in nisi 3uasisiuti ui /!hen ma)ing t!o sylla&les0 and in 1ree) "oati"es: as $le%i.

>inal o is ommon: &ut long in dati"es and a&lati"es+ also in nouns of the thirddelension. It is almost in"aria&ly long in "er&s &efore the time of O"id.

E%eptions.( (ito modo /dummod 0 immo profeto ego duo edo/theimperati"e0+ so sometimes oto ilio et. partiularly in later !riters.

>inal u is long. >inal y is short

>inal as es os are long+ final is as ys are short: as nefas rupes ser" os/ausati"e0 honos+ hostis amius Tethys.

E%eptions.((4. as is short in 1ree) plural ausati"es: as lampadeas+ and in aneas.

2. es is short in the nominati"e of nouns of the third delension /lingual0 ha"ing ashort "o!el in the stem: as miles /(e (tis0 o&ses /(ZR dis0((e%ept a&iesariesparies pes+ in the present of esse /es ade bs0+ in the preposition penes and in theplural of 1ree) nouns: as he roes lampades.

. os is short in omps imps+ in the 1ree) nominati"e ending: as &ar&its+ inthe old nominati"e of the seond delension: as ser"s /later ser"us0.

=. is in plural ases is long: as in &onis no&is "o&is omnis /ausati"e plural0.



?. is is long in the "er& forms fis sis "is /!ith 3ui"is et.0 "elis malis nolis edis+ inthe seond person singular of the present indiati"e ati"e in the fourthon,ugation: as audis+ and sometimes in the forms in ( eris /future perfetindiati"e or perfet su&,unti"e0.

6. us is long in the geniti"e singular and nominati"e ausati"e and "oati"e pluralof the fourth delension+ and in nouns of the third delension ha"ing u /long0 in thestem: as "irtus /( utis0 inus /(V dis0. 'ut peus (udis.

Of other final sylla&les those ending in a single onsonant are short Thus ameatamatur+ done fea proul iu&e ar.

E%eptions.(( hi /also he (0+ alle+ the a&lati"es illo et.+ ertain ad"er&s in (: asilli istu+ lien and some 1ree) nouns: as aer aether rater.

4 The 3uantity of the stem("o!el may &e seen in the geniti"e singular.

erfets and erfet artiiples

SECTION: #6;?. erfets and erfet artiiples of t!o sylla&les ha"e the firstsylla&le long: as iu"i iutum /iu"o0 "idi "isum /"ideo0+ fugi /fugio0+ "eni /"enio0.

E%eptions.((&i&i dede Q fidi sidi steti stiti tuli+ itum deatume (tum litum3uitum reatum rutum seatum situm steatum. In some ompounds of sto statumis found /long0 as praestatum.

In redupliated perfets the "o!el of the redupliation is short+ the "o!el of thefollo!ing sylla&le is also usually short: as eidi /eado0 didii / diso0 pupuge Q/ pungo0 uurre Q / urro0 tetendi / tendo0mmrde Q / mordeo0. 'ut eidifrom aedo pepedi from pedo.

U

9eri"ati"es

SECTION: #6;6. Bules for the uantity of 9eri"ati"es are:

>orms from the same stem ha"e the same 3uantity: as ea mo eama"iste Q+ genusgeneris.

E%eptions.((4. &os lar mas par pes sal((also ar&os((ha"e a long "o!el in thenominati"e though the stem("o!el is short /f. geniti"e &"is et.0.



2. Nouns in (or geniti"e ( oris ha"e the "o!el shortened &efore the final r: ashonr. /'ut this shortening is omparati"ely late so that in early atin thesenominati"es are often found long.0

. <er&(forms !ith "o!el originally long regularly shorten it &efore final m r or t:

as ame bm amer dierer ame bt /ompare amemus0 diere bt audit fit.NOTE.((The final sylla&le in t of the perfet !as long in old atin &ut is short in thelassi period.

=. $ fe! long stem(sylla&les are shortened: as aer eaer&us. So de(iero and pe(iero !ea)ened from iuro.

>orms from the same root often sho! inherited "ariations of "o!el 3uantity /seeSet: 450: as dio /f. malede (us0+ duo /du% d (is0+ fido /perfe (dus0 "o% "ois/"o0+ le% legis /lego0.

Compounds retain the 3uantity of the !ords !hih ompose them as o(ido/eado0 o( ido / aedo0 in(i3uus / ae3uus0.

NOTE.(( 1ree) !ords ompounded !ith pro ha"e o short: as prphe ta prlgus. Some atin ompounds of pro ha"e o short: as pr fiisor prfiteor.Compounds !ith ne "ary: as nefas nego ne3ueo ne3uam.

.BT@

SECTION: #6;5. The essene of Bhythm in poetry is the regular reurrene ofsylla&les pronouned !ith more stress than those inter"ening. To produe thiseffet in its perfetion preisely e3ual times should our &et!een the reurrenesof the stress. 'ut in the appliation of rhythm to !ords the e%atness of theseinter"als is sarified some!hat to the neessary length of the !ords+ and on theother hand the !ords are fored some!hat in their pronuniation to produemore nearly the proper inter"als of time. In different languages these adaptationsta)e plae in different degrees+ one language disregarding more the inter"als oftime another the pronuniation of the !ords.

The 1ree) language early de"eloped a "ery strit rhythmial form of poetry in !hih the inter"als of time !ere all(important. The earliest atin on the otherhand ((as in the Saturnian and >esennine "erse((!as not so restrited. 'ut thepurely metrial forms !ere after!ards adopted from the 1ree) and supplanted thenati"e forms of "erse. Thus the atin poetry !ith !hih !e ha"e to do follo!s forthe most part 1ree) rules !hih re3uire the formal di"ision of !ords /li)e musi0into measures of e3ual times tehnially alled >eet. The strit rhythm !asdou&tless more losely follo!ed in poetry that !as sung than in that !hih !as



delaimed or intoned. In neither language ho!e"er is the time perfetly preser"ede"en in single measures: and there are some ases in !hih the regularity of thetime &et!een the ituses is distur&ed.

The 1ree)s and Bomans distinguished sylla&les of t!o )inds in regard to the time

re3uired for their pronuniation a long sylla&le ha"ing t!ie the metrial "alue of ashort one. 'ut it must not &e supposed that all long sylla&les !ere of e3ual lengthor e"en that in a gi"en passage eah long had ,ust t!ie the length of the ontiguousshorts. The ratio !as only appro%imate at &est though neessarily more e%at insinging than in reitation. Nor are longs and shorts the only forms of sylla&les thatare found. In some ases a long sylla&le !as protrated so as to ha"e the time ofthree or e"en of four shorts and often one long or t!o shorts !ere pronouned inless than their proper time though they !ere perhaps distinguisha&le in time fromone

short /see Set: 6;8. d0. Sometimes a sylla&le naturally short seems to ha"e &eenslightly prolonged so as to represent a long though in most /not all0 ases theapparent irregularity an &e other!ise e%plained. In a fe! ases also a pause ta)esthe plae of one or more sylla&les to fill out the re3uired length of the measure.This ould of ourse ta)e plae only at the end of a !ord: hene the importane ofCaesura and 9iaeresis in prosody /Set: 644. & 0.

@easures

SECTION: #6;8. Bhythm onsists of the di"ision of musial sound into e3ualinter"als of time alled @easures or >eet.

The most natural di"ision of musial time is into measures onsisting of either t!oor three e3ual parts. 'ut the anients also distinguished measures of fi"e e3ualparts.

NOTE.((The di"isions of musial time are mar)ed &y a stress of "oie on one or theother part of the measure. This stress is alled the Itus /&eat0 or metrial aent/see Set: 644. a0.

The unit of length in rosody is one short sylla&le. This is alled a @ora. It isrepresented &y the sign ZR or in musial notation &y the eighth note or 3ua"er

$ long sylla&le is regularly e3ual to t!o morae and is represented &y the sign V or &y the 3uarter note or rothet

$ long sylla&le may &e protrated so as to oupy the time of three or four morae.Suh a sylla&le if e3ual to three morY ^ is represented &y the sign D>igureF /ordotted 3uarter D>igureF 0+ if e3ual to four &y D>igureF /or the half note or minimD>igureF 0.



$ long sylla&le may &e ontrated so as to ta)e pratially the time of a short one.Suh a sylla&le is sometimes represented &y the sign J.

$ short sylla&le may &e ontrated so as to oupy less than one mora.

$ pause sometimes ours at the end of a "erse or a series of "erses to fill up thetime. $ pause of one mora in a measure is indiated &y the sign + one of t!omorae&y the sign DmarirF.

One or more sylla&les are sometimes plaed &efore the proper &eginning of themeasure. Suh sylla&les are alled an $narusis or prelude.

The anarusis is regularly e3ual to the unaented part of the measure.

NOTE.((Narrati"e poetry !as !ritten for rhythmial reitation or hant !ithinstrumental aompaniment+ and yrial poetry for rhythmial melody orsinging. It must &e &orne in mind that in anient musi((!hih in this differs !idely from modern((the rhythm of the melody !as idential !ith the rhythm ofthe te%t. The lyri poetry !as to &e sung+ the poet !as musiian and omposer as !ell as author. To this day a poet is said on"entionally to Ksing.M

Thus a orret understanding of the rhythmial struture of the "erse gi"es us thetime though not the tune to !hih it !as atually sung. The e%at time ho!e"eras indiated &y the suession of long and short sylla&les !as "aried aording toertain la!s of so(alled KBhythmiK as !ill &e e%plained &elo!. In reading anient "erse it is neessary to &ear in mind not only the "ariations in the relati"e length ofsylla&les &ut the oasional pause neessary to fill out the measure+ and toremem&er that the rhythmial aent is the only one of importane though the

!ords should &e distinguished arefully and the sense preser"ed. oetry shouldnot &e sanned &ut read metrially.

SECTION: #642. $ single line of poetry((that is a series of feet set in a reogniGedorder((is alled a <erse.

NOTE.((@ost of the ommon "erses originally onsisted of t!o series /hemistihs0 &ut the ,oint &et!een them is often o&sured. It is mar)ed in Iam&i and TrohaieTetrameter &y the 9iaeresis in 9atyli e%ameter &y the Caesura.

$ "erse la)ing a sylla&le at the end is alled Cataleti that is ha"ing a pause to fillthe measure+ !hen the end sylla&le is not la)ing the "erse is alled $ataletiand has no suh pause.

$ final sylla&le regularly short is sometimes lengthened &efore a pause:it is thensaid to &e long &y 9iastole:



nostrorum o&ruimur(( oritur3ue miserrima aedes.(( $en. 2.=44.

The last sylla&le of any "erse may &e indifferently long or short /sylla&a aneps0.

Sansion and Elision

To di"ide the "erse into its appropriate measures aording to the rules of 3uantityand "ersifiation is alled sanning or sansion / sansio a lim&ing or ad"ane &ysteps from sando0.

NOTE.((In reading "erse rhythmially are should &e ta)en to preser"e themeasure or time of the sylla&les &ut at the same time not to destroy or onfuse the !ords themsel"es as is often done m sanning.

In sanning a "o!el or diphthong at the end of a !ord /unless an inter,etion0 ispartially suppressed !hen the ne%t !ord &egins !ith a "o!el or !ith h. This isalled Elision /&ruising0.

In reading it is usual entirely to suppress elided sylla&les. Stritly ho!e"er theyshould &e sounded lightly.

In early atin poetry a final sylla&le ending in s often loses this letter e"en &efore aonsonant /f. Set: 4?.50:

senio onfetus 3uiesit.((Enn. /Cat. @. 4=0.

NOTE.((Elision is sometimes alled &y the 1ree) name SynalKpha /smearing0.Barely a sylla&le is elided at the end of a "erse !hen the ne%t "erse &egins !ith a "o!el: this is alled Synapheia /&inding0.

$ final m !ith the preeding "o!el is suppressed in li)e manner !hen the ne%t !ord &egins !ith a "o!el or h: this is alled Ethlipsis /s3ueeGing out0:

monstrum horrendum informe ingens ui lumen ademptum.

(( $en. .6?8.

NOTE 4.((>inal m has a fee&le nasal sound so that its partial suppression &eforethe initial "o!el of the follo!ing !ord !as easy.

NOTE 2.((The monosylla&les do dem spe spem sim sto stem 3ui /plural0 andmonosylla&i inter,etions are ne"er elided+ nor is an iam&i !ord elided in datyli "erse. Elision is often e"aded &y s)ilful olloation of !ords.

Elision is sometimes omitted !hen a !ord ending in a "o!el has a speialemphasis or is sueeded &y a pause. This omission is alled iatus /gaping0.



NOTE.((The final "o!el is sometimes shortened in suh ases.

.>OB@S O> <EBSE

4 The !ord <erse /"ersus0 signifies a turning &a) i.e. to &egin again in li)emanner as opposed to rose /prorsus or pro"ersus0 !hih means straight ahead.

2 This usage is omparati"ely rare most ases !here it appears to &e found &eingaused &y the retention of an originally long 3uantity.

The pratie of Elision is follo!ed in Italian and >renh poetry and is sometimesadopted in English partiularly in the older poets: TA in"eigle and in"ite thA un!arysense.((Comus ?8.

SECTION: #64. $ "erse reei"es its name from its dominant or fundamental foot:as 9atyli Iam&i Trohai $napKsti+ and from the num&er of measures/single or dou&le0 !hih it ontains: as e%ameter Tetrameter Trimeter 9imeter.

NOTE.((Trohai Iam&i and $napaesti "erses are measured not &y single feet &ut &y pairs /dipodia0 so that si% Iam&i ma)e a Trimeter.

SECTION: #64=. $ StanGa or Strophe onsists of a definite num&er of "ersesranged in a fi%ed order.

@any stanGas are named after some eminent poet: as Sapphi /from Sappho0 $lai /from $laeus0 $rhilohian /from $rhilohus0 oratian /from orae0and so on.

.9$CTIC <EBSE

9atyli e%ameter

SECTION: #64?. The 9atyli e%ameter or eroi <erse onsists theoretially ofsi% datyls. It may &e represented thus: D>igureF

NOTE.((The last foot is usually said to &e a spondee &ut is in reality a troheestanding for a datyl sine the final sylla&le is not measured.



>or any foot e%ept the fifth a spondee may &e su&stituted.

Barely a spondee is found in the fifth foot+ the "erse is then alled spondai andusually ends !ith a !ord of four sylla&les.

Thus in El. =.=7the "erse ends !ith inrementum.The he%ameter has regularly one prinipal Ksura((sometimes t!o(( almostal!ays aompanied &y a pause in the sense.

4. The prinipal aesura is usually after the thesis /less ommonly in the arsis0 ofthe third foot di"iding the "erse into t!o parts in sense and rhythm. See e%amplesin d.

2. It may also &e after the thesis /less ommonly in the arsis0 of the fourth foot. Inthis ase there is often another aesura in the seond foot so that the "erse isdi"ided into three parts: $en. ?.255.

NOTE.((Often the only indiation of the prinipal among a num&er of aesuras isthe &rea) in the sense.

$ aesura ourring after the first sylla&le of a foot is alled masuline. $ aesuraourring after the seond sylla&le of a foot is alled feminine /as in the fifth foot ofthe third and fourth "erses in d0. $ aesura may also &e found in any foot of the "erse &ut a proper aesural pause ould hardly our in the first or si%th.

-hen the fourth foot ends a !ord the &rea) /properly a diaeresis0 is sometimesimproperly alled &uoli aesura from its fre3ueny in pastoral poetry.

The first se"en "erses of the $eneid di"ided aording to the foregoing rules !illappear as follo!s. The prinipal aesura in eah "erse is mar)ed &y dou&le lines: $rma "irum3ue ano .....et.

4. The feminine aesura is seen in the follo!ing:

.(( $en. 6.44.

NOTE.((The e%ameter is thus illustrated in English "erse:

O"er the sea past Crete on the Syrian shore to the south!ard

9!ells in the !ell(tilled lo!land a dar)(haired Y thiop people

S)ilful !ith needle and loom and the arts of the dyer and ar"er

S)ilful &ut fee&le of heart+ for they )no! not the lords of Olympus



o"ers of men+ neither &road(&ro!ed eus nor allas $thenY

Teaher of !isdom to heroes &esto!er of might in the &attle+

Share not the unning of ermes nor list to the songs of $pollo

>earing the stars of the s)y and the roll of the &lue salt !ater.

((XingsleyAs $ndromeda.

9atyli e%ameter

SECTION: #646. The Elegia StanGa onsists of t!o "erses((a e%ameter follo!ed &y a entameter.

The entameter "erse is the same as the e%ameter e%ept that it omits the lasthalf of the third foot and of the si%th foot: D>igureF

The entameter "erse is therefore to &e sanned as t!o half("erses the seond of !hih al!ays onsists of t!o datyls follo!ed &y a single sylla&le.

The entameter has no regular Caesura+ &ut the first half("erse must al!ays end !ith a !ord /diKresis Set: 644. 0 !hih is follo!ed &y a pause to omplete themeasure.

The follo!ing "erses !ill illustrate the forms of the Elegia StanGa:

um su&it illius tristissi mea notis imago 3ua mYnY( supremumDmarirF tempus in ur&efuit DmarirF

um repeto notem 3ua tot mihi area re bli3ui la&itur e% ulisDmarirF nun 3u3ue guttea meis. DmarirF

iam prpe lu% eaderat 3ua me disedere Caesar fini&us e%tremaeDmarirF iussereat $usniae. DmarirF

((O". Trist. 4..

NOTE.((The Elegia StanGa differs !idely in harater from he%ameter "erse /of !hih it is a mere modifiation0 &y its di"ision into 9istihs eah of !hih mustha"e its o!n sense omplete. It is employed in a great "ariety of ompositions((epistolary amatory and mournful((and !as espeially a fa"orite of the poet O"id.It has &een illustrated in English "erse imitated from the 1erman:

In the e%ameter rises the fountainAs sil"ery olumn+



In the entameter aye falling in melody &a).

4 Called pentameter &y the old grammarians !ho di"ided it formally into fi"e feet/t!o datyls or spondees a spondee and t!o anapaests0 as follo!s: D >igureF

2 The time of this pause ho!e"er may &e filled &y the protration of the preedingsylla&le: D>igureF

Other 9atyli <erses

SECTION: #645. Other datyli "erses or half("erses are oasionally used &y thelyri poets.

The 9atyli Tetrameter alternates !ith the he%ameter forming the $lmanianStrophe as follo!s:

or. Od. 4.5/so 28+ Ep. 420.

The 9atyli enthemim /fi"e half(feet0 onsists of half a pentameter "erse. It isused in om&ination !ith the e%ameter to form the >irst $rhilohian Strophe:

diffugereOd. =.5.

>or the >ourth $rhilohian Strophe /$rhilohian heptameter alternating !ithiam&i trimeter ataleti0 see Set: 626. 44.

.I$@'IC <EBSE

Iam&i Trimeter

SECTION: #648. The Iam&i Trimeter is the ordinary "erse of dramati dialogue. Itonsists of three measures eah ontaining a dou&le Iam&us /iam&i dipody0. Theaesura is usually in the third foot. D>igureF

NOTE.((The sign Dgt&re"eF DautemarF denotes possi&le su&stitution of anirrational spondee /JDautemarF0 for an iam&us /ZRDautemarF0.

The Iam&i Trimeter is often used in lyri poetry /40 as an independent system or/20 alternating !ith the 9imeter to form the Iam&i Strophe as follo!s: (or.Epod. 45.



The last t!o lines may &e thus translated to sho! the mo"ement in English: (or.Epod. 2.

In the striter form of Iam&i Trimeter an irrational spondee /J DautemarF0 or itse3ui"alent /a yli anapaest ZR ZRDautemarF or an apparent datyl J

Daute&re"eF ZR Set: 6;7. e0 may &e regularly su&stituted for the first iam&us ofany dipody $ tri&rah /Z R Daute&re"eF ZR0 may stand for an iam&us any!heree%ept in the last plae. In the omi poets any of these forms or the proeleusmati/ZRZR Daute&re"eF ZR0 may &e su&stituted in any foot e%ept the last:

The Choliam&i /lame Iam&i0 su&stitutes a trohee for the last iam&us: D>igureF

ae3ue (Catul. 2.4? 46.

NOTE.((The "erse may also &e regarded as trohai !ith anarusis: as(( D>igureF

The Iam&i Trimeter Cataleti is represented as follo!s: D>igureF

It is used in om&ination !ith other measures /see Set: 626. 440 and is sho!n inthe follo!ing: (or. Od. 4.=.

or in English:

On purple pea)s a deeper shade desending.(( Sott.

4 The greater freedom of su&stitution in the omedy is due to the fat that the "erseis regarded as made up of separate feet rather than of dipodies.

Other Iam&i @easures

SECTION: #647. Other forms of Iam&i "erse are the follo!ing:

The Iam&i Tetrameter Cataleti / Septenarius0. This onsists of se"en and a halfiam&i feet !ith diaeresis after the fourth and !ith the same su&stitutions as inIam&i Trimeter:

nam Ter. $nd. 67; 674.

The metrial sheme of these t!o "erses may &e represented as follo!s: D>igureF

The Iam&i Tetrameter $ataleti / Otonarius0. This onsists of right full iam&ifeet !ith the same su&stitutions as in Iam&i Trimeter. i)e the Septenarius it isused in li"ely dialogue: (Ter. h. 52; 524.

The Iam&i 9imeter. This may &e either aataleti or ataleti.



4. The Iam&i 9imeter $ataleti onsists of four iam&i feet. It is used inom&ination !ith some longer "erse /see Set: 648. a0.

2. The Iam&i 9imeter Cataleti onsists of three and a half iam&i feet. It is usedonly in horuses: Sen. @ed. 8?;(8?.

NOTE.((O!ing to the fat that in modern musi eah measure &egins !ith ado!n!ard &eat some sholars regard all these forms of Iam&i "erse as Trohai "erse !ith anarusis /Set: 648. . N.0.

.TBOC$IC <EBSE

SECTION: #62;. The most ommon form of Trohai "erse is the Tetrameter

Cataleti / Septenarius0 onsisting of four dipodies the last of !hih la)s asylla&le. There is regularly diaeresis after the fourth foot:

In musial notation: ((Ter. $nd. 47.

In English "erse:

TYll me nYt in moYrnful nYm&ers lY(fe is &Yt an Ympty dreYjm.

(( ongfello!.

In the striter form of the Septenarius su&stitutions are allo!ed only in the e"enfeet &ut in omedy the tri&rah Daute&re"eF ZR ZR or an irrational spondeeDautemarF J yli datyl DautemarF ZRZR or apparent anapaest Daute&re"eFZR J may &e su&stituted for any of the first si% feet+ a tri&rah for the se"enth: (l. $m. ==(==6.

The metrial sheme of these four "erses is as follo!s: D>igureF

The Trohai Tetrameter $ataleti / Otonarius0 onsisting of four ompletedipodies ours in the lyrial parts of omedy.

Su&stitutions as in the Septenarius are allo!ed e%ept in the last foot.

Some other forms of trohai "erse are found in the lyri poets in eom&ination !ith other feet either as !hole lines or parts of lines: (or Od. 2.48.

@I[E9 @E$SBES



SECTION: #624. 9ifferent measures may &e om&ined in the same "erse in t!odifferent !ays. Either /40 a series of one )ind is simply ,oined to a series of another)ind /ompare the hanges of rhythm not unommon in modern musi0+ or /20single feet of other measures are om&ined !ith the pre"ailing measures in !hihase these odd feet are adapted &y hanging their 3uantity so that they &eomeirrational /see Set: 6;7.e0.

-hen enough measures of one )ind our to form a series !e may suppose ahange of rhythm+ !hen they are isolated !e must suppose adaptation. Of theindefinite num&er of possi&le om&inations &ut fe! are found in atin poetry.

SECTION: #622. The follo!ing "erses om&ining different rhythmial series arefound in atin lyrial poetry:

4. 1reater $rhilohian /9atyli Tetrameter+ Trohai Tripody0: or. Od. 4.=.

NOTE.((It is possi&le that the datyls !ere yli+ &ut the hange of measure seemsmore pro&a&le.

2. <erse onsisting of 9atyli Trimeter ataleti /9atyli enthemim0+ Iam&i9imeter:(or. Epod. 44.2.

O1$EI9IC <EBSE

SECTION: #62. Trohai "erses ontaining in regular presri&ed positionsirrational measures or irrational feet /f. Set: 6;7. e0 are alled ogoaedi. Theprinipal logoaedi forms are:pJ

4. ogoaedi Tetrapody /four feet0: 1CONIC.

2. ogoaedi Tripody /three feet0: EBECB$TIC /often treated as a synopatedTetrapody Cataleti0.

. ogoaedi 9ipody /t!o feet0: this may &e regarded as a short hererati.

NOTE.((This mi%ture of irrational measures gi"es an effet approahing that ofprose: hene the name ogoaedi / logos aoidU0. These measures originated in the1ree) lyri poetry and !ere adopted &y the Bomans. $ll the Boman lyri metresnot &elonging to the regular iam&i trohai datyli or Ioni systems !ereonstruted on the &asis of the three forms gi"en a&o"e: "iG. ogoaedi systemsonsisting respeti"ely of four three and t!o feet. The so(alled ogoaedientapody onsists of fi"e feet &ut is to &e regarded as omposed of t!o of theothers.



SECTION: #62=. Eah logoaedi form ontains a single datyl!hih may &e eitherin the first seond or third plae. The "erse may &e ataleti or aataleti:

1lyoni hererati D>igureFNOTE.((The shorter hererati /dipody0 /DautemarFZRZR DautemarFZR0 ifataleti appears tU

J &e a simple Choriam&us /VZRZR V0+ and in general the effet of thelogaKdiU

J forms is Choriam&i. In fat they !ere so regarded &y the later 1ree) and atinmetriians and these metres ha"e o&tained the general name of Choriam&i. 'utthey are not true horiam&i though they may "ery li)ely ha"e &een felt to &e suh &y the omposer !ho imitated the forms !ithout muh thought of their origin.They may &e read /sanned0 therefore on that priniple. 'ut it is &etter to readthem as logoaedi measures+ and that ourse is follo!ed here.

SECTION: #62?. The "erses onstruted upon the se"eral ogoaedi form ormodels are the follo!ing:

4. 1lyoni /Seond 1lyoni ataleti0:(

NOTE.((In this and most of the sueeding forms the foot preeding the datyl isal!ays irrational in orae onsisting of an irrational spondee /VJ0.

2. $ristophani />irst hererati0: (or. Od. 4.8.

NOTE.((It is "ery li)ely that this !as made e3ual in time to the preeding U

J protrating the last t!o sylla&les:

. $doni />irst hererati shortened0: D>igureF ((or.

=. hererati /Seond hererati0: ((or.

?. esser $slepiadi /Seond hererati !ith synope and >irst hereratiataleti0: (or.

6. 1reater $slepiadi /the same as ? !ith a synopated ogoaedi 9ipodyinterposed0: ((or.

5. esser Sapphi /ogoaedi entapody !ith datyl in the third plae0: or.



8. 1reater Sapphi /Third 1lyoni+ >irst hererati0: or.

7. esser $lai /ogoaedi Tetrapody t!o irrational datyls t!o trohees0: (or.

4;. 1reater $lai /ogoaedi entapody ataleti !ith anarusis and datyl in

the third plae((ompare esser Sapphi0: (or.NOTE.((Only the a&o"e logoaedi forms are employed &y orae.

44. halaeean /ogoaedi entapody !ith datyl in the seond plae0: (Catull. %l.

42. 1lyoni hererati /Seond 1lyoni !ith synope and Seond hererati0:(Catull. %"ii.

.@ETBES O> OB$CE

SECTION: #626. The Odes of orae inlude nineteen "arieties of stanGa. Theseare:

4. $lai onsisting of t!o 1reater $lais /4;0 one Trohai 9imeter !ithanarusis and one esser $lai /70: (Od. ..

/>ound in Odes. i. 7 46 45 26 25 27 4 = ? 5+ ii. 4 ? 5 7 44 4 4= 4? 4547 2;+ iii. 4 2 = ? 6 45 24 2 26 27+ i". = 7 4= 4?.0

NOTE.((The $lai Strophe is named after the 1ree) poet $laeus of es&os and !as a speial fa"orite !ith orae of !hose Odes thirty(se"en are in this form. It issometimes alled the oratian StanGa.

2. Sapphi /minor0 onsisting of three esser Sapphis /50 and one $doni /0:(Od. 4.2.

/>ound in Od. i. 2 4; 42 2; 22 2? ; 2 8+ ii. 2 = 6 8 4; 46+ iii. 8 444=482; 22 25+ i". 2 6 44+ Carm. Sae.0

NOTE.((The Sapphi StanGa is named after the poetess Sappho of es&os and !asa great fa"orite !ith the anients. It is used &y orae in t!enty(fi"e Odes(( morefre3uently than any other e%ept the $lai.

. Sapphi /ma,or0 onsisting of one $ristophani /20 and one 1reater Sapphi /80:(Od. 4.8.

=. $slepiadean I /minor0 onsisting of esser $slepiadis /?0: />ound in Od. i. 4+.;+ =.8.0



?. $slepiadean II onsisting of one 1lyoni /40 and one esser $slepiadi /?0:(Od. 4..

/>ound in Od. i. 4 47 6+ iii. 7 4? 47 2= 2? 28+ i". i .0

6. $slepiadean III onsisting of three esser $slepiadis /?0 and one 1lyoni/40: (Od. 4.2=.

/>ound in Od. i. 6 4? 2= + 2.42+ .4; 46+ i". ? 42.0

5. $slepiadean I< onsisting of t!o esser $slepiadis /?0 one hererati /=0and one 1lyoni /40: (Od. .4.

/>ound in Od. i. ? 4= 24 2+ iii. 5 4+ =.4.0

8. $slepiadean < /ma,or0 onsisting of 1reater $slepiadis /60: (Od. 4.44.

/>ound in Od. 4.44 48+ =.4;.0

7. $lmanian onsisting of 9atyli e%ameter /Set: 64?0 alternating !ithTetrameter /Set: 645. a0. /Od. i. 5 28+ Epod. 42.0

4;. $rhilohian I onsisting of a 9atyli e%ameter alternating !ith a 9atylienthemim /see Set: 645. &0. /Od. =.5.0

44. $rhilohian I< onsisting of a 1reater $rhilohian /heptameter Set: 622. 40follo!ed &y Iam&i Trimeter Cataleti /Set: 648. d0. The stanGa onsists of t!opairs of "erses: Od. 4.=.

42. Iam&i Trimeter alone /see Set: 6480. /Epod. 45.0

4. Iam&i Strophe /see Set: 648. a0. /Epod. 4(4;.0

4=. 9atyli e%ameter alternating !ith Iam&i 9imeter: (Epod. 4?. /So in Epod.4=.0

4?. 9atyli e%ameter !ith Iam&i Trimeter /Set: 6480: (Epod. 46.

46. <erse of >our esser Ionis /Set: 6;7. . 20:

miserarum est Od. .42.

45. Iam&i Trimeter /Set: 6480+ 9atyli enthemim /Set: 645. &0+ Iam&i9imeter: Epod. 44.

48. 9atyli e%ameter+ Iam&i 9imeter+ 9atyli enthemim /Set: 645. &0: (Epod.4.



47. Trohai 9imeter Iam&i Trimeter eah ataleti /see Set: 62;. 0.

4 9ifferent 1ree) poets adopted fi%ed types in regard to the plae of the datyU

J and so a large num&er of "erses arose eah follo!ing a strit la! !hih !ere

imUJ tated &y the Bomans as distint metres.

2 The figures refer to the foregoing list /Set: 62?0.

SECTION: #625. Other lyri poets use other om&inations of the a&o"ementioned "erses:

a. 1lyonis !ith one hererati /&oth imperfet0: (Catull. %%%i".

&. Sapphis in a series of single lines losing !ith an $doni: (Sen. er. Oet.46;;(46;6.

. Sapphis follo!ed &y 1lyonis of indefinite num&er / id. er. >ur. 8;(85=85?(87=0.

SECTION: #628. Other measures our in "arious styles of poetry.

$napaesti /Set: 6;7. &. 20 "erses of "arious lengths are found in dramati poetry.The spondee datyl or proeleusmati may &e su&stituted for the anapaest: (l.Trin. 444?(4447.

'ahia /Set: 6;7. d. =0 "erses /fi"e(timed0 our in the dramati poets(( "eryrarely in Terene more ommonly in lautus((either in "erses of t!o feet/ 9imeter0 or of four /Tetrameter0. They are treated "ery freely as are

all measures in early atin. The long sylla&les may &e resol"ed or the molossus/three longs0 su&stituted: ( l. Trin. 22(226.

Creti measures /Set: 6;7. d. 40 our in the same manner as the 'ahia !iththe same su&stitutions. The last foot is usually inomplete: Saturnian <erse. Inearly atin is found a rude form of "erse not &orro!ed from the 1ree) li)e theothers &ut as to the preise nature of !hih sholars are not agreed.

4. $ording to one "ie! the "erse is &ased on 3uantity is omposed of si% feet andis di"ided into t!o parts &y a aesura &efore the fourth thesis. Eah thesis mayonsist of a long sylla&le or of t!o short ones eah arsis of a short sylla&le a long



sylla&le or t!o short sylla&les+ &ut the arsis e%ept at the &eginning of the "erseand &efore the aesura is often entirely suppressed though rarely more than onein the same "erse:

2. $ording to another theory the Saturnian is made up !ithout regard to

3uantity of alternating aented and unaented sylla&les+ &ut for any unaentedsylla&le t!o may &e su&stituted and regularly are so su&stituted in the seond footof the "erse: da&unt malum metelli Nae"io poetae

.E$B .BOSO9

SECTION: #627. The prosody of the earlier poets differs in se"eral respets fromthat of the later.

$t the end of !ords s &eing only fee&ly sounded does not ma)e position !ith afollo!ing onsonant+ it sometimes disappeared altogether. This usage ontinued inall poets till CieroAs time /Set: 4?. 50.

$ long sylla&le immediately preeded or follo!ed &y the itus may &e shortened/iam&i shortening0:

In a fe! isolated !ords position is often disregarded.Suh are ille immo indeiste mnis ne bmpe 3uippe unde.

The original long 3uantity of some final sylla&les is retained.

4. The ending (or is retained long in nouns !ith long stem("o!el /original r( stemsor original s(stems0: O"id. $m. ?=80.

2. The termination ( es /(itis0 is sometimes retained long as in miles superstes.

. $ll "er&(endings in (r (s and (t may &e retained long !here the "o!el iselse!here long in infletion: l. Tru. 2.=.570.

e. iatus /Set: 642. g0 is allo!ed some!hat freely espeially at a pause in thesense or !hen there is a hange of spea)er.

.@ISCE$NEOS IN>OB@$TION

Be)oning of Time



SECTION: #6;. The Boman ear !as designated in earlier times &y the names ofthe Consuls+ &ut !as after!ards re)oned from the &uilding of the City / a& ur&eondita anno ur&is onditae0 the date of !hih !as assigned &y <arro to a periodorresponding !ith '.C. 5?. In order therefore to redue Boman dates to those ofthe Christian era the year of the ity is to &e su&trated from 5?=: e.g. $..C. 674/the year of CieroAs onsulship0 orresponds to '.C. 6.

'efore CaesarAs reform of the Calendar /'.C. =60 the Boman year onsisted of ??days: @arh @ay uintilis / Huly0 and Oto&er ha"ing eah 4 days >e&ruaryha"ing 28 and eah of the remainder 27. $s this alendar year !as too short for thesolar year the Bomans in alternate years at the disretion of the pontifiesinserted a month of "arying length / mensis interalaris0 after >e&ruary 2 andomitted the rest of >e&ruary.

The K Hulian yearK &y CaesarAs reformed Calendar had 6? days di"ided intomonths as at present. E"ery fourth year the 2=th of >e&ruary /<I. Xal. @art.0 !asounted t!ie gi"ing 27 days to that month: hene the year !as alled &isse%tilis.The month uintilis reei"ed the name Iulius / Huly0 in honor of Hulius Caesar+and Se%tilis !as alled $ugustus /$ugust0 in honor of his suessor. The Hulian year /see &elo!0 remained unhanged till the adoption of the 1regorian Calendar/$.9. 4?820 !hih omits leap(year three times in e"ery four hundred years.

SECTION: #64. 9ates aording to the Boman Calendar are re)oned as follo!s:

The first day of the month !as alled Xalendae / Calends0.

NOTE.: iJ Xalendae is deri"ed from alare to all((the Calends &eing the day on !hih the pontiffs pu&lily announed the Ne! @oon in the Comitia Calata. Thisthey did originally from atual o&ser"ation.

On the fifteenth day of @arh @ay Huly and Oto&er &ut the thirteenth of theother months !ere the Idus / Ides0 the day of >ull @oon.

On the se"enth day of @arh @ay Huly and Oto&er &ut the fifth of the othermonths !ere the Nonae /Nones or ninths0.

>rom the three points thus determined the days of the month !ere re)oned

&a)!ards as so many days &efore the Nones the Ides or the Calends. The point ofdeparture !as &y Boman ustom ounted in the re)oning the seond day &eingthree days &efore et. This gi"es the follo!ing rule for determining the date:

If the gi"en date &e Calends add t!o to the num&er of days in the monthpreeding((if Nones or Ides add one to that of the day on !hih they fall((andfrom the num&er thus asertained su&trat the gi"en date. Thus((



<III. Xal. >e&. /4 k 2 ( 80 L Han. 2?.

I<. Non. @ar. /5 k 4 ( =0 L @ar. =.

I<. Id. Sept. /4 k 4 ( =0 L Sept. 4;.

NOTE.((The name of the month appears as an ad,eti"e in agreement !ithXalendae Nonae Id Qs.

>or peuliar onstrutions in dates see Set: =2=. g.

The days of the Boman month &y the Hulian Calendar as thus asertained aregi"en in the follo!ing ta&le:

Hanuary >e&ruary @arh $pril

4. X$. IaN. X$. >E'. X$. @aBTI$E X$. $BIIS

2. I<. Non. Ian. I<. Non. >e&. <I. Non. @art. I<. Non. $pr.

. III. Non. Ian. III. Non. >e&. <. Non. @art. III. Non. $pr.

=. prid. Non. Ian. prid. Non. >e&. I<. Non. @art. prid. Non. $pr.

?. N;N. IaN. N;N. >E'. III. Non. @art. N;N. $BIeS

6. <III. Id. Ian. <III. Id. >e&. prid. Non. @art. <III. Id. $pr.

5. <II. Id. Ian. <II. Id. >e&. NON. @$BTI$E <II. Id. $pr.

8. <I. Id. Ian. <I. Id. >e&. <III. Id. @art. <I. Id. $pr.

7. <. Id. Ian. <. Id. >e&. <II. Id. @art. <. Id. $pr.

4;. I<. Id. Ian. I<. Id. >e&. <I. Id. @art. I<. Id. $pr.

44. III. Id. Ian. III. Id. >e&. <. Id. @a rt. III. Id. $pr.

42. prid. Id. Ian. prid. Id. >e&. I<. Id. @art. prid. Id. $pr.

4. I9\S IaN. I9\S >E'. III. Id. @art. I9\S $BIIS.

4=. [I[. Xal. >e&. [<I. Xal. @artias prid. Id. @art. [<III. Xal. @aias.

4?. [<III. Xal. >e&. [<. Xal. @artias I9\S @aBTI$E [<II. Xal. @aias.

46. [<II. Xal. >e&. [I<. Xal. @artias [<II. Xal. $prilis. [<I. Xal. @aias.



45. [<I. Xal. >e&. [III. Xal. @artias [<I. Xal. $prilis. [<. Xal. @aias.

48. [<. Xal. >e&. [II. Xal. @artias [<. Xal. $prilis. [I<. Xal. @aias.

47. [I<. Xal. >e&. [I. Xal. @artias [I<. Xal. $prilis. [III. Xal. @aias.

2;. [III. Xal. >e&. [. Xal. @artias [III. Xal. $prilis. [II. Xal. @aias.

24. [II. Xal. >e&. I[. Xal. @artias [II. Xal. $prilis. [I. Xal. @aias.

22. [I. Xal. >e&. <III. Xal. @artias [I. Xal. $prilis. [. Xal. @aias.

2. [. Xal. >e&. <II. Xal. @artias [. Xal. $prilis. I[. Xal. @aias.

2=. I[. Xal. >e&. <I. Xal. @artias I[. Xal. $prilis. <III. Xal. @aias.

2?. <III. Xal. >e&. <. Xal. @artias <III. Xal. $prilis. <II. Xal. @aias.

26. <II. Xal. >e&. I<. Xal. @artias <II. Xal. $prilis. <I. Xal. @aias.

25. <I. Xal. >e&. III. Xal. @artias <I. Xal. $prilis. <. Xal. @aias.

28. <. Xal. >e&. prid. Xal. @artias <. Xal. $prilis. I<. Xal. @aias.

27. I<. Xal. >e&. Dprid. Xal. @art. in I<. Xal. $prilis. III. Xal. @aias.

;. III. Xal. >e&. leap(year the <I. III. Xal. $prilis. prid. Xal. @aias.

4. prid. Xal. >e&. Xal. /2=th0 &eing prid. Xal. $prilis. /So Hune Sept.

/So $ug. 9e.0 ounted t!ie.F /So @ay Huly Ot.0 No".0

NOTE.((O&ser"e that a date &efore the Hulian Beform /'.C. =60 is to &e found not &y the a&o"e ta&le &ut &y ta)ing the earlier re)oning of the num&er of days in themonth.

.@easures of <alue et.

SECTION: #62. The money of the Bomans !as in early times !holly of opper.The unit !as the as !hih !as nominally a pound in !eight &ut atuallysome!hat less. It !as di"ided into t!el"e uniae /ounes0.



In the third entury '.C. the as !as gradually redued to one(half of its original "alue. In the same entury sil"er oins !ere introdued((the denarius and thesestertius. The denarius L 4; asses+ the sestertius L 242 asses.

SECTION: #6. The Sestertius !as pro&a&ly introdued at a time !hen the as had &een so far redued that the "alue of the ne! oin /2 42 asses0 !as e3ui"alent tothe original "alue of the as. ene the Sestertius /usually a&&re"iated to S or S0ame to &e used as the unit of "alue and nummus oin often means simplysestertius. $s the redution of the standard !ent on the sestertius &eamee3ui"alent to = asses. 1old !as introdued later the aureus &eing e3ual to 4;;sesteres. The appro%imate "alue of these oins is seen in the follo!ing ta&le:

2 42 asses L 4 sestertius or nummus "alue nearly ? ents /2 42 d.0.

4; asses or = sestertii L 4 denarius. "alue nearly 2; ents /4; d.0.

4;;; sestertii L 4 sestertium ... "alue nearlly ?;.;; /V4;0.

NOTE.((The !ord sestertius is a shortened form of semis(tertius the third one ahalf. The a&&re"iation

JS or S L duo et semis t!o and a half.

SECTION: #6=. The sestertium /pro&a&ly originally the geniti"e plural ofsestertius depending on mille0 !as a sum of money not a oin+ the !ord isinfleted regularly as a neuter noun: thus tria sestertia L 4?;.;;.

-hen sestertium is om&ined !ith a numeral ad"er& entena milia hundreds ofthousands is to &e understood: thus deiens sestertium / deiens S0 L deiensentena milia sestertium L

?;;;;. Sestertium in this om&ination may also &e infleted: deiens sestertiisestertio et.

In the statement of large sums sestertium is often omitted as !ell as entena milia:

thus se%agiens /Bos. $m. 20 signifies se%agiens D entena milia sestertiumF L6;;;;;; sesteresL ;;;;; /nearly0.

SECTION: #6?. In the statement of sums of money in Boman numerals a linea&o"e the num&er indiates thousands+ lines a&o"e and at the sides also hundred(



thousands. Thus S 9CL6;; sestertii+ S 9CL 6;;;;; sestertii or 6;; sestertia+S 9CL6;;;;;;; sestertii or 6;;;; sestertia.

SECTION: #66. The Boman @easures of ength are the follo!ing: ((42 inhes /uniae0 L4 Boman >oot / pes: 44.6? English inhes0.

4 42 >eetL4 Cu&it /u&itum0.((2 42 >eetL4 Step /gradus0.

? >eetL4 ae /passus0.((4;;; aes / mille passuum0L 4 @ile.

The Boman mile !as e3ual to =8?; English feet.

The iugerum or unit of measure of land !as an area of 2=; / Boman0 feet long and42; &road+ a little less than 2 of an English are.

SECTION: #65. The @easures of -eight are:pJ

42 uniae /ounes0 Lone pound /li&ra a&out = l&. a"oirdupois0.

>rational parts /!eight or oin0 are :pJ

442 unia. ?42 3uinun%. = dodr ans.

46 se%tans. 42 semis. ?6 de%tans.

4= 3uadrans. 542 septun%. 4442 deun%.

4 triens. 2 &es or &essis. 4242 as.

The Talent /talentum0 !as a 1ree) !eight / talanton0 L 6; li&rae.

SECTION: #68. The @easures of Capaity are ((

42 yathi L4 se%tarius /nearly a pint0.

46 se%tariiL4 modius /pe)0.

6 se%tariiL4 ongius / 3uarts li3uid measure0.

8 ongii L 4 amphora /6 gallons0.



4 The t!o prinipal theories only are gi"en. There are numerous "ariationspartiularly of the seond theory here stated.

2 'efore the atin language !as used in literature it had &eome muh hanged &ythe loss of final onsonants and the shortening of final sylla&les under the influene

of aent. In many ases this hange !as still in progress in the time of the earlypoets. This tendeny !as arrested &y the study of grammar and &y literature &utsho!s itself again in the Bomane languages.

Cf. am&o /also a dual p. ?7 footnote0 in !hih the o is retained&eause of thelength of the first sylla&le.

= Sholars are not yet agreed upon the priniple or the e%tent of this irregularity.

? The e%tent of this liense is still a 3uestion among sholars+ &ut in the presentstate of te%ts it must sometimes &e allo!ed.

.TEB@S SE9 IN 1B$@@$B BETOBIC $N9 BOSO9

SECTION: #67. @any of these terms are pedanti names gi"en &y earlygrammarians to forms of speeh used naturally &y !riters !ho !ere not onsiousthat they !ere using figures at all((as indeed they !ere not. Thus !hen one saysKIt ga"e me no little pleasureK he is unonsiously using litotes+ !hen he saysKHohn !ent up the street Hames do!nK antithesis+ !hen he says Kigh as the s)yKhyper&ole. @any !ere gi"en under a mista)en notion of the nature of the usagereferred to. Thus med and ted /Set: 4=. a. N.0 !ere supposed to o!e their d toparagoge sumpsi its p to epenthesis. Suh a sentene as KSee my oat ho! !ell itfits*K!as supposed to &e an irregularity to &e aounted for &y prolepsis.

@any of these ho!e"er are on"enient designations for phenomena !hih oftenour+ and most of them ha"e an histori interest of one )ind or another.

SECTION: #6=;.

1rammatial Terms

$naoluthon: a hange of onstrution in the same sentene lea"ing the first part &ro)en or unfinished.

$nastrophe: in"ersion of the usual order of !ords.

$podosis: the onlusion of a onditional sentene /see rotasis0.



$rhaism: an adoption of old or o&solete forms.

$syndeton: omission of on,untions /Set: 2. &0.

'ar&arism: adoption of foreign or unauthoriGed forms.

'rahylogy: &re"ity of e%pression.

Crasis: ontration of t!o "o!els into one /Set: 4?. 0.

Ellipsis: omission of a !ord or !ords neessary to omplete the sense.

Enallage: su&stitution of one !ord or form for another.

Epenthesis: insertion of a letter or sylla&le.

ellenism: use of 1ree) forms or onstrutions.

endiadys / hen dia duoin0: the use of t!o nouns !ith a on,untion instead of asingle modified noun.

ypallage: interhange of onstrutions.

ysteron proteron: a re"ersing of the natural order of ideas.

This term !as applied to ases !here the natural se3uene of e"ents is "iolated inlanguage &eause the later e"ent is of more importane than the earlier and soomes first to the mind. This !as supposed to &e an artifiial em&ellishment in1ree) and so !as imitated in atin. It is still found in artless narrati"e+ f. K'redand 'orn in a 'rier 'ushK/nle Bemus0.

@etathesis: transposition of letters in a !ord.

aragoge: addition of a letter or letters to the end of a !ord.

arenthesis: insertion of a phrase interrupting the onstrution.

eriphrasis: a rounda&out !ay of e%pression /irumloution0.

leonasm: the use of needless !ords.

olysyndeton: the use of an unneessary num&er of opulati"e on,untions.

rolepsis: the use of a !ord in the lause preeding the one !here it !ouldnaturally appear /antiipation0.



rotasis: a lause introdued &y a onditional e%pression /if !hen !hoe"er0leading to a onlusion alled the $podosis /Set: ?420.

Synope: omission of a letter or sylla&le from the middle of a !ord.

Synesis / onstrutio ad sensum0: agreement of !ords aording to the sense andnot the grammatial form /Set: 28;. a0.

Tmesis: the separation of the t!o parts of a ompound !ord &y other !ords/utting0.

This term ame from the earlier separation of prepositions /originally ad"er&s0from the "er&s !ith !hih they !ere after!ards ,oined+ so in per eastor situspuer a "ery fine &oy egad* $s this !as supposed to &e intentional it !as ignorantlyimitated in atin+ as in ere( omminuit (&rum / Ennius0.

eugma: the use of a "er& or an ad,eti"e !ith t!o different !ords to only one of !hih it stritly applies /yo)ing0.

SECTION: #6=4.

Bhetorial >igures

$llegory: a narrati"e in !hih a&strat ideas figure as irumstanes e"ents orpersons in order to enfore some moral truth.

$lliteration: the use of se"eral !ords that &egin !ith the same sound.

$nalogy: argument from resem&lanes.

$naphora: the repetition of a !ord at the &eginning of suessi"e lauses /Set:?78. f0.

$ntithesis: opposition or ontrast of parts /for emphasis: Set: ?78. f0.

$ntonomasia: use of a proper for a ommon noun or the re"erse:

sint @aeenates non deerunt >lae @arones so there &e patrons /li)e@aeenas0 poets /li)e <irgil0 !ill not &e la)ing >laus /@art.@art. 8.?6.? 0.

illa furia et pestis that fury and plague /i.e. Clodius0+ omeromaste Q% sourge ofomer /i.e. oilus0.

$posiopesis: an a&rupt pause for rhetorial effet.



Catahresis: a harsh metaphor / a&usio misuse of !ords0.

Chiasmus: a re"ersing of the order of !ords in orresponding pairs of phrases/Set: ?78. f0.

Clima%: a gradual inrease of emphasis or enlargement of meaning.Euphemism: the mild e%pression of a painful or repulsi"e idea:

si 3uid ei aiderit if anything happens to him /i.e. if he dies0.

Euphony: the hoie of !ords for their agreea&le sound.

yper&aton: "iolation of the usual order of !ords.

yper&ole: e%aggeration for rhetorial effet.

Irony: the use of !ords !hih naturally on"ey a sense ontrary to !hat is meant.

itotes: the affirming of a thing &y denying its ontrary /Set: 26. 0.

@etaphor: the figurati"e use of !ords indiating an o&,et &y some resem&lane.

@etonymy: the use of the name of one thing to indiate some )indred thing

OnomatopKia: a fitting of sound to sense in the use of !ords.

O%ymoron: the use of ontraditory !ords in the same phrase:

insaniens sapientia foolish !isdom.

aronomasia: the use of !ords of li)e sound.

rosopopKia: personifiation.

Simile: a figurati"e omparison /usually introdued &y li)e or as0.

Synhysis: the interlo)ed order /Set: ?78. h0.

Synedohe: the use of the name of a part for the !hole or the re"erse.

SECTION: #6=2.

Terms of rosody



$ataleti: omplete as a "erse or a series of feet /Set: 642. a0.

$nalasis: &rea)ing up of rhythm &y su&stituting different measures.

$narusis: the unaented sylla&le or sylla&les preeding a "erse /Set: 6;8. g0

$ntistrophe: a series of "erses orresponding to one !hih has gone &efore /f.strophe0.

$rsis: the unaented part of a foot /Set: 6440.

'asis: a single foot preeding the regular mo"ement of a "erse.

Caesura: the ending of a !ord !ithin a metrial foot / Set: 644. &0.

Cataleti: see Catale%is.

Catale%is: loss of a final sylla&le /or sylla&les0 ma)ing the series ataleti/inomplete Set: 642. a0.

Contration: the use of one long sylla&le for t!o short /Set: 64;0.

Correption: shortening of a long sylla&le for metrial reasons.

9iaeresis: the oinidene of the end of a foot !ith the end of a !ord !ithin the "erse /Set: 644. 0.

9ialysis: the use of i /onsonant0 and " as "o!els / silY4=a L sil"a Set: 6;. f.N.=0.

9iastole: the lengthening of a short sylla&le &y emphasis /Set: 642. &0.

9imeter: onsisting of t!o li)e measures.

9ipody: onsisting of t!o li)e feet.

9istih: a system or series of t!o "erses.

Ethlipsis: the suppression of a final sylla&le in (m &efore a !ord &eginning !ith a "o!el /Set: 642. f.0.

Elision: the utting off of a final &efore a follo!ing initial "o!el /Set: 642. e0.

eptameter: onsisting of se"en feet.

e%ameter: onsisting of si% measures.



e%apody: onsisting of si% feet.

iatus: the meeting of t!o "o!els !ithout ontration or elision /Set: 642. g0.

Itus: the metrial aent /Set: 644. a0.

Irrational: not onforming stritly to the unit of time /Set: 6;7. e0.

ogoaedi: "arying in rhythm ma)ing the effet resem&le prose /Set: 620.

@onometer: onsisting of a single measure.

@ora: the unit of time e3ual to one short sylla&le /Set: 6;8. a0.

entameter: onsisting of fi"e measures.

entapody: onsisting of fi"e feet.

enthemimeris: onsisting of fi"e half(feet.

rotration: e%tension of a sylla&le &eyond its normal length /6;8. 0.

Besolution: the use of t!o short sylla&les for one long /Set: 64;0.

Strophe: a series of "erses ma)ing a reogniGed metrial !hole /stanGa0 !hih may &e indefinitely repeated.

SynKresis: i /"o!el0 and u &eoming onsonants &efore a "o!el /Set: 6;. . N. f.N.=0.

Synaleipha: the same as elision /Set: 642. e. N.0.

Synapheia: elision &et!een t!o "erses /Set: 642. e. N.0.

Synope: loss of a short "o!el.

SyniGesis: the running together of t!o "o!els !ithout full ontration /Set: 6; .N.0.

Systole: shortening of a sylla&le regularly long.

Tetrameter: onsisting of four measures.

Tetrapody: onsisting of four feet.

Tetrastih: a system of four "erses.

Allen and Greenough; Latin Grammar

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Transcript of Allen and Greenough; Latin Grammar