I

Baybayin - The Ancient Script of the Philippines

Origin of the Baybayin

The word baybayin is a very old Tagalog term that refers to all the letters used in writing a

language, that is to say, an “alphabet.” It is from the root baybáy meaning, “spell.” Early Spanish

accounts usually called the baybayin “Tagalog letters” or “Tagalog writing.” And, as mentioned

earlier, the Visayans called it “Moro writing” because it was imported from Manila, which was

one of the ports where many products from Muslim traders entered what are now known as the

Philippine islands. The Bikolanos called the script basahan and the letters, guhit.

Another common name for the baybayin is alibata, which is a word

that was invented just in the 20th century by a member of the old

National Language Institute, Paul Versoza. As he explained

in Pangbansang Titik nang Pilipinas in 1939,

"In 1921 I returned from the United States to give public lectures on

Tagalog philology, calligraphy, and linguistics. I introduced the word

alibata, which found its way into newsprints and often mentioned by

many authors in their writings. I coined this word in 1914 in the New

York Public Library, Manuscript Research Division, basing it on the

Maguindanao (Moro) arrangement of letters of the alphabet after the

Arabic: alif, ba, ta (alibata), “f” having been eliminated for euphony's

sake." 

Versoza's reasoning for creating this word was unfounded because no evidence of the baybayin

was ever found in that part of the Philippines and it has absolutely no relationship to the Arabic

language. Furthermore, no ancient script native to Southeast Asia followed the Arabic

arrangement of letters, and regardless of Versoza's connection to the word alibata, its absence

from all historical records indicates that it is a totally modern creation. The present author does

not use this word in reference to any ancient Philippine script.

Many of the writing systems of Southeast Asia descended from ancient scripts used in India over

2000 years ago. Although the baybayin shares some important features with these scripts, such

as all the consonants being pronounced with the vowel a and the use of special marks to change

this sound, there is no evidence that it is so old.

The shapes of the baybayin characters bear a slight resemblance to the ancient Kavi script of

Paul Rodriguez Verzosa

http://www.mts.net/~pmorrow/bayeng1.htm [SOURCE]

II

Baybayin Styles & Their Sources

Although it is commonly believed that each province in the Philippines had its own ancient

alphabet, Spanish writers of the 16th century reported that the practice of writing was found only

in the Manila area at the time of first contact. Writing spread to the other islands later, in about

the middle of the 1500s. For this reason, the Spaniards usually called the ancient Filipino script

"Tagalog letters", regardless of the language for which it was used.

The baybayin script, as it is known today, fell out of use in most areas by the end of the 1600s. In

the 19th century, historians gathered old samples of baybayin writing from various sources and

locations and assembled them in comparison charts, noting the source location or language of

each specimen. Most of these same historians came to the conlcusion that all the variations in the

letter shapes were due to the tastes and writing styles of the idividuals who wrote the original

specimens and not due to regional differences. In other words, there was only one baybayin. But,

in the 20th century many writers copied the comparison charts into their school textbooks with

little or no explanation attached. Thus most readers were lead to believe that each sample of

writing was a different alphabet according to its title in the chart.

There was actually much more variation in the handwriting of individuals of any given region

than there is in this chart of supposedly distinct alphabets. Compare this chart to the examples of

baybayin writing on the pages, The Baybayin as Written by Filipinos and Baybayin

Handwriting of the 1600s. 

This is a chart of some baybayin forms and the original source of each. They are sorted

chronologically and grouped by their familiar region names but they are not distinct alphabets of

the different regions or languages; they are only variations of typestyles and handwriting. There

are details for each below.

Source Information

Doctrina 1593

From the Doctrina Christiana, en lengua española y tagala printed in 1593. The Tagalog text

was based mainly on a manuscript written by Fr. Juan de Placencia. Friars Domingo de Nieva

and Juan de San Pedro Martyr supervised the preparation and printing of the book, which was

carried out by an unnamed Chinese artisan. This is the earliest example of the baybayin that

exists today and it is the only example from the 1500s. The sample shown is my own font based

on the facsimile, Doctrina Christiana, The First Book Printed in the Philippines, Manila,

1593. National Historical Institute, Manila, 1973. 2nd printing, 1991.

Chirino 1604

From Relación de las Islas Filipinas by Pedro Chirino, published in 1604. The sample shown is

fromRelación de las Islas Filipinas, The Philippines in 1600. Manila [Historical Conservation

Society], 1969. The letter A may have been printed backward, so I have reversed it for this chart.

Lopez 1620

From Libro a naisurátan amin ti bagás ti Doctrina Cristiana... written by Francisco Lopez in

1620 but bearing the publishing date of 1621. This example was scanned from the chart in Dr.

Ignacio Villamor'sLa Antigua Escritura Filipina (1922) p. 103.

Méntrida 1637

From Alonso de Méntrida's Arte de la lengua Bisaya-Hiligayna de la isla de Panay, 1637.

Méntrida's font has been listed in some charts as the Visayan alphabet.  However, like other early

Spanish writers, Méntrida considered all the variant letter shapes to be part of one Philippine

script. He wrote the following about his typeface:

It is to be noted that our Bisayans have some letters with different shapes, which I place here; but

even they themselves do not agree on the shapes of their letters; for this reason, and because of

the limited types available, I have shown the characters according to the Tagalogs. B12

This sample was taken from the web site Promotora Española de

Lingüistica (PROEL,http://www.proel.org/alfabetos/bisaya.htm, bisaya3.gif) It was probably

based on a chart by Juan R. Francisco in his work "Philippine Palaeography" in the Philippine

Journal of Linguistics, special monograph 3, 1973.

Ezguerra 1663

From Domingo Ezguerra's Arte de la lengua Bisaya en la provincia de Leyte, 1663. According to

William H. Scott, the letters that Ezguerra recorded "contain what are probably engraver's

errors–for example, the use of a marginal check mark normal to Spanish usage of the time, to

represent two different letters of the alphabet". (Scott, 1994, p.95) These were probably the

alternate forms of theA and the I/E and possibly the alternate form of the Da. There was no

character for Ya. I have moved the alternate I/E into that position. The other alternate letters are

not shown here. This sample was also  taken from the web site Promotora Española de

Lingüistica (PROEL,http://www.proel.org/alfabetos/bisaya.htm, bisaya3.gif) It was probably

based on a chart by Juan R. Francisco in his work "Philippine Palaeography" in the Philippine

Journal of Linguistics, special monograph 3, 1973.

Benavente 1699

From a 1699 manuscript by Fr. Alvaro de Benavente, Arte y Vocabulario de la lengua

Pampanga, cited

in Kapampángan or Capampáñgan: Settling the Dispute on the Kapampángan Romanized

Orthography(2006) by Michael Raymon M. Pangilinan. This is probably the source of the

Kapampangan example of Sinibaldo de Mas.

San Agustín 1703

From Gaspar de San Agustín's Compendio de la lengua Tagala written in 1703 and published in

1787. The sample shown was scanned from Pre-Spanish Manila, A reconstruction of the Pre-

History of Manila, by Jesus T. Peralta & Lucila A. Salazar. National Historical Institute, Manila,

1974. 2nd printing, 1993. p. 78. Reproduced from Cipriano Marcilla y Martín's Estudio de los

antiguos alfabetos Filipinos, 1895

Kapampangan

Formerly listed here as possibly being from Vocabulario de la lengua Pampanga en romance,

1732 by Diego Bergaño. However, Joel P. Mallari refuted this speculation in Documenting

Philippine Pre-Hispanic Scripts (Kapampangan Research Journal December 2006). According

to Jojo Malig, the sample shown here is from an Angeles University Foundation paper on

Kapampangan Linguistics (http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Alibata/message/812 - November

11, 2002). It was uploaded to the Ancient Baybayin Scripts Network online forum

(http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Alibata/files/kapam.jpg). The original source of this sample

is unknown to the current author.

Hervás 1787

From Saggio prattico delle lingue con prolegomeni e una raccolta di Orazioni Domincale in più

di trecento lingue e dialetti, 1787 (Practical examples of languages with prologues and a

collection of the Lord's prayer in over 300 languages and dialects) by  Lorenzo Hervás y

Pandura. Because this book was not written specifically about the Philippines or Philippine

languages, I believe that the type style is taken from an earlier source. It most closely resembles

Ezguerra's typeface of 1663. The sample shown here is my own font. It was based on two

Austrian books that reproduced Cebuano text in this font, Illustrirte Geschichte der Schrift (The

Illustrated History of Writing) by Karl Faulman, 1880 and Sprachenhalle (Hall of Languages) by

Alois Auer, 1847. There was no letter for Wa; theU/O character was used instead in these

documents. The R sound was represented by the letter Dain Bisayan words and the La character

was used for Spanish words. The scans of these documents were provided by Mr. Wolfgang

Kuhl.

Jacquet 1831

From Eugène Jacquet's "Notice sur l'alphabet Yloc ou Ilog" in Considérations sur les alphabets

des Philippines, 1831. The sample shown here is a reconstruction of two low resolution scans of

a chart by Juan R. Francisco in his work "Philippine Palaeography" in the Philippine Journal of

Linguistics, special monograph 3, 1973. His chart, in turn, was based on examples in a book by

Pardo de Tavera,Contribución para el estudio de los antiguos alfabetos filipinos. The scans were

downloaded from two web sites: Alibata at Pandesal by Terrio

Echavez (http://alibataatpandesal.com/pilipino.html pilipino.jpg)and Promotora Española de

Lingüistica (PROEL, http://www.proel.org/alfabetos/tagalo5.gif). Some examples from David

Diringer's The Alphabet, A Key to the History of Mankind (Third edition, 1968. p.298) were used

to reconstruct the blurred images of the scans. Diringer's source was Fletcher

Gardner's Philippinne Indic Studies of 1943.

Enrile 1835

From Carácteres antíguos con los que escribian estos Naturales del Tagalog y

Camarínes (Ancient characters with which these natives of the Tagalogs and Camarines used to

write"), the Pascual Enrile collection 18 of the Biblioteca del Museo Naval in Madrid. (ms. 2287,

doc. 32:214-214v.) Photocopy provided by Dr. Malcolm Warren Mintz.

Mas 1843

From the chart by Sinibaldo de Mas y Sans in Informe sobre el estado de las Islas Filipinas en

1842Vol. 1. Madrid, 1843. All of the examples by Mas were copied into Pedro Paterno's

chart Cuadro Paleografico (1890). These examples are from the reproduction of Sinibaldo de

Mas' chart in William Henry Scott's Barangay, Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and

Society, 1994, p. 214.

http://www.mts.net/~pmorrow/baychart.htm [SOURCE]

III

Writing system in Mindanao

There is no sufficient information about the earlier writing system of Mindanao because back

then, the northern and middle part of the Philippines (Luzon and Visayas) were the first ones to

be colonized by Spanish forces and they were the ones to be taught about the system of writing

during that time and there is not much written information that can prove that there was a main

or several writing systems in Mindanao.

IV

Ancient Tagalog Deities

Bathala

The supreme god of the Tagalogs; creator of man and earth and addressed sometimes as Bathalang Maykapal. He dwells in Kaluwalhatian together with the lesser gods and goddesses. Aside from the lesser gods and goddesses, he sent his anitos in order to assist the daily lives of every human. When most of the natives were converted to Christianity during the Spanish Era, he was referred to the Christian God.

Amanikable

The ill-tempered god of the sea because among of the first generation gods (aside from Bathala), he was never married after his love was spurned by a beautiful mortal maiden, Maganda. In frustration, he swored vengeance against the humans by sending turbulent waves and horrible tempest in order to wreck boats and to drown men.

Idiyanale The goddess of labor and good deeds. Natives used to call for her guidance in order to make their works successful. She married Dimangan and had two offspring.

Dimangan The god of good harvest. He was married to Idiyanale and had two offspring.

Lakapati The goddess of fertility and the most understanding and kind of all the deities. Also

known as Ikapati, she was the giver of food and prosperity. Her best gift to mankind was agriculture (cultivated fields). Through this, she was respected and loved by the people. Later, she was married to Mapulon and had a daughter.

Mapulon The god of seasons and husband of Lakapati of whom they had a daughter.

MayariThe goddess of moon and one of the three daughters of Bathala by a mortal women. She was the most charming of all the goddesses and had two sister namely Tala and Hanan.

Tala The goddess of the stars; sister of Mayari and Hanan and one of the three daughters of Bathala by a mortal women

Hanan The goddess of morning; sister of Mayari and Tala and one of the three daughters of Bathala by a mortal women.

Dumakulem The strong, agile guardian of mountains and the son of Idiyanale and Dimangan. His sister was Anitun Tabu. He later married Anagolay.

Anitun Tabu The fickle-minded goddess of wind and rain. She was the daughter of Idiyanale and Dimangan and the sister of Dumakulem.

Anagolay The goddess of lost things and the only offspring of Lakapati and Mapulon. She was married to Dumakulem.

Apolaki The god of sun and was chiefly the patron of warriors. He was the son of Anagolay and Dumakulem.

Diyan Masalanta

The goddess of love, conception and childbirth and the protector of lovers. She was the daughter of Anagolay and Dumakulem and youngest of all the deities. After the conversion of the natives to Christianity during the Spanish Era, she was then referred as Maria Makiling.

Sitan The guardian of Kasamaan and the keeper of all the souls that goes therein and hence,

the counterpart of Satan. He had four agents whose task was to lead man to sin and destruction.

ManggagawayShe was the first agent of Sitan and the primarily cause of occurrence of diseases. Sometimes, she would change herself into form of a human as a false healer. If she wish to kill someone, she would do it by her magic wand.

Manisilat The second agent of Sitan as she's task was to destroy and break every happy and united family that she could find.

Mangkukulam

The only male agent of Sitan as he's task was to emit fire at night and when there is a bad weather. Like his fellow agents, he practically change his form as a healer and then induce fire at his victim's house. In response of this, if the fire will be extinguished immediately, the victim would eventually die. His name is literally defined today as a witch.

HuklubanThe last agent of Sitan that also change herself into any form she desired. She could kill someone by simply raising her hand and could heal without any difficulty is she wants so. Her name is literally defined as crone or hag.

Other Tagalog Deities

Amansinaya She was present in some creation myths as being the one who assisted Bathala and Amihan in creating the earth.

Amihan

The North Wind who often take the form as a large bird. In some creation myths, it is the one who assisted Bathala and Amansinaya in creating the earth. Amihan was responsible for splitting the bamboo in which Malakas and Maganda came from (the first humans on earth).

Galang Kaluluwa (Wandering

The winged god present in some creation myths who loves to travel. He is identified as a close friend of Bathala.

Spirit)

Haik He was the god of the sea in some sources.

Lakambakod The protector of the growing crops.

Lakambuwi Spanish called him as "Abogado de la Garganta" (The Throat Advocate). He is referred as the god of gluttony, food and eating. 

Linga He was the god who was responsible for curing diseases, hence a deity of medicines. 

Ulilang Kaluluwa (Orphaned Spirit)

It is a serpent god present in some creation myths that was killed by Bathala after an ensuing rival.

Ancient Bikolano Deities

Gugurang

The supreme god who dwells inside of Mount Mayon where he guards and protects the sacred fire in which Aswang, his brother was trying to steal. Whenever people disobey his orders, wishes and committed numerous sins, he would cause Mount Mayon to burst lava as a sign of warning to mended their foul ways. Ancient Bikolanos had a rite performed for him called Atang.

Aswang

The evil god who always tried to steal the sacred fire of Mount Mayon from his brother, Gugurang. Addressed sometimes as Asuang, he dwells mainly inside of Mount Malinao. As an evil god, he would cause the people to suffer misfortunes and to commit sins.

HaliyaThe masked goddess of the moon and the archenemy of Bakunawa. Her cult is composed primarily of women. There is also a ritual dance named after her as it is performed to be a counter-measure against also to Bakunawa.

Bakunawa A gigantic sea serpent deity who was often considered as being the cause of eclipses. As the devourer of the sun and the moon, this serpent became an adversary to Haliya.

Ancient Visayan Deities

KaptanThe supreme god of who dwells in the sky. He is the Ancient Visayans counterpart of Bathala. Of all the supreme deities in the Visayas, he is the most worshiped by the natives. He had a son named Lihangin.

First

Magwayen The goddess of the sea who is believed to take the souls of the dead in Sulad (Ancient Visayans counterpart of Hell). She had a daughter named Lidagat. First

Lihangin The god of the wind and the son of Kaptan. He later married Lidagat and had four children. Second

Lidagat The goddess of the sea after Magwayen. She later married Lihangin and had four children. Second

Likabutan The god of world and the eldest children of Lihangin and Lidagat. Third

Ladlaw The god of the sun and the second children of Lihangin ang Lidagat. Third

Libulan The goddess of the moon and the third children of Lihangin and Lidagat. Third

Lisuga The deity in which Silalak and Sibabay came from. She was the youngest children of Lihangin and Lidagat.

Other Visayan Deities

Abba The supreme god of the Visayans according to Rajah Kolambu of Mazaua during his conversation with Ferdinand Magellan.[50] Abba is the Visayan name for Bathala of

the Tagalogs.

Alunsina She was the virgin goddess of the eastern skies.

Bangun Bangun god of time and cosmic movements

Barangaw He is the god of the rainbow.

Bulalakaw bird god, causer of illness

Burigadang Pada Sinaklang Bulawan

goddess of greediness

Dal'lang The goddess of beauty that bestows her gift of beauty to her followers.

Dalikamata the many-eyed goddess, cures eye illnesses

Halmista He is the Visayan god of magic that was a former priest (or babaylan) who turned into a god.

Inaginid and Malanduk were invoked for success in battle and plunder

Kan-LaonThe supreme god worshiped by the Ancient Visayans who lived in the Negros Island that dwells in Mount Kanlaon. As well as Kaptan, he is an Ancient Visayans counterpart of Bathala).

Kasaraysarayan sa Silgan god of rivers

Lalahon

She is the goddess of fire, volcanoes and harvest.[56] In ancient times, Ancient Visayans blamed her for sending armies of locusts to destroy their harvests. In response, natives will offer her gifts in order to please her and prevent her from doing that.

Lubay-Lubyok Hanginun si Mahuyokhuyokan

goddess of the night breeze

Luyong Baybay goddess of the tides

Magdang Diriinin god of lakes

Maklium sa Tiwan god of the valleys and plains

Maklium sa Tubig god of the sea

Munsad Buralakaw god of politics and affairs of men

Nagined, Arapayan, and Makbarubak

could be appealed to when concocting a poisonous oil

Pahulangkug god of seasons

Paiburong god of the middle world (not Middle-Earth…)

Pandaki rescued the deserving for a more pleasant fate

Panlinugun ruler of the underworld, god of earthquakes

Ribung Linti god of lightning and thunder

Santonilyo god of graces

Saraganka Bagyo god of storms

Saragnayan god of darkness

Sidapa The god of death who is said to reside on top of Mount Madia-as in the province of Antique.

Siginarugan He is identified as the god of the underworld.

Suimuran and Suiguinarugan gods of hell, the final destination for all deceased souls

Suklang Malayon goddess of homeliness, sister of Alunsina

Sumalongson god of the rivers and the sea

Sumpoy god of the afterlife

Tungkung Langit upper world and supreme god, counterpart Bathala

Ynaguinid and Macanduc gods of war, battle

Mindanao Deities

Kadaw La Sambad 

The sun god and supreme god. Married to Bulon La Mogoaw, they reside in the seventh heaven. They beget seven sons and daughters who end up marrying each other.

Bulon La Mogoaw  The moon goddess and supreme goddess, wife of Kadaw La Sambad.

Cumucul

The eldest son is given a cohort of fire, a tok (sword), shield, and the magical horse; Kaunting, who can be as small as a mouse when not being ridden and who can be kept in a box (This reflects the honor given by the Tboli to eldest sons and the value they accord horses). Cumucul is married to Boi Kabil.

Sfedat 

The second son is married to the second daughter, Bong Libun. This marriage produces no progeny, leading to Sfedat's despondency. One day, he asks his wife to kill him. His corpse becomes the land from which sprout all kinds of plants and trees.

Dwata

The third son is married to two of his sisters, Sedek We and Hyu We. His request for one of the powers granted Cumucul is refused. Thus, he leaves the sky with his wives and seven children from Hyu We (Litik, Blanga, Teme Lus, Tdolok, Ginton, Lmugot Mangay, and Fun Bulol) and six from Sedek We. For a place to stay, he asks Bong Libun for the land that was once Sfedat's body. Bong Libun agrees on the condition that she marries one of his sons. Dwata spreads the land, and plants the trees and other vegetation; the result is the earth. The first people are created after Dwata breathes life into the clay figurines made by Hyu We and Sedek We. However Dwata does not fulfill his side of the bargain with Bong Libun, because his sons will not have her as wife.

Litik The god of thunder.

Blanga  The god of stones and rocks.

Teme Lus The god of wild beasts.

Tdolok The god of death.

Ginton The god of metallurgy.

Lmugot Mangay The god of life and of all growing things.

Fun Bulol The god of the mountains.

Bong Libun

Married to her brother Sfedat, however their marriage did not produce any progeny that lead to Sfedat’s despondency. Sfedat ask her to kill him, when she did as she has told, the corpse of Sfedat becomes the land. Her other brother Dwata ask her for the land that once Sfedat’s body for a place to stay. She agrees on the condition that she marries one of his sons. Dwata spreads the land, and plants the trees and other vegetation; the result is the earth. The first people are created after Dwata breathes life into the clay figurines made by Hyu we and Sedek We. However Dwata does not fulfill his side of the bargain with Bong Libun, because his sons will not have her as wife. She marries her youngest brother Datu Bnoling. With him she has seven sons, who become scourges of the earth: Fun Knkel, Fun Daskulo, Fun Lkef, Fun Kumuga, Fun Blekes, Fun Lalang.

Fun Knkel The god of fever.

Fun Daskulo The god of head diseases.

Fun Lkef The god of colds.

Fun Kumuga The god of eye afflictions.

Fun Blekes The god of skin diseases.

Fun Lalang The god of baldness.

Loos Klagan & La Fun

The divine couple; to alleviate the damage done by the scourges (the sons of Bong Libun and Datu Bnoling) they assume the role of healers.

Muhen

A bird who is one of the most influential figures in the Tboli pantheon who is considered the god of fate, whose song when heard is thought to presage misfortune. Any undertaking is immediately abandoned or postponed when one hears the Muhen sing.

Bilaan Deities

Melu The Supreme Being and creator. He is assisted by Fiu Weh and Tasu Weh.

Fie Wuh The good spirit.

Tasu Weh The evil spirit.

Fon Kayoo The spirit of the trees.

Fon Eel The spirit of water.

Fon Batoo The spirit of rocks and stones.

Loos Klagan The most feared deity, uttering his name is considered a curse.

Batak Deities

ManguimbaWho in remotest times lived among the people, having been summoned by a powerful babaylan, and he supplied all the necessities of Batak life, as well as all the cures for illness. He even had the power to bring the dead back to life.

Diwata

Who provides for the needs of men and women, and gives out rewards for good deeds. Sanbay is a ritual in honor of Diwata, who asked by the people to bless them with generous harvests of palay (unhusked rice) and honey. This ritual takes place inside a forest, about 2-3 km from the beach. Two huts are constructed for the ritual. Palay is placed in one of these huts. A replica of a beehive, meanwhile, is situated in another small hut. Prayers are recited to Diwata by the babaylan, after which the people in attendance gather together in festive eating, drinking, and dancing.

Angoro

Lives in basad, a place beyond this world where the souls of the dead go, and it is there where they come to know if they are to proceed to lampanag (heaven) or be cast into depths of the basad, where fire and boiling water await these hapless ones.

Batungbayanin Spirit of the mountains.

Paglimusan Spirit of the small stones.

Balungbunganin Spirit of the almaciga trees.

Sulingbunganin Spirit of the big rocks.

Palawan Deities

Ampu

The Master who wove the world and created several kinds of humanity, hence he is also called Nagsalad, the Weaver. He is the supreme deity in a system of religious thought that can be qualified as "theist" and “animist." He is a protective watching presence, always invisible to tawbanar or the real people. In the verticality of the universe, andunawan represents his abode. While people live on dunya or earth.

Diwata A benevolent and protective deity stays in lalangaw, the median space, he is the mediator between humans and Ampu.

Ampu At The Master of Rice.

Paray

Linamin At Barat The Lady of the Monsoon Winds.

Linamit At Bulag The Lady of the Dry Season.

Upa Kuyaw Grandfather Thunder.

Bukidnon Deities

Magbabaya The supreme god who has minor gods and goddesses beneath him to do specific jobs and take care of certain things, he is also the god of the west.

Domalondong The god of the north.

Ongli The god of the south.

Togalambong The god of the east.

Ibabasok He watches over the crops and their growth in a simple ceremony at the center of the rice field.

DagingonThey worship this deity in an elaborated celebration complete with songs and dances which will last for nine nights during planting and after harvest seasons.

Bulalakaw The spirit who watches the rivers and takes care of the fishermen's catch.

Tumpaa Nanapiyaw or Intumbangol

Watches the base of the earth night and day lest it crumbles.

Isneg Deities

Anlabban  The spirit who looks after the general welfare of the people and is recognized as the special protector of hunters.

Bago The spirit of the forest.

Sirinan The river spirit.

LandusanHeld responsible for some cases of extreme poverty. Those believed to be suffering from the machinations of this spirit are said to be malandusan (impoverished).

Alupundan Causes the reapers' toes to get sore all over and swell.

Arurin She sees to it that the harvest is bad, if the Isneg farmers fail to give her share.

Dagdagamiyan A female spirit who causes sickness in children for playing in places where the harvest is being done.

Darupaypay Devours the palay stored in the hut before it is transferred to the granary.

Ginuudan Come to measure the containers of palay, and causes it to dwindle.

Sildado Resembles a horse, and kills children who play noisily outside the house.

Inargay Kills people during harvest time. When inapugan, a ritual plant is offered to

Inargay, the following prayer is recited by the Isneg farmer: "Iapugko iyaw Inargay ta dinaami patpatay" (I offer this betel to you, Inargay, so that you may not kill us).

Alipugpug A good harvest is portended by the rising of a little whirlwind from the burned field. This, it is said, is the spirit of Alipugpug.

Pilay

Rice pudding is offered to Pilay, the spirit of the rice, who resides on the paga, a shelf above the Isneg hearth. This is the pisi, the ritual offering of food to the spirits. The old woman who performs this utters the following prayer: "Ne uwamo ilay ta ubatbattugammo ya an-ana-a, umaammo ka mabtugda peyan" (Here, this is yours, Pilay, so that you feed my children fully, and make sure that they are always satisfied). Another ritual is performed right in the fields where the harvest is going on. The amulets inapugan, takkag (a kind of fern), and herbs are tied to a stalk of palay, which later will be place in the granary before the other palay. Again, these are reserved for Pilay. In case a new granary is built, and the contents of the old granary transferred, the spirit's special share is also transferred to the new place. It is never consumed.

Tiruray Deities

Minaden The goddess who creates of the world, had a brother named Tulus, also called Meketefu and Sualla.

Tulus

Is the chief of all good spirits who bestow gifts and favors upon human beings. He goes around with a retinue of messengers called telaki. Tulus is said to have rectified some errors in the first creation of the world and of human beings.

Mangyan Deities

Mahal Na Makaako

The Supreme Being who gave life to all human beings merely by gazing at them.

Binayi Owner of a garden where all spirits rest.

Binayo

Is a sacred female spirit, caretaker of the rice spirits or the kalag paray. She is married to the spirit Bulungabon. The kalag paray must be appeased, to ensure a bountiful harvest. It is for this reason that specific rituals are conducted in every phase of rice cultivation. Some of these rituals include the panudlak, the rite of the first planting; the rite of rice planting itself; and the rites of harvesting which consist of the magbugkos or binding rice stalks, and the pamag-uhan, which follows the harvest.

Bulungabon The spirit aided by 12 fierce dogs. Erring souls are chased by these dogs are eventually drowned in a caldron of boiling water. He is Binayo’s husband.

Tinguian Deities

Bagatulayan The Supreme Being and Creator of the world. He lives and rules the celestial realm, directing its activities.

KadaklanIs a deity subordinate to Bagatulayan. He is a friendly spirit who teaches the Tinguian how to pray, harvest their crops, ward off evil spirits, and overcome bad omens and cure sicknesses.

Apadel or Kalagang

A deity who is known to be the guardian and dweller of the spirit-stones called pinaing which play an important role in the spiritual world of the Tinguian. Of various sizes and shapes, the pinaing are usually found in sports marked out as hallowed ground, often under old trees, and are deemed to be the protectors of such places and of the creatures who live in the forests.

Makaboteng A benevolent spirit who dwells in the natural surroundings, believed to be the guardian of the deer and the wild pigs.

Talaandig Deities

Magbabaya The Supreme God.

Dadaganan hu Suguy A house spirit who guard of the lawn of the house.

Anilaw ha Sumagda A house spirit, the guard of the door.

Sinyuda Kahibunan A house spirit, the keeper of the hall.

Diwata ha Manilib A house spirit who records the activity of people inside the house

Diwata Pinatanlay A house spirit who guard the house at the ridge of the roof.

Gaddang Deities

Nanolay

Is both creator of all things and a culture hero. In the latter role, he is a beneficent deity. Nanolay is described in myth as a fully benevolent deity, never inflicting pain or punishment on the people. He is responsible for the origin and development of the world.

Ofag Nanolay's cousin.

Dasal To whom the epic warriors Biwag and Malana prayed for strength and courage before going off to their final battle.

Bunag The god of the earth.

Limat The god of the sea.

Ifugao Deities

Mah-nongan The chief god generally refer to as the honorary dead and creator of all things, even though Ifugaos do not consider any of their deities as supreme.

Liddum Is regarded as the chief mediator between the people and the other gods.

Monlolot The winder of thread on the spindle, one of the twenty-three different deities preside over the art of weaving.

Mamiyo Stretcher of skeins, one of the twenty-three different deities preside over the art of weaving.

Bumigi In charge of worms, one of the eleven beings importuned to stamp out rice pests.

Lumadab Has the power to dry up the rice leaves, one of the eleven beings importuned to stamp out rice pests.

AmpualOf the Fourth Skyworld, is the god who bestowed animals and plants on the people and who controls the transplanting of rice. He is one of those gods who expects gifts in return for his blessings.

Wigan Is the god of good harvest.

Puwok Controls the dread typhoons.

Yogyog and Alyog Cause the earth to quake. They dwell in the underworld.

Ilongo Deities

Abal

He and his brother Cain are the creators and guardian lords of all things. They are benevolent and their particular care is that of the people who live on earth. They are invincible and live in the sky Taon, sometimes on the sun Elag, or the moon Dalan, or perchance some star Pandac. Their messengers are called Binangunan or Cabuligian. Cain and Abal travel from place to place. Their road is called Keat (lightning). Kidu (thunder) follows the road. In the beginning, Cain and Abal lived together in the sky; but they had a quarrel and separated, as Abal wanted to live on earth where he could herd his animals. He was the one who created the lowlanders, who have the use of his carabaos and other animals.

Cain

Created all the mountain people, including the Ilongots. He gave them their customs, which they have followed throughout the centuries. He was a killer and a head-hunter; so they are also. Abal is stronger and more powerful than Cain and so there are more lowlanders than mountain people.

Oden The rain, they worship him (it) for its life-giving water.

ElagThe sun, they worship him (it) so as the moon and stars because they give life and growth. He has a great, magnificent house in Gacay. When he gets tired giving light and goes into his house, it is night.

DelanThe moon, usually he and Elag are congenial and take turns giving light; but sometimes they quarrel and Elag covers Delan more or less with a great, huge winnowing biga-o (basket). Thus we have the different phases of the moon.

Gemang The guardian of wild beasts. When a party of men is starting on a hunt, they build a fire, take hold of the dogs and the weapons and pass them one by one through the smoke. The last dog to be passed through the smoke is the leader of the pack. After taking it out of the smoke, the owner spits on its face, and rubs the saliva down its back and sides. Meanwhile, he has been talking and shouting to Gemang, saying: “Do not let our dogs get sick. You must give us one of your animals. Do not take the form of a wild beast so that the dogs chase you by mistake. If you will let the dogs catch one beast, then we will give you to eat and drink and likewise your wife.” Following this ceremony,

the part starts out in a successful hunt.

Lampong The dwarf shepherd of the wild animals.

Agta Deities

Gutugumakkan The Supreme Being.

Kedes The god of the hunt.

Pawi The god of the forest.

Sedsed The god of the sea.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deities_of_Philippine_mythology#Ancient_Tagalog_Deities [SOURCE]

IV

Philippine Ethnic Groups

Ethnic groups from Luzon

The people of Luzon belong to the Filipino people, and are divided into several ethno

linguistic groups. These groups inhabit different areas of the island.

Ilocanos predominate in the northern portion of Ilocos and the region of Cagayan

Valley, Pangasinense primarily inhabit Pangasinan, while the Kapampangans primarily live

in Pampanga, Tarlac and the rest of Central Luzon. Meanwhile, Tagalogs are the majority

in Bulacan, CALABARZON, and Metro Manila, while Bicolanos predominate in Bicol. Other

ethnic groups are also present such as the Aeta of Zambales, theIbanag of Cagayan, and

the Igorot of the Cordilleras.

Due to recent migrations populations of Hindus, Moros, and Chinese have also been present in

urban areas. Populations of Spanish, Americans, Japanese, Koreans, Desis, and Filipino

mestizos are also visible. Most Americans have settled in Angeles City and Olongapo City due to

the former presence of the U.S. air and naval bases in Central Luzon.

Ethnic groups from Visayas

The Bisaya or Visayan people are a multilingual ethnic grouplocated in the Visayas and a large

part of Mindanao. Visayan languages with the most number of native speakers are Cebuano, with

20 million;Ilonggo (or Hiligaynon), with 7 million; and Waray-Waray, with 2.5 million. There

are some ethnolinguistic groups however that have languages which are classified as Visayan but

do not refer to themselves as Bisaya. For instance, the Muslim ethnolinguistic group Tausug only

use Bisaya to refer to those who are Christian. Meanwhile, there are people who identify as

Bisaya (primarily those from Metro Manila and the United States but do not speak Visayan

languages.

The Bisaya were initially animists who were known for being traders and raiders. Magellan’s

landing in the Visayas in 1521 marks the start of Christianization of the Bisaya and the rest of the

Philippines. This event is celebrated by the feast of the Sto. Niño, the most popular religious icon

of the Visayas.

Major Visayan cities like Cebu , Bacolod and Iloilo played major political, economic and

cultural roles during the Spanish colonial era. And in the modern Philippine Republic; so far,

there has been three Presidents from the Visayas.

Aside from the three largest groups, namely Hiligaynon, Cebuano, and Waray, who speak

Visayan languages, there are also the Romblomanon, Masbatenyo, Karay-a, Aklanon,

and Cuyonon, to name a few others. 

Ethnic groups from Mindanao

The Moros comprise of various ethnolinguistic groups in southern and western Mindanao who

have a similar ancestry to other lowland Filipinos, but whose religion isIslam. The largest of

these are the Tausug, the Maguindanao, the Maranao, the Samal, the Yakan, and the Banguingui.

These ethnolinguistic groups are very diverse in terms of language and culture, and have been

politically independent from each other up until recently, Collectively, they are also called

Moros. The word Moro in English means 'moor'. Hence, it has been used by other ethnic groups

as a pejorative term. However, some Muslims have used the word moro and have taken pride in

it, that they have applied the term Bangsamoro, meaning 'Moro nation', to their homeland.

Muslim Filipinos have an independent justice and education system centrally based in Cotabato

City. All in all, they comprise 5% of Filipinos, making them the sixth largest ethnic group in the

country. 

The Bajau, (also written as Badjao, Badjaw or Badjau) are an indigenous ethnic

group of Malaysia and the southern Philippines. Although native to the southern Philippines, due

to escalated conflicts in the Sulu Archipelago in the southern part of the country, many of the

Bajau had migrated to neighboring Malaysia over the course of 50 years, where currently they

are the second largest ethnic group in the state of Sabah, making up 13.4%[1] of the total

population. Groups of Bajau had also migrated to Sulawesi and Kalimantan in Indonesia,

although figures of their exact population are unknown. They were sometimes referred to as

the Sea Gypsies, although the term has been used to encompass a number of non-related ethnic

groups with similar traditional lifestyles, such as the Moken of the Burmese-Thai Mergui

Archipelago and the Orang Laut of southeastern Sumatra and the Riau Islands of Indonesia. The

modern outward spread of the Bajau from older inhabited areas seems to have been associated

with the development of sea trade in trepang.

The Visayan: The Butuanon are part of the wider Visayan ethnolinguistic group, who constitute

the largest Filipino ethnolinguistic group. The Butuanon are one of the smallest Visayan ethnic

groups. As with the Surigaonons, the Butuanons are also previously considered as Cebuanos.

The Surigaonon people are part of the wider Visayan ethnolinguistic group, who constitute the

largest Filipino ethnolinguistic group. Although traditionally grouped with the Cebuanos, the

Surigaonons are a distinct identity.

The Lumad is a term being used to denote a group of indigenous peoples of the

southern Philippines. It is a Cebuano term meaning "native" or "indigenous". The term is short

for katawhang lumad (literally "indigenous peoples"), the autonym officially adopted by the

delegates of the Lumad Mindanaw Peoples Federation (LMPF) founding assembly in June 26,

1986 at the Guadalupe Formation Center, Balindog, Kidapawan, Cotabato, Philippines. It is the

self-ascription and collective identity of the non-Islamized indigenous peoples of Mindanao.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_the_Philippines [SOURCE]

Group Members:

Andrino, Eduardo

Flores, Bryan Percival

Reyes, Stephen John

Santos, Alain Joseph

Section: 2-10