Aleister Crowley on Drugs - CORE

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Aleister Crowley on Drugs Christopher Partridge Abstract While much has been written about the life, work and influence of Aleister Crowley, relatively little attention has been directed to his drug use. This is a little surprising because, not only did he become addicted to heroin, but he incorporated psychoactive substances in his occult work, discussed their psychological effects, commented on drug-related social issues, critiqued contemporary drug legislation, published drug literature, and even translated Charles Baudelaire’s ‘Poem of Hashish.’ This article discusses his thought on drugs and religious experience and suggests that they were, largely because of his addiction, a more important force in his life than has thus far been acknowledged. brought to you by CORE View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk provided by Lancaster E-Prints

Transcript of Aleister Crowley on Drugs - CORE

Page 1: Aleister Crowley on Drugs - CORE

AleisterCrowleyonDrugs

ChristopherPartridge

Abstract

Whilemuchhasbeenwrittenaboutthelife,workandinfluenceofAleisterCrowley,

relativelylittleattentionhasbeendirectedtohisdruguse.Thisisalittlesurprising

because,notonlydidhebecomeaddictedtoheroin,butheincorporatedpsychoactive

substancesinhisoccultwork,discussedtheirpsychologicaleffects,commentedon

drug-relatedsocialissues,critiquedcontemporarydruglegislation,publisheddrug

literature,andeventranslatedCharlesBaudelaire’s‘PoemofHashish.’Thisarticle

discusseshisthoughtondrugsandreligiousexperienceandsuggeststhattheywere,

largelybecauseofhisaddiction,amoreimportantforceinhislifethanhasthusfarbeen

acknowledged.

brought to you by COREView metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk

provided by Lancaster E-Prints

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AleisterCrowleywastheepitomeofthefindesiècleoccultist.Hegloriedinaccusations

ofSatanism,delightedintabloidvilificationsofhimas‘AWizardofWickedness,’‘the

WickedestManintheWorld,’andthe‘KingofDepravity,’and,withreferenceto‘the

Beast’(Θηρίον,Therion)inthebiblicalBookofRevelation,heoccasionallyreferredto

himselfas‘theGreatBeast’orthe‘MasterTherion.’Inseveralrespects,hewasagood

exampleof‘thetragicgeneration’eulogizedbyW.B.Yeats.WhileYeatsdidnot,of

course,haveCrowleyinmind—consideringhimtobean‘unspeakablemadperson’

(quotedinKaczynski2010:66)—thesignificantpersonalwealthCrowleyhad

inherited1affordedhimthespacetoembracedecadenceinmuchthesamewaythat

Joris-KarlHuysmansrecountstheperversepleasuresofthewealthyandreclusive

aestheteDesEsseintesinhis1884novelÀrebours(trans.1959).Likewise,justas

Yeats’stragicgenerationwashauntedbydisillusionment,ennuianddespair,oftenasa

resultofthepersistentquestforintenseexperiences,sotoothereisashadowacross

Crowley’slife.Hisexhaustivesearchformomentsofecstasydidnotalwaysendhappily

and,inthecaseofdrugs,ledtothedebilitatingpainandignominyofaddiction.

Whiletherearereferencestodrugsandshortdiscussionsoftheireffectsscattered

throughouthiswork,onlyasmallpercentageoftheCrowleyancorpusspecifically

addressesthesubject,theprincipalworksbeing:threeessaysonthepsychoactive

significanceofdrugs,‘ThePsychologyofHashish’(1909),‘Absinthe—TheGreen

Goddess’(1917a),and‘EthylOxide’(1923)2;threediscussionsoflegislationand

addiction,‘Cocaine’(1917b),‘TheGreatDrugDelusion’(1922a),and‘TheDrugPanic’

(1922b);adiaryofhisstrugglewithaddiction,‘LiberXVIII:TheFountainofHyacinth’

(1921)3;ashortstory,‘TheDrug’(1909);andahastilywrittennovelin1922—the

principalaimofwhichwastomakemoneyfordrugs—largelybasedonhisown

experiencesandrelationships,DiaryofaDrugFiend(1979).Moreover,gathered

togetherunderthetitle‘TheHerbDangerous,’insuccessiveissuesofhisjournalThe

Equinox,4hepublished,firstly,‘APharmaceuticalStudyofCannabisSativa’(March,

1909)byE.P.Whineray—aLondonpharmacistwhooftensuppliedCrowleywith

drugs—secondly,hisessay‘ThePsychologyofHashish’(September,1909),thirdly,his

owntranslationofCharlesBaudelaire’s‘ThePoemofHashish’(March,1910),and

finally,extractsfromFitzHughLudlow’sTheHasheeshEater(September,1910).

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WhilethereisverylittlesignificantpublishedresearchintoCrowley’suseof

psychoactives,andwhileheobscuredthetyrannyofhisaddictioninmuchofhis

writing,neverthelessitisclearthatdrugswereincorporatedintohisocculttheoryand

practice.Indeed,thisarticlesuggeststhat,largelybecauseofhisaddiction,theywere

moreimportanttohimthanistypicallyacknowledgedinCrowleyscholarship.

ScientificilluminismandThelemicphilosophy

Readingthroughthismaterial,itquicklybecomesapparentthat,foralltheir

problematicbaggage,Crowleywasimpressedbytheabilityofdrugstoproducewhat

thepsychologistAbrahamMaslowwouldlatercall‘peakexperiences’—‘anillumination,

arevelation,aninsight’(1964:183).Consequently,asMartinBoothdiscusses,hecame

tobelievethat‘thetakingofdrugs—atleast,theright“magical”drugs—shouldprecede

allmagicalceremoniesbecausetheymadeaccesstomysticalexperiencesalltheeasier.’

Moreover,‘hebelievedthattheyweregenuinelymagicalandhemadeuseofthewayin

whichtheyenabledhimtore-examinehisbasicbeliefsandvaluesfromanewpointof

view,reassessingtheworldfromamagicalandmysticalperspective.Oneofthe

primaryaimsofhislifewastheextensionofhisconsciousnessbywhatevermeans,

appliedseparatelyorincombination’(Booth2000:102).Morespecifically,theywere

treatedaspowerfultechnologiesintheserviceof‘scientificilluminism,’thecoreidea

behindwhichwasdistilledintothemotto,‘themethodofscience;theaimofreligion.’5

Essentially,arguingthattheapproachesofbothscienceandreligionhadfailedintheir

attemptstoaccessthetruenatureofreality,Crowleysoughttodevelopaviamediain

theformofasystemthatcombinedthemethodologiesofboth.Psychoactivesubstances

wereusefulinsuchasystembecause,undertherightconditions,theywereableto

inducereproducible(i.e.‘scientific’)momentsofrevelation.Thatistosay,apartfrom

beingpeculiarlyeffectiveintheproductionofalteredstates,theyequippedtheuser

withacertainlevelofcontrol.Onecould,withreasonableaccuracy,determine,notonly

thetimeandplaceofamysticalexperience,butalsoitsintensityandnature.Assuch,

psychoactiveswereenormouslyappealingtoamysticwantingtoapplythescientific

methodtooccultpractice.Indeed,hewasparticularlyimpressedandinfluencedbythe

researchofWilliamJamesintonitrousoxideintoxicationandinducedmysticism.‘Since

1898,’hetellsus,‘Ihavebeenprincipallyoccupiedinstudyingtheeffectsofvarious

drugsuponthehumanorganism,withspecialreferencetotheparallelismsbetween

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psychicalphenomenaofdrug-neuroses,insanities,andmysticalilluminations.Themain

objecthasbeentoseewhetheritispossibletoproducetheindubitablyuseful(see

WilliamJames,VarietiesofReligiousExperience)resultsof“ecstasy”inthelaboratory’

(Crowley1922a:573).WhileCrowleywas,ofcourse,noJames,thisdoesindicate

somethingofthedirectionofhisthoughtregardingtheuseofdrugsinoccultpractice.

ThisbringsustohisThelemicphilosophy.Keenlyfocusedonthesignificanceof‘the

will’(θέλημα,thelema),hefamouslyinsistedthat‘“Dowhatthouwiltshallbethewhole

ofthelaw.”“Loveisthelaw,loveunderwill.”“ThereisnolawbeyondDowhatthou

wilt”’(Crowley1976:9).Centraltothisbroadlyegoisticphilosophywasthenotionof

the‘TrueWill,’whichexpressedhisconvictionthatallbeingshavetheirownpurposeto

which,attheexpenseofallelse,theymustdevotethemselves.Thisisnottosaythat

Crowley’segoismadvocatedsimplydoingonlywhatonewants,butratheritinsistedon

thediscoveryofone’spurposeinlife—inaccordancewiththecosmiclawsofthe

universe—followedbythefulfillingofthatpurpose.Inshort,one’sTrueWillmustbe

identifiedandrealized.‘Magick’—thetermheusedforhissystem,whichhedefinedas

‘theScienceandArtofcausingChangetooccurinconformitywiththeWill’(2000:

126)—enabledtheidentificationandrealizationoftheTrueWill(see,Crowley1976:

10).Flowingfromthis,hisdeclarationthat‘everymanandwomanisastar’(1976:19)

suggestedthepotentialitywithinallofusforglorification.Aslongaswefollowour

propercourse,thestrugglesoflifethatinhibitprogresstowardglorificationwill

dissolve.Although,again,Crowleywoulddiscoverthatdrugscanleadtoadulledand

diminishedwill,hewasalsoconvincedthat,intherighthands(andhead),theycouldbe

incorporatedintotheThelemicsystem.

IhavebeensuckingupthevapourofEtherforafewmoments,andallcommon

thingsaretouchedwithbeauty.So,toowithopiumandcocaine,calm,peace,

happiness,withoutspecialobject,resultfromafewminutesofthosedrugs.What

clearerproofthatalldependsonstateofmind,thatitisfoolishnesstoalter

externals?Amillionspentonobjetsd’artwouldnothavemadethisroomas

beautifulasitisjustnow—andthereisnotonebeautifulthinginit,exceptmyself.

Manisalittlelowerthantheangels;onestep,andallgloryisours(Crowley,

quotedinBooth2000:334-335).

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Again,concerningcocaine,whileheacknowledgestheshadowofaddiction,

nevertheless,hearguesthat,usedcarefully,itcanbeavaluabletechnologyof

transcendence:‘thehappinessofcocaineisnotpassiveorplacidasthatofthebeasts;it

isself-conscious.Ittellsmanwhatheis,andwhathemightbe;itoffershimthe

semblanceofdivinity,onlythathemayknowhimselfaworm.Itawakesdiscontentso

acutelythatnevershallitsleepagain.Itcreateshunger’(Crowley1917b:292).

Ifdrugsareabletocreateahungerforglorificationandmysticalexperience,then,asfar

asCrowleywasconcerned,theyareaneffectivemeanstoanimportantend.Thisis

essentiallyIsraelRegardie’sthesisconcerningCrowley’sunderstandingoftheesoteric

significancedrugs.AninfluentialinterpreterofCrowleyanmagic,havingworkedashis

secretaryforfouryears,hearguesthathewasprimarilyinterestedintheirabilityto

induce‘aforetasteorsomeadumbrationofthemysticalexperiencetowardswhichhe

wasfocusingallhisenergies’(Regardie1994:23).Thatistosay,Crowleybelievedthat,

‘iftheNeophytecouldtastethegloryandtheineffabilityofhisgoalsbymeansofan

introductorydoseofhashish,hewouldthenbewillingtoembarkuponalifelong

programofself-disciplinetomakethedivineanintrinsicpartofhisbeing’(Regardie

2014:117-118).However,havingsaidthat,hewasalsoverykeentoavoidaccusations

ofattempting‘ashortcutbythemeansofsuchdrugsasopiumandhasheesh’(Fuller

1907:305).Itwas,insistsRegardie,‘nevertheintentionofCrowleyatanytime,touse

drugsasasubstituteforthebody-mind-discipline,whichheinsisteduponbeyondall

otherthings.Thiswasthefurthestnotionfromhismind’(Regardie1994:24;seealso,

Crowley1994:119).Whilewewillseethattheevidencesuggeststhatitwasnotalways

thefurthestnotionfromhismind,nevertheless,itistruethatheatleastclaimedthathe

had‘nouseforhashishsaveasapreliminarydemonstrationthatthereexistsanother

worldattainable—somehow’(Crowley1994:119).Ostensibly,hisargumentwasthat,

‘sincehumannatureishumannatureafterall,andsincepeopletendtobecome

discouragedand,fromthere,giveupthestruggleforenlightenment,’then,asRegardie

insists,‘iftheycouldbegivensomeinklingofwhattheineffableexperiencecouldbe

like,perhaps…theywouldbewillingtoovercometheirowninertiaanddespondency—

andwork.Itwasthecarrottobewavedinfrontofthedonkey’snose.Butwavedonly

longenoughtogetthedonkeystarted’(Regardie1994:24).

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Thetrialsandtribulationsofthedrugfiend

Crowley’sstrugglewithdrugsisevidentinthetracesofambivalencetowardsthemin

hiswork—which,ofcourse,hesharedwithanumberofotherfindesiècleoccultistsand

writers.Therewereanumberofreasonsforthisambivalence.Firstly,itisclearfromhis

discussionsofdruglegislation,aswellasanumberofothercommentsscattered

throughouthiswork,thathewasconsciousofthegrowingsocialconcernabout

increasingdruguse.AsGeorgeViereck,theeditorofTheInternational,putitina

revealingdisclaimeratthebeginningofhisarticleon‘Cocaine,’‘wedisagreewithour

contributingeditoronsomepoints,’notingthat‘accordingtopolicestatistics,’thedrug

‘isbeginningtobeaseriousmenacetoouryouth’(Viereck,inCrowley1917b:291).

Whiletheydisagreedoversomepoints,Crowleydidnotdenythatthiswasaconcern.

Moreover,whilepsychoactiveswereassociatedwiththecreativeanddecadentculture

ofthefindesiècle,withartists,intellectuals,andthespiritualavant-garde,theyquickly

becameidentifiedwiththeuncultured,brutalworldofthelowerclassesand‘youthful

thrill-seekers’(Davenport-Hines2002:148-173).Forexample,Crowleyobservedthat

‘everyotherChineselaundryisadistributingcentreforcocaine,morphia,andheroin.

Negroesandstreetpeddlersalsodoaroaringtrade.Somepeoplefigurethatonein

everyfivepersonsinManhattanisaddictedtooneorotherofthesedrugs’(1917b:

293).Whilehedisputesthefigures,nevertheless,hesays,‘thecravingforamusementis

maniacalamongthispeoplewhocaresolittleforart,literature,ormusic,whohave,in

short,noneoftheresourcesthatthefolkofothernations,intheirowncultivatedminds,

possess’(1917b:293).Thisclearlybotheredhim,foritwasnotanareaofsocietyora

culturehewantedtobeassociatedwith.

Secondly,theuseofdrugswithinesotericismwasresistedasaprofaneshortcutby

manywithintheoccultmilieu.Forexample,asRegardienotes,Mathers‘frownedupon

allsuchmethods,preferringtheclassicalsecrettechniquesofmindandspiritual

training’(Regardie1994:9).Elsewhere,hemakesthepointthat‘theGoldenDawn

neverrecommendedtheuseofanyconsciousnessexpandingdrugs’(Regardie2014:

127).Consciousofthis,itwasimportanttoCrowleythathiscontemporaries

understoodhisprincipalfocustobethedevelopmentoftechniquesoftranscendence

rootedinthedisciplinedpracticeofmagick,ratherthanintoxication.Again,Regardie

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insiststhatthis‘fundamentalpremisewasstatedoverandoveragain,inahundred

differentways.’

Itwasneverthatthedrugexperiencepersecouldpossiblyreplacethebasic

mentalandspiritualdisciplinethathestoodfor,andwhichallpreviousoccult

teachersinsistedupon…Whatwasrequiredbeyondallotherthingswas

enduranceandpersistency—thedisciplineofthebody-mindsystem,inthe

technicalphasesoftheWorkitself,toprovidethebasicnecessarytoolsthrough

whichthemysticalstatewouldbereinstated,re-experienced,andre-explored

(Regardie1994:25-26).

However,whilethiswastruetheoretically,inpracticeCrowleyfoundtheimmediacyof

inducedexperiencesdifficulttoresist.Forexample,concerningtheexperienceofastral

projection,herecommendsthatit‘shouldbeprecededbya(ceremonial)“looseningof

thegirdersofthesoul.”6Howtodoitisthegreatproblem.Iaminclinedtobelievein

drugs’(Crowley1910:117).Hence,again,thereisambivalencetowardstheuseof

psychoactivesinhiswork.

Finally,becausehisfocuswasonthedevelopmentof‘thewill,’hewashighlycriticalof

thosewhosepursuitofthe‘TrueWill’hadbeencompromised.Hewasadamantthat

‘onlyweaklingsfellvictimtoadrug’(Sutin2000:277).This,ofcourse,meantthathis

ownexperienceof‘therestlesswretchednessofamorphineusedeprivedofthedrug’

(Crowley1970:252)wasadeeplyhumiliatingone.Therefore,thereweretimeswhen,

likemostaddicts,hesimplydeniedthathehadaproblemandinsistedtohisfollowers

thatdrugshadnopoweroverhim.Indeed,toanextenthebelievedthisand,becausehe

did,struggledwiththebrutalrealityofaddiction.Forexample,hearguedthat‘thereare

threemainclassesofmenandwomen:(1)Afraidtoexperimentwithanything…(2)

Enslavedbyanythingthatappealstothem.(3)Abletouseanythingwithoutdamaging

themselves.’He,ofcourse,claimedtobelongtothefinalcategory,eveninsistingthat,in

theserviceofscience,hehadattemptedtoinduceaddictionthroughpersistentuse,but

failed,suchwasthestrengthofhiswill:‘Iattemptedtoproducea“drug-habit”inmyself.

Invain…Iwasalwaysabletoabandonthedrugwithoutapang’(Crowley1922a:573).

This,ofcourse,isnonsense—and,indeed,frequentlyrepeatednonsense.Thetruthis

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thathisaddictionhadanincreasinglydetrimentalimpactonhislifeandwork.‘Thereis

noharm,’heargued,‘inman’sexperimentingwithopium-smoking,butthemomenthe

ceasestoexamine,toactfromhabitwithoutreflection,heisintrouble’(Crowley2000:

115).Thiscommentaroseoutofhisownexperienceof‘trouble,’hisowninabilityto

overcomeactingfromhabit.Forexample,duringhistimeattheAbbeyofThelema—the

templeandspiritualtrainingcentrethathehadestablishedinCefalù,Italy—he‘bought

drugsfromaPalermopushernamedAmatoreandmadethemavailabletoallresidents’

(Kaczynski2010:361).Thisledtoproblems.AlthoughRichardKaczynskiclaimsthat

hisstatedgoalwas‘nottoencouragedrugs,buttomakethemsoreadilyaccessiblethat

heremovedalltemptation’(2010:361)inactualfact,asJohnSymondscomments,‘his

over-indulgenceinheroinandcocainehadanadverseeffectonthe…Abbey’sdiscipline’

(Symonds1958:76;seealsoSymonds1971:236-238,245).Hence,in1922,heleftthe

AbbeyforaperiodofrehabilitationinFontainebleau.Again,hestruggled,butfailed.

Someindicationofthenatureofthisstruggleisprovidedinadiaryentryhewroteat

thistime:

I,Baphomet666,wishingtoprovethestrengthofmywillandthedegreeofmy

couragehavepoisonedmyselfforthelasttwoyearsandhavesucceededfinallyin

reachingadegreeofintoxicationsuchthatwithdrawalofthedrugs(heroin&

cocaine)produceaterribleattackofthe‘StormFiend.’Theacutesymptomsarise

suddenly,usuallyonwakingupfromanap….MediumdoseHeroin.Thiswasareal

indulgenceintheworstsenseoftheword.IthasoccurredveryfrequentlythatI

havetakenadoseforreasonsatpresentutterlyunfathomable.(Thisisa

confessionindeed,forme,whoclaimstobetheforemostlivingpsychologist!)

Thereisnottheslightestdiscomforttoberemoved,orthefaintestwishtoreach

somestillsuperiorstate.Itisanabsolutelyperverseimpulse….Therehasbeena

constantlyincreasingindifferencetomattersofordinaryhealth,cleanlinessand

vanity.Iseemhardlytoknowwhatthestateofaffairsis,astodefecation,etc.…

Therearenumerousveryalarmingmentalsymptoms,butallreallyreducetoone

only,thefeelingthatnothingisworthwhile.Itisasortof‘philosophicallaziness’….

Thereisadullmalaise,combinedlackofanyinterestinanythingandthe

knowledgethatcocainewouldputmerightatonce.Cocaineisbarredaltogether

ofcourse.Thereasonisthis:Thehungerforitisstrictlymoralandamanoughtto

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beabletomasterhismoralpassions.Physicaltorture,ontheotherhand,simply

throwsthemoralapparatusoutofgear;onecannotbeblamedforcommitting

suicideordoinganyotherfoolishactwhenthepainissostrongastopreventthe

manifestationoftheWillaltogether…OnlycocainecouldhelpmeandIwon’ttake

it...Mediumdose.Myfeelingisthatthesafestcourseistoarrangeamildjag;

sufficienttoovercomemygenerallassitude,whichisbeginningtomakemeopen

toviolentsuggestiontothrowthewholecureoverboard(Crowley1921;seealso

Symonds1971:274-283).

Again,unlikehashishandpeyote,becausehehad‘notmuchtothank’heroinand

cocainefor,hewasdisturbedthathecouldnotresistthem:‘itisfortheseandtheseonly

thatIhanker’(Crowley1921).‘Heroinwas,’asSymondsrecalls,‘essentialtohis

existence.Heneeded,too,ratheralotofheroinowingtohisbody’stoleration:sevenor

eightormoregrainsaday,aphenomenalamountreallyifoneconsidersthattheusual

doseisone-sixteenthorone-eighthofagrain.MorethanonceIhadsteadiedhimwhile

heinjectedhimselfinthearmpit’(1958:51).Itishardlysurprisingthereforethat,in

desperation,he‘wrotetoDr.EdwardCros…tellinghimthewholestory’andrequesting

thathe‘callandfixasanatorium.’However,headdedthatheintendedto‘direct[his]

owntreatment’(Crowley1921).Why?Because,again,astheprophetofThelema,

despitetheseverityofhisaddiction,hedidnotbelievethatheneededmedical

assistance:‘Tosubmittomedicaltreatmentwouldbetodestroymywholetheoryand

blasphemetheGodswhosechosenministerIam!’(Crowley1921)Predictably,hefailed

and,again,must’vestruggledenormouslyasaresult,inthathisaddictionplaceda

questionmarkagainsthisThelemicteachingandpersonalauthority.Indeed,manyof

Crowley’sostensiblyobjectivecommentsabouttherelationshipbetweenaddictionand

thewillcanbeunderstoodasobliquereferencestohisowntorment:‘topossessthe

supplyofadrug,’istobe‘themaster,bodyandsoul,ofanypersonwhoneedsit.People

donotunderstandthatadrug,toitsslave,ismorevaluablethangoldordiamonds’

(Crowley1917:294b).Hence,while,ontheonehand,hewasfascinatedbythepowerof

drugstostimulatetheimaginationandtoproduceecstaticstates—to‘risetothe

cloudlessandpassionlessblissofthephilosopher,’to‘beholdthefantasticgloriesof

fable,andthoseathousandfold,’andto‘perceivetheheartofBeautyineveryvulgarand

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familiarthing’(Crowley1916)—ontheotherhand,theyerodedthepowerofthewill,

whichwassocentraltohisthought.

Formuchofthelatterhalfofhislife,drugshauntedandenslavedhim.Whileithasbeen

arguedthatheeventuallymanagedtofreehimselffromheroinin1924(see,Kaczynski

2009:29-30),ithastobeacknowledgedthat,evenifhedid,by1940hehadsuccumbed

toitagain,continuingtouseituntilhisdeathin1947.Certainly,whateverthetruthof

Crowley’sprivatehabit,itwouldbenaïvetobelievethatheentirelyescapedhislonging

forheroineonceithadfounditswayintohissystem.7AsWilliamBurroughsputit,‘junk

winsbydefault…Ifyouhaveneverbeenaddicted,youcanhavenoclearideawhatit

meanstoneedjunkwiththeaddict’sspecialneed.Youdon’tdecidetobeanaddict.One

morningyouwakeupsickandyou’reanaddict…Ihavelearnedthejunkequation...

Junkisnotakick.Itisawayoflife’(1977:xv-xvi).Crowleyunderstoodthisandwe

misunderstandhimifwedonot.LikeBurroughs,hewasclearthat,‘amanwhohasonce

experiencedthedrug-lifefindsitdifficulttoputupwiththeinanityofnormalexistence.

Hehasbecomewisewiththewisdomofdespair’(Crowley1979:353).

HightimeswithAllanBennett

The‘drug-life’beganforCrowleywhenhewasintroducedtotheesotericsignificanceof

psychoactivesbyhisfriend,mentor,andfellowmemberoftheGoldenDawn,Allan

Bennett.AlthoughitshouldbenotedthatGeorgeCecilJones,whohadfirstintroduced

CrowleytotheGoldenDawnandencouragedhisinterestintheoccult,wasanindustrial

chemistwithaknowledgeofpharmaceuticals,itwasalmostcertainlyBennett,whowas

alsoachemistbytraining,whointroducedthemintohislifeastechnologiesthatmight

beusefulforthepracticeofmagic.WhileBennettcouldhave,likeJones,ledamaterially

comfortablelife,hiscommitmenttooccultismandthenBuddhism,aswellaschronic

asthma,ledtofrequentperiodsofpoverty.Indeed,aswithmanyinthenineteenth

century,itwasthemedicationprescribedtoalleviatehissufferingthatrevealedtohim

thespiritualpotentialofdrugs(see,Sutin2000:65).AsCrowleycommented,‘hiscycle

oflifewastotakeopiumforaboutamonth,’then‘whentheeffectworeoff…hehadto

injectmorphine.Afteramonthofthisheswitchedtococaine,whichhetookuntilhe

begantosee“things”andwasthenreducedtochloroform’(quotedinSutin2000:65).

AsBennett’slifebecameincreasinglyorganizedaroundperiodsofintoxication,sohe

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becameconvincedthat‘thereexistsadrugwhoseusewillopenthegatesoftheWorld

behindtheVeilofMatter’(Bennett,quotedinRegardie2014:117 ).Crowleywasso

impressedbyhisthesis,thatonceBennetthad‘impartedtohimtherudimentsofhis

pharmacologicalknowledge’(Regardie2014:117 ),hebeganinearnestexperimenting

withopium,cocaine,etherandhashishinanattempttogainaccess‘behindtheveilof

theuniverse’where‘livethemysticandthetrueartist’(Crowley1994:121).(Such

substanceswere,ofcourse,alllegallyavailableinBritainuntilthepassingofthe

DangerousDrugsActin1920.)Together,saysCrowley,heandBennett,‘formany

months…studiedandpracticedCeremonialMagic,andransackedtheancientbooksand

MSSofthereputedsagesforakeytothegreatmysteriesoflifeanddeath.’He

continues:

Throughtheageswefoundthisoneconstantstory.Strippedofitslocaland

chronologicalaccidents,itusuallycametothis—thewriterwouldtellofayoung

man,aseekerafterHiddenWisdom,who,inonecircumstanceoranother,meets

anadept;who,aftersundryordeals,obtainsfromthesaidadept,forgoodorill,a

certainmysteriousdrugorpotion,withtheresult(atleast)ofopeningthegateof

theOther-world.ThispotionwasidentifiedwiththeElixirVitaeofthephysical

Alchemists,oroneoftheir‘Tinctures,’mostlikelythe‘WhiteTincture’which

transformsthebasemetal(normalperceptionoflife)tosilver(poetic

conception)…(Crowley1994:98;cf.,Symonds1958:106-107)

Crowleywouldlaterbemoantheprojectasaseriesof‘fruitlessattemptstopoison

ourselveswitheverydrugin(andoutof)thePharmacopœia,’because,‘likeHuckleberry

Finn’sprayer,nuffin’comeofit’(Crowley1994:98).This,again,reflectsthe

ambivalenceinCrowley’swork.Itwas,however,disingenuous.Itisclearthathis

experimentswithBennett,whohereferredtoas‘aflawlessgenius’(Crowley,quotedin

Kaczynski2009:64)wereimportanttohimandinformedhisthinkingaboutdrugs.

Indeed,farfromnuffin’comingofit,aswehaveseen,agreatdealcameofit.

Thisholyherb

ThisistheProfitofmineIntoxicationofthisholyHerb,TheGrassoftheArabs,

thatithathshewedmethisMystery(withmanyothers),notasaNewLight,forI

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hadthataforetime,butbyitsswiftSynthesisandManifestationofalongSequence

ofEventsinaMoment(Crowley1974:127).

AnardentadmirerofRichardBurton,theVictorianOrientalist,travelwriter,and

translatoroftheArabianNights,in1903,Crowley,withhisnewwifeRoseKelly,began

hisownjourneytotheOrient.Duringtheseandsubsequenttravels,notonlydidhe

betraytheinfluenceofBurton’sinterestsandidiosyncrasies(see,Sutin2000:35,51),

but,heclaimsthat,inatleastonerespect,hewentbeyondthegreatman‘whosolved

nigheveryotherriddleoftheEasternSphinx’(Crowley1994:95).WhereasBurtonused

hashishandregardeditas‘nomorethanavice’(1994:96),hediscovereditstrue

significance.InIndia,forexample,herelateshowhewastaught‘systemsofmeditation’

inwhich‘lesserYogisemployedhashish…toobtainSamadhi,thatonenesswiththe

Universe…’(1994:98).Moreover,whilethiswasnodoubttrue,arguablymore

significantwaswhathewasreadingduringthisperiod:‘Ialsohadtheadvantageof

fallingacrossLudlow’sbook,andwasstruckbythecircumstancethathe,obviously

ignorantofVendantistandYogicdoctrines,yetapproximatelyexpressedthem,though

inadegradedanddistortedform’(1994:98-99).Inotherwords,notonlydoesheclaim

thathashishwasusedtoattainstatesoftranscendencethatwerenormallytheresultof

disciplinedmeditation,butalsothataccountsofcannabisintoxicationintheWestcome

veryclosetodescribingtheexperiencesofmysticsintheEast.Nevertheless,heis

carefultoinsistthathashishshouldbeusedasatoolalongwith‘disciplineandtraining

inthemeditativearts’(Regardie1994:20).Thatsaid,althoughwehavenoted

Regardie’sargumentthatheunderstoodhashishprimarilyasaninitialintroductionto

mysticalexperience,hedoesconcedethatCrowleytaughtusersto‘expectfarbetter

resultswithitsusethanifthetoolofmeditationalonewasused,andviceversa’

(Regardie1994:20).Indeed,‘theremightbeoccasions,evenwhenonehadacquired

supremeskillinmediation,whenanadditionalfilliporstimulusprovidedbyjudicious

andtemperateuseofhashishwouldenableonetosurmountthesterilityandgrimness

ofthelong-protracteddiscipline,tosoarexaltedlyabovethearmoredrestrictionofthe

ego-functionsintotheineffable’(Regardie1994:26-27).Assuch,cannabis,‘thegrassof

theArabs,’canbeconsidereda‘Holyherb…whichmightbeappointedfor…

Enlightenment’(Crowley1974:124,127).Hence,again,heinsiststhat,whilesome

mightaccusehimof‘pureslothorweariness’(Crowley1994:95)oflazinessinoccult

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practice,infactheusedhashishasatechnologyto‘loosenthegirdersofthesoul’

(Crowley1994:100;seealso,Fuller1907:305).Indeed,in1907,inananalysisof

Crowley’sphilosophy(whichisactuallymoreofaneruditeexerciseiningratiation),

JohnF.C.Fullerclaimsthatthiswasindeedthecase:‘hasheeshmayinsomewaybethe

loosenerofthegirdersofthesoul,butthisisall’(Fuller1907:305).However,thatthis

wasallitwasforCrowleyisdoubtful.Inthefinalanalysis,itisdifficulttoavoidthe

conclusionthatCrowleyfoundincannabisashortcuttotranscendence,which,

regardlessofhisemphasisontheimportanceofskill,knowledge,andsoberritual,he

wasneverquiteabletoleavebehind.Hence,itisunsurprisingtodiscoverthat,notonly

didhestruggletomeditate,butthathefoundpsychoactivestobeasignificanthelpin

realizinghisspiritualgoals.

Iwasawareoftheprimeagonyofmeditation,the‘dryness’…whichhardensand

sterilizesthesoul.Theverypracticewhichshouldflooditwithlightleadsonlyto

darknessmoreterriblethandeath…Meditationthereforeannoyedme,as

tighteningandconstrictingthesoul.Ibegantoaskmyselfifthe‘dryness’wasan

essentialpartoftheprocess.IfbysomemeansIcouldshakeitscatafalqueofMind,

mightnottheInfiniteDivineSpiritleapunfetteredtotheLight?Whoshallroll

awaythestone?(Crowley1994:99)

Theanswer,ofcourse,wasthe‘burningdaughteroftheJinn’—hashish(Crowley1994:

95).

Itsperhapsworthnotingthatofsomesignificanceinhisexperienceofhashishwasthe

perceptionoftranscendingofspaceandtime.Spatiotemporaltranscendence,whichis

socommoninpsychedelichistory,investsintoxicationwithanotherworldly

significance.Ashenotesinhismagnumopus,Magick:LiberABA,Book4,hashish

enablesustounderstandthat‘TimeandSpaceareformsbywhichweobtain(distorted)

imagesofIdeas.OurmeasuresofTimeandSpacearecrudeconventions,anddiffer

widelyfordifferentBeings’(2000:501).Thepointisthat,asbothLudlowand

Baudelairehaddiscussed,hashishintoxication‘involveththeMysteryofthe

TranscendingofTime,sothatinOneHourofourTerrestialMeasuredidIgatherthe

HarvestofanAeon,andinTenLivesIcouldnotdeclareit’(Crowley1974:124).

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Theelixir

Whileheisoftenregardedashaving‘experimentedwithmoredrugsmorefrequently

thananybodyintheWestbeforetheNeurologicalRevolutionofthe1960s’(Wilson

2014: xxiii;seealso,Wilson2000 ),andalthoughhebecameaddictedtococaineand

heroin,hispreferredtechnologyoftranscendencewaspeyote.Attheturnofthe

twentiethcentury,itwasknownasanhaloniumlewinii,atermthatacknowledgesthe

groundbreakingresearchofLouisLewin,theGermanpharmacologistwho,in1888,

publishedthefirstscientificreportonthepsychoactivepropertiesofthecactus.8His

workledtomuchinterestinpeyoteandeventuallytotheisolationofmescalineby

ArthurHeffterin1897anditssynthesisbyErnstSpäthin1919.Crowley’sinterest,

therefore,waspartofagrowingfascinationwithpeyoteinEuropeandAmerica.Indeed,

bearinginmindthatBennettwouldalmostcertainlyhaveknownofit,itislikelythat

CrowleyfirstheardofitduringhistimeintheGoldenDawn.Nevertheless,hesoon

familiarisedhimselfwiththeavailableresearchandevenmadeatriptoPark,Davisand

Co.,theAmericancompanythathadoriginallysecuredsamplesofthecactus:‘Parke

Daviswerecharmingandshowedmeovertheirwonderfulchemicalworks…Theywere

kindenoughtointerestthemselvesinmyresearchesinAnhaloniumLewiniiandmade

mesomespecialpreparationsonthelinesindicatedbymyexperiencewhichproved

greatlysuperiortopreviouspreparations’(Crowley1989:768).Althoughhemakes

surprisinglyfewreferencestothedrug—sometimessimplyreferringtoitincodeas

‘31’9—thereislittledoubtthatitwasasignificantpartofhisworkforseveralyears.

Indeed,heindicatedthatheintendedtopublishastudyoftheeffectsofpeyoteinThe

Equinox,entitled‘Liber934:TheCactus.’Itwouldbe‘anelaboratestudyofthe

psychologicaleffectsproducedbyAnhaloniumlewinii(Mescalbuttons),compiledfrom

theactualrecordsofsomehundredsofexperiments;withanexplanatoryessay’

(Crowley1919:16).Althoughitwasneverpublishedandprobablyneverwritten,it

doesindicatehisfascinationwiththedrug.Thisissupportedbyamarginalnoteagainst

‘anhaloniumlewinii’thatCrowleyscribbledintheAbbeyofThelema’slibrarycopyof

DiaryofaDrugFiend:‘Imademanyexperimentsonpeoplewiththisdrugin1910,and

subsequentyears’(Crowley1971:236).Thisclaimwassubsequentlyrepeatedtothe

botanistArthurBernhard-Smith.InashortnoteBernhard-Smithpublishedinthe

BritishMedicalJournal,herecallsthathehad‘carriedoutaseriesofpersonal

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experiments,inconjunctionwithDr.HavelockEllis,ontheeffectsofthereputed

deliriantmescal(Anhaloniumlewinii),makinguseofastronginfusionofseedsor

“buttons”oftheplant.’Hethennotesthat,‘actingontheadviceofaliterary

acquaintance,alatter-daymagicianwell-knownintheWestEndoftheLondon,who

claimstohaveadministeredthisformofthedrugtohundredsofhisclients,Iproceeded

toadose…’(Bernhard-Smith1913:21).Themagician,ofcourse,wasalmostcertainly

Crowley.Again,in1913Crowleycommentedthattheresultsofpeyoteintoxication

‘havenotasyetbeenthoroughlystudied.’However,hecontinues‘itismyimmediate

purposetorepairthisneglect’(Crowley1913:37).Ofcourse,ithardlyneeds

mentioningthatfrequentlytakingapsychoactivesubstanceandmakingathorough

studyofitaretwoverydifferentactivities.Iftheyarenot,thenCrowleycertainlyseems

tohavemadeathoroughlystudy,inthatbesidesregularlyusingthedrughimself,he

managedtointoxicatenumerouspeopleathisanhaloniumparties(see,forexample,

Kaczynski2010:315).Atoneofthesepsychedelicesotericsoireesheevenintroduced

thedrugtothecelebratedauthorKatherineMansfield(see,Sutin2000:229-230)andat

anotherinNewYorktoTheodoreDreiser(see,Sutin2000:253).Suchwashisgrowing

relationshipwithpeyote,thathebeganreferringtoitas‘theelixirintroducedbymeto

Europe’(Crowley1913:37)—which,ofcourse,wasnottrue.

Thefactthathereferredtoitasan‘elixir’issignificant,inthatitlocateditfirmlywithin

thetraditionofesotericismasavisionaryandalchemicaltechnologythatcouldbe

employedduringrituals.Likewise,healsoreferstoitasa‘libation.’Forexample,during

aperformanceofhistheatrical‘RitesofEleusis,’whichwerecomprisedofseven

invocations,a‘CupofLibation’waspassedaroundhisaudience.Indeed,herecalledthat

theveryideaofperforming‘rites’cametohimduringasummerspenttakingpeyote

anddevelopingritualswithCommanderGuyMontaguMarston:

MarstonandIstartedwiththeevocationofBartzabel,suggestedbyatalkwhileI

wasstayingwithhimathishouse,Rempstone,Dorset.Theideaofgeneral‘rites’

developedduringthissummerfromcasualritualsadoptedduringtheAnhalonium

experiment.WhenLW[LeilaWaddell]andIplayedandreadpoetryagainsteach

otherbeforetheLord,wegotsuchwonderfulspiritualresultsthatwetriedto

reducealltoarule(Crowley1998:259).

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TheRitesofEleusispresentedtheidealoccasionforapsychedelichappening,inthat

theywereintended,asSutinnotes,‘tounitetheperformersandtheaudienceinan

ecstasythatwould,ashadthemysteriesofancientEleusis,revealthedivinecapacities

oftheawakenedhumansoul’(Sutin2000:209).Intheevent,theRitesactuallyhadlittle

todowiththeancientceremoniesofEleusinianMysteries—whichhavebeenlinked

withtheritualuseofpsychoactives.Crowleyreadpoetry,Waddellplayedviolin,and

VictorBenjaminNeuburgdancedastheintoxicatedaudiencegraduallyslippedintoan

enchantedworld.Atoneearlyperformanceofthe‘RiteofLuna’atCrowley’sLondonflat

at124VictoriaStreet,wearetoldthatthe‘CupofLibation’was‘apotentliquidmixture

consistingofalcohol,fruitjuices,possiblysometypeofopiumderivative,andmost

certainlyaninfusionof…peyote’(Sutin2000:210).RaymondRadclyffe,areporterfor

theDailySketch,whoattendedoneoftheceremonies,recordedthefollowing:

TheMasterofCeremonies…orderedabrotherto‘beartheCupofLibation.’The

brotherwentaroundtheroom,offeringeachalargegoldenbowlfullofsome

pleasant-smellingdrink.Wedrankinturn.Thisover,astalwartbrotherstrode

intothecentreandproclaimed‘TheTwelvefoldCertitudeofGod.’Artemiswas

theninvokedbyagreaterritualoftheHexagram.MoreLibation.AleisterCrowley

readustheSongofOrpheusfromtheArgonauts.Followingthissongwedrankour

thirdLibation,andthenthebothersledusintotheroom…Bythistimethe

ceremonyhadgrownweirdandimpressive,anditsinfluencewasincreasedwhen

thepoetrecitedinsolemnandreverentvoiceSwinburne’sgloriousfirstchorus

from‘Atlanta’…AgainaLibation;againaninvocationtoArtemis.

Followingmorepoetry,Neuburg’sdance,andWaddell’smusic,herecordsthat,

intoxicated,‘wewerethrilledtoourverybones’andthat‘mostofusexperiencedthe

EcstasywhichCrowleysoearnestlyseeks.’Itwasherecords,‘areallybeautiful

ceremony—beautifullyconceivedandbeautifullycarriedout’(Radclyffe,quotedin

Booth2000:286-288).

Theceremonialuseofdrugs

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Crowley’suseofdrugswithinritualcontextswas,ofcourse,notnovel.Asnotedabove,

itcanbetracedbacktohisexperimentswithBennett.Indeed,Symondsmakesan

interestingobservationconcerningacommentinoneofBennett’snotebooks,dated

1899—whenhewaslivingwithCrowleyinhisflatonChanceryLane.Henotesthathe

hadbeguntousecocaineduringceremoniesfor‘theevokingofgodsandtheconjuring

upofdemons,’because‘itdoubtlesshelpedthematerialisations’(Symonds1958:105-

106).Withsuchideasinmind,itisinterestingtoreadthefollowinginLiberALvelLegis

(TheBookoftheLaw),whichheclaimedtohavebeendictatedtohimbyaincorporeal

entityhereferredtoasAiwass:‘IamtheSnakethatgivethKnowledge&Delightand

brightglory,andstirtheheartsofmenwithdrunkenness.Toworshipmetakewineand

strangedrugswhereofIwilltellmyprophet,&bedrunkthereof!Theyshallnotharmye

atall’(Crowley1976:31).Again,Symondsnotesthat,whileasexritewasoftenusedas

anintroductiontothe‘AlamantrahWorking’—theaimofwhichwastosummonand

communicatewithanentitycalledAlamantrah—whenthisfailed,drugsweretaken,

‘usuallyanhalonium,butsometimesopiumorhashish’(Symonds1958:177-178;see

also,Symonds1971:216).Thereis,inotherwords,anoverlapbetweenBennett’suseof

intoxicationinliturgicalcontextsandCrowley’suse.

Similarly,thereisalsoevidencethatheusedhashishinhis‘Augoeidesinvocations.’The

relativelyobscureNeoplatonicterm,αυγοειδης—whichreferstoluminosity—appears

infrequentlyinmodernoccultism.CrowleyalmostcertainlylifteditfromEdward

BulwerLytton’sRosicruciannovelZanoni,inwhichitisdiscussedinatechnical

footnoteonthe‘mysticalPlatonists’—‘LyttoncallshimAdonaiin“Zanoni,”andIoften

usethisnameinthenote-books’(Crowley1909:159;cf.Lytton1861:130).Lytton’s

novel,whichrelatesthestoryofZanoniandMejnour,thetwolastsurvivorsofan

ancientsect,describesthemasseerswhohavemanagedtotranscendtime,freeing

themselvesfromearthlypassions,andbeingunaffectedbytheravagesofdeathand

decay.Theywereabletodothisbecausetheyhadfoundawayoflivingcontinuallyin

therealmofthespirit,anadvancedstatethatonlythemostaccomplishedmysticscan

hopetoachieve.Whilethepathtothisstateisextraordinarilydifficult,requiring

absolutedevotioninordertosurvivethedauntingtrialsofmindandbody,Lyttonalso

suggestedthattheanswermightbefoundina‘goldenelixir’that‘someofthe

alchemistsenjoyed’(Lytton1861:139).Thesuggestionofan‘immortalelixir,’an‘elixir

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thatbafflesdeath’(Lytton1861:31,101)which,moreover,enablesapersontoinvoke

spiritualentities(asBennetthadclaimed),wascertainlyofinteresttoCrowley.Alsoof

interesttohimwasthenotionofAugoeidesastheindividual‘sphereofthesoul,’which

saysLytton,‘isluminouswhennothingexternalhascontactwiththesoulitself;but

whenlitbyitsownlight,itseesthetruthofallthingsandthetruthcentredinitself’

(Lytton1861:130).Although,attimes,CrowleyunderstoodtheAugoeidesinvocationin

termsofcommunionwithadistinctspiritualentity,hisHolyGuardianAngel,atother

timesheusedittorefertohis‘HigherSelf’/’Genius’(conceptswhichwerecommonin

Theosophy).Furthermore,asMarcoPasicomments,‘theritualoftheAugoeidesis

interestingbecauseittookplacealmostexclusivelyinanimaginedritualspace’(Pasi

2012:73)—which,ofcourse,heunderstooddrugstobepeculiarlyeffectiveinevoking.

Itisworthnoting,moreover,thattheAugoeidesinvocationformedpartofthe

‘AbramelinOperation’assetoutinTheBookoftheSacredMagicofAbramelinthe

Mage—atranslationbyMathersofanesotericGermangrimoire,whichhadbeen

translatedintoFrench,andwhichhehaddiscoveredintheBibliothèquedel’Arsenalin

Paris.Thetext,which,interestingly,MathersnoteswasknowntoBulwerLyttonand

ÉliphasLévi,includeditsownfoundingmyth,whichidentifieditasthemagicalsystem

ofAbramelin/Abra-Melin,anEgyptianmage,whopassedonhisknowledgetoAbraham

vonWorms,amedievalJewishscholar.Essentially,theritualconsistsofaseriesof

laboriousandelaboratepreparations,undertakenoveralongperiodoftime,theaimof

whichistoobtainthe‘knowledgeandconversation’ofone’s‘HolyGuardianAngel.’

Havingperformedtheritualininnerspace,Crowleyclaimedthathehadmanagedto

achievethesameresultasifhehadperformeditphysically,namely‘Knowledgeand

ConversationoftheHolyGuardianAngel.’Itwas,asPasisays,subsequently‘perceived

byhimasoneofthemostimportantmagicalachievementsofhisentirelife’(Pasi2012:

73).Thepointhereisthat,inhisdiscussionofthesignificanceofhashish,hementions

anexperienceof‘whatAbramelintheMagecallstheKnowledgeandConversationofthe

HolyGuardianAngel,another(andlessmetaphysicallypretentious)wayofspeakingof

the“HigherSelf”or“Genius”’(Crowley1994:133).Again,speakingof‘thatsupreme

stateinwhichthemanhasbuilthimselfupintoGod’(Crowley1994:141-142),‘thefinal

andperfectidentityoftheSelfwiththeHolyGuardianAngel,’henotesthat,while‘one

maydoubtwhetherthedrugaloneeverdoesthis,’therearethoseforwhomhashish

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canbeanimportantinstrumentintheritual:‘itisperhapsonlythedestinedadeptwho,

momentarilyfreedbythedissolvingactionofthedrugfromthechainofthefourlower

Skandhas,obtainsthisknowledgewhichishisbyright,totallyineptashemaybetodo

sobyanyordinarymethods’(Crowley1994:142).Whilethereisnecessarilysome

speculationintheabovediscussion,whatisclearisthat,influencedbyBennett,Zanoni,

andTheBookoftheSacredMagicofAbramelintheMage,aswellasbyhisreadingof

LudlowandBaudelaire,heuseddruginducedalteredstatesto‘loosenthegirdersofthe

soul’withinritualcontexts.

Crowleyandthepsychedelicrevolution

Regardie’sdiscussionofCrowley’suseofhashishneedstobeunderstoodaspartofa

broaderCrowleyanapology.10Morespecifically,whileitbetraysaslightlymore

restrainedattitudetodrugusethanthatofhismentorandapreferenceforceremonial

workfarclosertotheteachingoftheGoldenDawn,itisworthnotingthathisessaywas

writtenin1968.RegardiegottoknowTimothyLearyanddevelopedarelationshipthat,

asGeraldSusternotes,‘stimulatedhisproductivity’(1989:142).Whiledeploringthe

undisciplineduseofpsychoactivesandindeedCrowley’sownaddictiontoheroinand

cocaine,hebegantoappreciate‘theuseofmind-expandingdrugsforwilledmagicaland

mysticalpurposes’(Suster1989:143).Hearguedthat‘drugsarejusttoolsforthe

explorationandenhancementofconsciousness.’Eachdrug,heinsisted,‘shouldbe

employedforaspecificpurposeandusedwithintelligenceandwill’(Suster1989:143).

Hence,althoughhequitecorrectlyrejectedtheideaof‘CrowleyasaVictorianhippie’

(Suster1989:142),nevertheless,inanefforttoreintroducehisworktoanew

generationofseekers,hesoughttodemonstrateitsrelevancetocontemporary

psychedeliabyexplicitlydrawingparallelsbetween‘ThePsychologyofHashish’andthe

ideasarticulatedbyMaslow,Huxley,RobertdeRopp,DavidSolomon,AlanWatts,and

particularlyLeary(see,Regardie1994:39).Indeed,hecommended‘wholeheartedly’

ThePsychedelicExperiencebyLeary,RalphMetzner,andRichardAlpert,as‘theonly

singletextwhichapproximates,albeitdistantly,thehashishessaysofCrowley.’

Moreover,hesaysthat,‘wereCrowleyalivetodayandfamiliarwiththiswork,Iam

altogetherconfidentthathewouldhaveimmediatelywrittena“rave”reviewofitinone

ofhisEquinoxpublications’(Regardie1994:40).Again,heclaimedthat,notonlywould

CrowleyhavegreetedLSDas‘thedrugofchoice,theidealchemicalinstrumenthehad

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yearnedforastheexperimentalaidtothemagico-mysticalsystemhehaddeveloped’

(Regardie1994:25),butalsothatHuxley,WattsandLearyintheirowndiscussionsof

thedrugwereessentiallyfollowingatrajectoryinitiatedbyhimintheearlyyearsofthe

twentiethcentury.Indeed,possiblyinfluencedbyRegardie,theBritishoccultist

KennethGrantevenarguedthatLeary‘identifiedhimselfsoentirelywiththecurrent

initiatedbyCrowley…thatheconsidersoneofhisaimstobethecompletionofthe

workofpreparingtheworldforcosmicconsciousness,whichCrowleyhadbegun’

(quotedinSuster1989:142).Regardie,however,wentfurther,insistingthatHuxley’s

argumentthatpsychedelicscanbeused‘topotentiatethenon-verbaleducationof

adolescentsandtoremindadultsthattherealworldisverydifferentfromthe

misshapenuniversetheyhavecreatedforthemselvesbymeansoftheirculture

conditionedprejudices,’reflectstheprincipaltenetsofCrowley’sphilosophy;Watts’

convictionthatthereis‘noessentialdifferencebetweentheexperiencesinduced,under

favorableconditions,by…chemicalsandthestatesof“cosmicconsciousness”recorded

byR.M.Bucke,WilliamJames,EvelynUnderhill,RaynorJohnsonandotherinvestigators

ofmysticism…’concurswiththefindingsofCrowley’sownresearch;Leary’sassertion

that‘themosteffectivewaytocutthroughthegamestructureofWesternlifeistheuse

of…consciousness-expandingdrugs…’goessomewaytowardsCrowley’sown

conclusions(Regardie1994:38-39).However,asfarasRegardieisconcerned,while

therearesignificantlinesofcontinuitybetweentheirattemptstodislocateaperson’s

senseofreality,Crowley‘hadtheedgeovermostofourpresent-dayresearchers’

(Regardie1994:41)becauseheincorporateddrug-inducedtranscendenceintoan

occultsystem.This,hebelieves,wasCrowley’sgeniusfromwhichthenewgenerationof

psychedelicexplorersneedstolearn(seeSuster1989:140-144).

ConcerningtheideaofCrowleyasfatherofthepsychedelicrevolution,itissometimes

claimedthat,inOctober,1930,duringhistimeinBerlin,he‘gavemescalto,amongst

others,theyouthfulAldousHuxley’(King2013:138).JamesWebbevenclaimsthat

thereis‘firsthandevidence’providedby‘aformerdiscipleofCrowley’(1976:439,482;

seealso,Churton2014:171-172).Thiswould,ofcourse,besignificant,inthatitwould

establishaveryclearhistoricallinkbetweenCrowleyandthepsychedelic

counterculture.Unfortunately,itishamperedbyacomprehensivelackofevidence.

ThereislittledoubtthatthetwobrieflymetduringtheeveningofOctober4atthe

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MüncherHofbrau,butthereisnoevidencethattheytookmescalinetogetherorthatit

wasevenatopicofconversation.Indeed,notonlydoesHuxleynevermentionthe

encounterwithCrowley,butthereisnottheslightestsuggestionofhimeverhaving

takenthedrugpriorto1953,whenhedeclaredtoHumphryOsmond,‘Iameagerto

maketheexperimentandwouldfeelparticularlyhappytodosounderthesupervision

ofanexperiencedinvestigatorlikeyourself’(Huxley,quotedinMurray2003:399).

‘Thus,’herecalls,‘itcameaboutthat,onebrightMaymorning,Iswallowedfour-tenths

ofagrammeofmescalinedissolvedinhalfaglassofwaterandsatdowntowaitforthe

results’(Huxley1994:3).Therecanbenodoubtthathehadnevertakenitbefore.As

hisrelative,SiggyWessberg,hasstated:‘InMay1953,followingcorrespondencewith

CanadianpsychiatristHumphryOsmond,thenvisitingLosAngeles,AldousHuxleytook

mescalineforthefirsttime’(quotedinDunaway1995:93-94).Again,notonlyisthere

noevidenceinHuxley’scorpusthatCrowleyhadanyimpactonhisthought,buthis

friend,SybilleBedford,inherauthoritativeanddetailedbiography,liststhosewhohad

experimentedwithmescalinesinceLewinandpriortoHuxley,butmakesnomentionof

Crowley(Bedford1974:143).Weallmeetpeopleinthecourseofourlives,someof

whomhaveaprofoundimpactonthewayweviewtheworld,somewhomhaveno

impactatall,andmostofwhomhaveanindiscernibleinfluencesomewherein-between.

WhereverCrowleystoodinHuxley’sworld,heseemsnothavemademuchofan

impressionatall.

Nevertheless,Regardie’sviewofhimasthefatherofmodernpsychedeliabecame

increasinglypopularwithinWesternocculture.Indeed,itisoftensimplyassumedthat,

asFrancisKinginsists,‘most…occultistswhohavetakenafavourableattitudetoward

theuseofconsciousness-alteringdrugshavebeeninfluencedbyAleisterCrowley’(King

2013:138).Similarly,DonWebb,formerhighpriestoftheTempleofSet,isclearthat

CrowleyintroduceddrugstotheWestasamethodofself-transformation(2013:5).

Likewise,KaczynskiportraysCrowleyasapsychedelictrailblazer:‘Halfacentury

beforeTimothyLearytoldtheflowerchildrento“Tunein,turnon,dropout,”AChad

experimentedwithdrugsasanadjunctofconsciousnessexpansion’(2010:562).Again,

WilliamBreezeoftheOrdoTempliOrientishasarguedthatCrowleywas‘apioneerin

theuseofentheogens,’thathisshortstory‘TheDrug’(1909),‘standsasoneofthe

first—ifnotthefirst—accountsofapsychedelicexperience,’andthathefosteredthe

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useofdrugs‘inliteraryandoccultcirclesinEuropeandAmerica’(2015:xi,xiii).Indeed,

Boothsuggeststhatheshouldbeplaced‘atleastequaltoAldousHuxleyasawriterand

chroniclerofthepartdrugsplayinvisionaryexperience,’andthat,hadhenot

‘developedsuchanotoriousreputation,hewouldsurelyhavebeenasseriously

consideredinduecourseasHuxleywasafterthepublicationofTheDoorsofPerception

andHeavenandHell’(2000:336).

Whilesuchassessmentsare,ofcourse,notentirelywideofthemark,inthatCrowley

wasanimportantpsychedelicthinkerwhohasnotreceivedtherecognitionhe

deserves,nevertheless,theydotendtooverstatehissignificance.Firstly,notonlywas

creativedrugusehardlyanovelpracticewithinliteraryandoccultcircles,butboth

Baudelaire’s‘ThePoemofHashish’(originallypublishedin1850)andLudlow’sThe

HasheeshEater(originallypublishedin1857),bothofwhichhadaformativeinfluence

onCrowley’sthought,predatedhisbirthin1875.Secondly,althoughitisimportantto

recognizethesignificanceofthelinkCrowleydevelopedbetweenpsychoactivesand

ceremonialmagic,therehadalreadybeensomereflectiononthisrelationship.Louis-

AlphonseCahagnet,PaschalBeverlyRandolph,HelenaBlavatsky,AllanBennett,W.B.

Yeats,andMaudeGonnehadall,invaryingdegrees,giventhemattersomeattention.

Moreover,thereisevidencetosuggestthat,bythemid-1880s,theHermetic

BrotherhoodofLuxorhadalreadyexperimentedwithdrugsduringinitiation

ceremonies(see,Godwin,Chanel,Deveney1995).Thirdly,hiswritingondrugswas

arguablytoooutré,rhetorical,andunsystematictohavehadtheculturalimpactof

Huxley’sfarmoreconciseanderuditediscussions.Finally,adistinctionneedstobe

madebetweenCrowley’sinfluenceasaprofaneiconandhisinfluenceasanoccult

thinker.WhiletheideaofCrowleyfounditswayintotheburgeoningoccultureofthe

1960s,thereisaquestionconcerningtheextenttowhichhisideashadaformative

influenceonpsychedelia.Certainly,theideaofCrowley—asasymboloftransgression—

hadaculturalimpact.NotonlywashisimageusedbyPeterBlakeintheartworkforThe

Beatles’psychedelicclassic,Sgt.Pepper’sLonelyHeartsClubBand(1967),but,inThe

PoliticsofEcstasy,LearyencodestheideaofCrowleywithpsychedelicmeaningby

identifyinghimasoneofBritain’s‘inveteratetrippers,heads,andstonedvisionaries’

(1970:97),notingthat‘heexperimentedwitheveryavailabledrugasameansof

transcendence,’thatheusedpeyote‘toturnontheaudiencesathislectures,’andthat

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he‘articulatedtheviewpointthatdrugprohibitionwasnotonlyuselessbutactually

intensifiedtheproblemofdrugabuse’(1990:258).AndyWarholevencommentedthat

theroleofthecounterculturein‘theevolutionofsocietywassimilartothatofAlistair

[sic]Crowley,theoccultphilosopherwhoscandalizedthepreviousgenerationwithhis

flamboyanceandhislibertarianideas(“Dowhatthouwiltisthewholeofthelaw”)’

(Leary1990:199).However,again,itwasprimarilytheideaofCrowleyasprofaneicon

thatappealedtothecounterculture.Thereisrelativelylittleevidenceduringthe1960s

psychedelicrevolution—beyondtheoccultmilieuandthosewhohadaparticular

interestinCrowley’sphilosophy,suchasJimmyPageofLedZeppelin,thefilmdirector

KennethAnger,andthewriterRobertAntonWilson—thatmuchdetailwasknown

abouthisthought,letalonehisideasregardingtheesotericsignificanceofintoxication.

WhileLearymayhavebeenanexception,again,thereareonlyafewreferencesand

littleevidenceofanysignificantinfluence.This,ofcourse,wasnotbecausethe

counterculturedisagreedwithhisideas,butratherbecause,asSustersays,duringthe

1960shis‘books…wereexpensiveandashardtolocateastheworkofaRussian

dissident’(1989:140).However,bytheendofthedecade,whenthepsychedelic

counterculturewasbeginningtofade,arevivaloftheinterestintheocculthadstarted

togainground,centraltowhichwastherepublicationofhisworksinaffordable

editions.Thatsaid,again,despitetheeffortsofRegardie,thefocustendednottobeon

histheoriesofintoxication.Eventoday,thisisstillaneglectedareainthestudyof

Crowley’sthought.

Concludingcomments

Crowley’simportanceinthehistoryofpsychedelicesotericismrelatesprincipallytothe

wayinwhichhewasabletodistilanumberofideascirculatingattheturnofthe

twentiethcentury.Hepossessed,inawaythatfewothersdid,anintellectual

arrogance,11acharismaticauthority,andapenchantfortransgressionthatenabledhim

toimmersehimselfintheoccultureofthefindesiècleandtosurfacewithaneclectic

esotericphilosophythatinspiredbelief.Corethemesoftheperiod,suchasthoseof

declineandrebirth,andtheRomanticnotionofaNewAge,werereimaginedintermsof

thepassingoftheAeonofOsirisandtheapocalypticadventoftheAeonofHorus—

characterizedbyself-realizationandself-actualization(Crowley1976:12-13).Again,if

MaxNordausawinBaudelaire‘atonceamysticandanerotomaniac’inspiredbyvisions

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of‘hashishandopium’(1895:285),Crowleywastheepitomeofthatdarktrajectory.

Crowley’sarticulationofanapproachthatused‘themethodofscience’topursue‘the

aimofreligion’wasofcourseadevelopmentofideasalreadyincirculation.Notonly

weresimilarapproachesevidentintheworkofmembersoftheSocietyforPsychical

Research,butCrowleyexplicitlydrewonJamesianideasconcerningthepsychological

interrogationofmysticalstates.Inparticular,drugsemergedastechnologiesthat

enableduserstoinducestatesoftranscendenceinawaythatcouldbecontrolledand,

therefore,examined.Assuch,theyemergedasanimportantelementinthereversalof

themoderndiscoursethatdifferentiatedscienceandreligion.Psychoactiveswere

technologiesthatcouldbeusedtoaccessotherformsofconsciousnessand,perhaps,

otherlevelsofreality.EvenifCrowleycannotbesaidtohavehadtheculturalimpactof

Huxley,hisocculttheoryandpracticerepresentsanimportantmomentinpsychedelic

history.

Finally,becausenineteenthcenturyoccultistswhowantedtomaintainacertainlevelof

credibility,nottosayrespectability,neededtodistancetheirideasfromdiscoursesof

madnessandaddiction,theytendedexpressambivalencetowarddruguseandevena

preferenceforabstinence.Crowley,whilenottooworriedaboutrespectability,was

neverthelessconcernedaboutesotericcredibility.Consequently,severaltimeshe

suggestedthatpsychoactivesshould,ineffect,beseenastrainingwheelsonthenovice’s

occultbicycle.Hewasalsokeentoadvancethenotionthatpsychedelicexperimentation

couldbealignedwithstudiesinthepsychologyofconsciousness.Hence,forexample,

James’sVarietiesofReligiousExperienceprovidedagreatservice,inthatitconstructeda

respectablescientificcontextwithinwhichtoembedhisaccountsofinducedaltered

states.However,regardlessofhisdiscussionsofintoxicationinoccultpractice,hewas

alwayscarefultofocusonthedevelopmentoftheunaidedwill.Thatsaid,inthefinal

analysis,wehaveseenthathisfewtypicallycandidautobiographicalreflectionsreveala

manhauntedbyaddiction.

ReferencesBaudelaire,Charles.1910.‘ThePoemofHashish,’TheEquinox1.3,39-64.Bedford,Sybille.1974.AldousHuxley:ABiography.Vol.2,1939-1963.London:Chatto&Windus,1974.

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Booth,Martin.2000.AMagickLife:ABiographyofAleisterCrowley.London:Hodder&Stoughton.Breeze,William.2015.‘Introduction.’InAleisterCrowley,TheDrugandOtherStories.Ware:WordsworthEditions,2015,xi-xviii.Burroughs,WilliamS.1977.Junky.London:Penguin.Churton,Tobias.2014.AleisterCrowley:TheBeastinBerlin.Art,Sex,andMagickintheWeimarRepublic.Rochester:InnerTraditions.Crowley,Aleister.1909a.‘TheTempleofSolomontheKing(Book1),’TheEquinox1.1,141-230.Crowley,Aleister.1909b.‘TheDrug,’TheIdler34,No.36(January),403-408.ReprintedinAleisterCrowley,TheDrugandOtherStories.Ware:WordsworthEditions,2015,107-113.Crowley,Aleister.1910.‘TheTempleofSolomontheKing(Book4),’TheEquinox1.4,43-118.Crowley,Aleister.1913.‘EnergizedEnthusiasm:ANoteOnTheurgy,’TheEquinox1.9,17-46.Crowley,Aleister.1916.‘TheAttainmentofHappiness,’VanityFair(November):https://www.100thmonkeypress.com/biblio/acrowley/periodicals/attainment/attainment.pdf(accessedJuly7,2016).Crowley,Aleister.1917a.‘Absinthe—TheGreenGoddess,’TheInternational(February),47-51.Crowley,Aleister.1917b.‘Cocaine,’TheInternational(October),291-294.Crowley,Aleister.1919.‘A∴A∴Præmonstrance,’TheEquinox3.1,11-17.Crowley,Aleister.1921.‘LiberXVIII:TheFountainofHyacinth’:http://hermetic.com/crowley/libers/lib93.html(accessedJuly4,2016).Crowley,Aleister(writingunderthepseudonym‘ANewYorkSpecialist’).1922a.‘TheGreatDrugDelusion,’TheEnglishReview(June),571-576Crowley,Aleister(publishedunderthepseudonym‘ALondonPhysician’).1922b.‘TheDrugPanic,’TheEnglishReview(July),65-70.Crowley,Aleister.1923.‘EthylOxide’:http://lib.oto-usa.org/crowley/essays/ethyl-oxide.html(accessed27June,2016).Crowley,Aleister.1970.Moonchild.YorkBeach:SamuelWeiser.

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Crowley,Aleister.1974.TheBookofThoth.YorkBeach:Weiser.Crowley,Aleister.1976.TheBookoftheLaw.YorkBeach:RedWheel/Weiser.Crowley,Aleister.1979.DiaryofaDrugFiend.London:Abacus.Crowley,Aleister.1989.TheConfessionsofAleisterCrowley.EditedbyJohnSymonds&KennethGrant.London:Arkana,1989.Crowley,Aleister(writingunderthepseudonymOliverHaddo).1994.‘ThePsychologyofHashish.’InIsraelRegardieandAleisterCrowley,RollAwaytheStone:AnIntroductiontoAleisterCrowley’sEssaysonthePsychologyofHashish,withtheCompleteTextofAleisterCrowley’sTheHerbDangerous.NorthHollywood:NewcastlePublishing,93-152.OriginallypublishedinTheEquinox1.2(1909),31-89.Crowley,Aleister.1996.MagicalDiariesofAleisterCrowley:Tunisia1923.EditedbyStephenSkinner.YorkBeach:Weiser.Crowley,Aleister.1998.TheVisionandVoice,withCommentaryandOtherPapers.Boston:RedWheel/Weiser.Crowley,Aleister.2000.Magick:LiberABA,Book4.YorkBeach:SamuelWeiser.Davenport-Hines,Richard.2002.ThePursuitofOblivion:ASocialHistoryofDrugs.London:PhoenixPress.Dunaway,DavidKing.1995.AldousHuxleyRecollected:AnOralHistory.NewYork:Carroll&Graf.Frank,Priscilla.2014.‘MeetCameron,TheCounterculturalIconWhoBewitchedLosAngeles,’TheHuffingtonPost(August8):http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/08/08/marjorie-cameron-moca_n_5656561.html(accessedJuly6,2016).Fuller,JohnF.C.1907.TheStarintheWest:ACriticalEssayUpontheWorksofAleisterCrowley.London:WalterScottPublishingCo.Godwin,Joscelyn,ChristianChanel,andJohnPatrickDeveney.1995.TheHermeticBrotherhoodofLuxor:InitiaticandHistoricalDocumentsofanOrderofPracticalOccultism.YorkBeach:SamuelWeiser.Huysmans,Joris-Karl.1959.AgainstNature.Trans.byRobertBaldick.Harmondsworth:Penguin.Huxley,Aldous.1994.TheDoorsofPerceptionandHeavenandHell.London:Flamingo.Kaczynski,Richard.2009.TheWeiserConciseGuidetoAleisterCrowley.SanFrancisco:Weiser.

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Kaczynski,Richard.2010.Perdurabo:TheLifeofAleisterCrowley.Berkeley:NorthAtlanticBooks,2010.King,Francis.2013.TantraforWesterners:APracticalGuidetotheWayofAction,secondedition.Oxford:Mandrake.Leary,Timothy.1970.ThePoliticsofEcstasy.London:Paladin,1970.TLeary,Timothy.1990.Flashbacks:APersonalandCulturalHistoryofanEra.AnAutobiography.NewYork:Tarcher/Putnam.Lewin,Louis.1888.‘UeberAnhaloniumLewinii,’ArchivfürexperimentellePathologieundPharmakologie26.6,401-411.Lewin,Louis.1998.Phantastica:NarcoticandStimulatingDrugs,TheirUseandAbuse.TransbyP.H.A.Wirth.Rochester:ParkStreetPress.Ludlow,FitzHugh.1910.‘TheHasheeshEater,’TheEquinox1.4,135-146.Lytton,EdwardBulwer.1861.Zanoni,Vol.1.Edinburgh:WilliamBlackwood&Sons.Majercik,Ruth.1989.TheChaldeanOracles:Text,Translation,andCommentary.Leiden:E.J.Brill.Maslow,Abraham.1964.Religions,Values,andPeakExperiences.Columbus:OhioStateUniversityPress.Murray,Nicholas.2003.AldousHuxley:AnEnglishIntellectual.London:Abacus.Nordau,Max.1895[1892].Degeneration.NewYork:D.Appleton&Co.Pasi,Marco.2012.‘TheVarietiesofMagicalExperience:AleisterCrowley’sViewsonOccultPractice.’InHenrikBogdan&MartinStarr(eds),AleisterCrowleyandWesternEsotericism.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,73-87.Regardie,Israel.1994.‘RollAwaytheStone.’InIsraelRegardieandAleisterCrowley,RollAwaytheStoneandTheHerbDangerous.NorthHollywood:NewcastlePublishing,1-65.Regardie,Israel.2014. TheEyeintheTriangle:AnInterpretationofAleisterCrowley.LasVegas:NewFalconPublications. Rogers,Matthew.2012.‘FrenziesoftheBeast:ThePhaedranFuroresintheRitesandWritingsofAleisterCrowley.’InHenrikBogdan&MartinStarr(eds),AleisterCrowleyandWesternEsotericism.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,209-225.Suster,Gerald.1989.Crowley’sApprentice:TheLifeandIdeasofIsraelRegardie.London:Rider.

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Sutin,Lawrence.2000.DoWhatThouWilt:ALifeofAleisterCrowley.NewYork:St.Martin’sGriffin.Symonds,John.1958.TheMagicofAleisterCrowley.London:FrederickMuller.Symonds,John.1971.TheGreatBeast:TheLifeandMagickofAleisterCrowley.London:Macdonald.Whineray,E.P.1909.‘APharmaceuticalStudyofCannabisSativa(BeingaCollationofFactsasKnownatthePresentDate),’TheEquinox1.1,233-255.Wilson,RobertAnton.2000.Sex,DrugsandMagick,secondedition.Tempe:NewFalconPublications.Wilson,RobertAnton.2014.‘Introduction.’InIsraelRegardie, TheEyeintheTriangle:AnInterpretationofAleisterCrowley.LasVegas:NewFalconPublications, xix-xxvi. Webb,Don.2013.OverthrowingtheOldGods:AleisterCrowleyandtheBookoftheLaw.Rochester:InnerTraditions.Webb,James.1976.TheOccultEstablishment.LaSalle:OpenCourt. 1WhileCrowley’sparentsbelongedtothePlymouthBrethrensect,hisfatherEdward,whowasanitinerantpreacher,camefromawealthyQuakerfamily,whohadmadetheirfortuneinthebrewingindustry.2‘EthylOxide’wasdictatedtoLeahHirsig(‘Alostrael’)onMay30,1923inTunisia(seeCrowley1996:33).3Posthumouslypublished,CrowleywrotethisadmirablycandiddiaryduringaperiodofrehabilitationinFontainebleu.Itwasoriginallyentitled,‘LiberTzBAVelNIKH.’4Between1909and1914Crowley’sjournalTheEquinoxpublishedawiderangeofmaterial,frompoetryandshortstoriestodiscussionsofyogaandtheoccult.Thetitlereflectsthefactthatitwaspublishedtwiceayearonthevernalandautumnalequinoxes.Overall,thereweretenissues.5ThiswasthemottoforCrowley’sshort-livedjournal,TheEquinox,‘theofficialorgan’oftheA∴A∴—theoccultorderheestablishedfollowinghisdeparturefromtheHermeticOrderoftheGoldenDawn.6ThephraseistakenfromTheChaldeanOracles.Therearevarioustranslationsofavailableonline.CrowleyusedtheversioneditedbyWilliamWynnWestcott.However,foragoodtranslationandscholarlycommentary,seeMajercik1989:‘theinitiatewouldaidinreleasingthesoul[looseningthegirdersofthesoul]byengagingincertainbreathingexercises’(1989:38).7MarcoPasiis,understandably,skepticalthatheevermanagedtofreehimselffromaddiction,notingthat,followinghisfailedattemptatFontainebleau,hecontinuedusinguntilhisdeath(2014:17).8In1924,hepublishedtheinfluentialstudyofpsychoactiveplants,Phantastica:NarcoticandStimulatingDrugs,TheirUseandAbuse.OriginallypublishedinGerman,itwastranslatedintoEnglishin1933.9Itissometimesmentionedincode.Becausetheinitialsofthedrug,‘A’and‘L,’correspondtoHebrewlettersא(aleph)andל(lamedh),inaccordancewithgematria,Crowleyassigneditthenumber31:1=א;.(2301996:Crowleyintablethealsosee215;2012:Rogerssee,)30=ל10Throughouthisdiscussion,hisestimationofCrowleyisalmostentirelylackingincriticaldistanceand,indeed,approacheshagiography.Forexample,notonlydoesheclaimthathis‘fineclassicalandscientificeducationatCambridge’(omittingtomentionthathefailedtocompletehisstudies)and‘hismountaineeringexploits’equippedhimto‘tackletheproblemofpsychedelicdrugs’(how,hedoesnotsay),buthegoesontoinsistthat‘Crowleywasanexperimentalmysticofthehighestmagnitude.Hehadpracticedyogaandmagicaltechniquesassiduouslyformanyyearsuntilhehadachievedathoroughgoing

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masteryoverbothEasternandWesternmethods.Alloftheserareskillswereeventuallybroughttobearonhisexperimentationwithavarietyofdrugs.’Moreover,Crowley’swritings,heclaims,‘bearwitnessto,andprovidemassiveevidenceof,hisobjectiveandscientificattitudetothewholeprocess.’Thisisactuallyveryfarfrombeingthecase(seeRegardie1994:42-43).11‘Ishouldhavebeenassignedpubliclymyproperplaceamongmypeersofthepastwithoutdifficultyhaditnotbeenforonefatalfact.Mypointofviewissooriginal,mythoughtssoprofound,andmyallusionssorecondite,thatsuperficialreaders,carriedawaybythesheermusicofthewords,foundthemselves,sotospeak,intoxicatedandunabletopenetratetothepith’(Crowley,quotedinBooth2000:244).