Akbar The Emperor Of India

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AKBAR,EMPEROR OF INDIA

A PICTURE OF LIFE AND CUSTOMS FROMTHE SIXTEENTH CENTURY

BY

DR. RICHARD VON GARB]g_RECTOROF THE UNIVERSITY OF TUBINGEN

TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN BY LYDIA G. ROBINSON, AND REPRINTEDFROM "THE MONIST" OF APRIL, 1909

CHICAGOTHE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY

1909


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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.Akbar Directing the Tying-up of a Wild Elephant Frontispiece.Akbar, Emperor of India, facing p. 4Mausoleum of Akbar's Father, Humayun, " p. 12View of Fathpur, " p. 20Akbar's Grave, *' p. 28Mausoleum of Akbar at Sikandra, " p. 40The Chakra, the Indian Emblem of Empire, p. 42


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AKBAR, EMPEROR OF INDIA.*

THEstudentf ndiahoouldt heameimeen historian, discovers to his sorrow that the land ofhis researches is lamentably poor in historical sources. Andif within the realm of historical investigation, a more se-ductive charm lies for him in the analysis of great per-sonalities han in ascertaining the course of historical de-velopment, hen verily may he look about in vain for suchpersonalities in the antiquity and middle ages of India.Not that the princely thrones were wanting in great men nancient India, for we find abundant traces of them in Hindufolk-lore and poetry, but these sources do not extend toestablishing he realistic element n details and furnishinglife-like portraits of the men themselves. That the Hinduhas ever been but little interested in historical matters isa generally recognized fact. Religious and philosophicalspeculations, dreams of other worlds, of previous and fu-ture existences, have claimed the attention of thoughtfulminds to a much greater degree han has historical reality.The misty myth-woven veil which hangs over personsand events of earlier times, vanishes at the beginning ofthe modern era which in India starts with the Moham-medan conquest, for henceforth the history of India iswritten by foreigners. Now we meet with men who takea decisive part in the fate of India, and they appear as* This essay s an enlarged form of an addressdelivered on the occasionof the birthday of King Wilhelm II of Wtirttemberg, on February 25, 1909.


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AKBAR, EMPEROR OF INDIA. 3shameless rankness in his account of the expedition, andhe further relates that after his entry into Delhi, all three

"districts of the city were plundered "according to the willof God/'2 In 1526 Babu, a descendantof Timur, madehis entry into Delhi and there founded the dominion of theGrand Moguls (i. e., of the great Mongols). The over-throw of this dynasty was brought about by the disastrousreign of Baber's successorAurungzeb, a cruel, crafty andtreacherous despot, who following the example of his an-cestor Timur, spread terror and alarm around him in thesecond half of the seventeenth and the beginning of theeighteenth enturies. Even to-day Hindus may be seen otremble when they meet the sinister fanatical glance of aMohammedan.

Princes with sympathetic qualities were not entirelylacking in the seven centuries of Mohammedan dominionin India, and they shine forth as points of light from thegloomy horror of this time, but they fade out completelybefore the luminous picture of the man who governed ndiafor half a century (1556-1605) and by a wise, gentle andjust reign brought about a season of prosperity such asthe land had never experienced in the millenniums of itshistory. This man, whose memory even to-day is reveredby the Hindus, was a descendant of Baber, Abul PathJelaleddin Muhammed, known by the surname Akbar "theGreat," which was conferred upon the child even when hewas named, and completelysupplanted he name that prop-erly belonged to him. And truly he justified the epithet,for great, fabulously great, was Akbar as man, general,statesman and ruler,-all in all a prince who deserves tobe known by every one whose heart is moved by the spec-tacle of true human greatness.3

3A. Miiller, Der Islam im Morgen- und Alendland, II, 300!8From the literature on Emperor Akbar the following works deservespecial mention: J. Talboys Wheeler, The History of India from the EarliestAges. Vol. IV, Pt I, "Mussulman Rule," London, 18/6 (judges Akbar very


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A AKBAR, EMPEROROF INDIA.When we wish to understanda personalitywe are inthe habit of ascertaininghe inheritedcharacteristics, ndinvestigatinghe nfluencesxercisedpont by religion,family, nvironment,ducation,outhfulmpressions,x-perience,ndso orth. Mostmenareeasily omprehen-sibleas the products f these actors. The more nde-pendentf all suchnfluences,r themoren oppositionothem, personalityevelops,hemoreattractive nd nter-estingwill it appearo us. At the first glancet looksasif the EmperorAkbar had developed is entire characterfrom himselfand by his own efforts n total independenceof all influenceswhich in other casesare thought .to deter-mine the character and nature of a man. A Mohammedan,a Mongol,a descendantf the monsterTimur, the son of aweak ncapable ather, born in exile, called when but a ladto the government f a disintegratedand almostannihi-lated realm in the India of the sixteenth century,-whichmeans n an age of perfidy, treachery, avarice, and self-seeking,-Akbar appearsbefore us as a noble man, suscep-tible to all grand and beautiful impressions,conscientious,unprejudiced,and energetic,who knew how to bring peaceand order out of the confusion of the times, who through-out his reign desired the furtherance of his subjects' andnot of his own nterest, who while increasing the privilegesof the Mohammedans,not only also declared equality ofrights for the Hindus but even actualized that equality,who in every conceivableway sought to conciliate his sub-

unfairly in many places, but declaresat the bottom of page 135. "The reignof Akbar is one of the most important in the history of India; it is one of themost important in the history of the world"); Mountstuart Elphinstone,History of India, the Hindu and MahometanPeriods, with notesand additionsby E. B. Cowell, th ed.,London,1905;G. B. Malleson, kbar and he Riseofthe Mughal Empire,Oxford, 1890 in W. W. Hunter's Rulers of India) ;A. Muller, Der Islam m M orgen-und Abendland, ol. II, Berlin, 1887;butespecially Count F. A. von Noer, Kaiser Akbar, ein Versuch uher die Gc-schichte ndiensm sechsehntenahrhundert, ol. I, Leyden,1880;Vol. II,revised rom the author'smanuscript y Dr. Gustavvon Buchwald, eyden,1885. n the prefaceo this work the originalsources re isted and described;comparealso M. Elphinstone,pp. 536, 537,note 45.


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AKDAR, EMPEROR OF INDIA.From Noer's Kaiser Akbar, (Frontispiece to Vol. II).


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AKBAR, EMPEROROF INDIA. 5jects so widely at variance with each other in race, cus-toms, and religion, and who finally when the narrow dog-mas of his religion no longer satisfiedhim, attained to apurified faith in God, which was independent f all formu-lated religions.A closer observation, however, shows hat the contrastis not quite so harsh betweenwhat according o our hypoth-eses Akbar should have been as a result of the forces whichbuild up man, and what he actually became. His predilec-tion for science and art Akbar had inherited from hisgrandfather Baber and his father Humayun. His youth,which was passedamong dangers and privations, in flightand in prison, was certainly not without a beneficial n-fluence upon Akbar's development into a man of unusualpower and energy. And of significance or his spiritualdevelopment was the circumstance that after his accessionto the throne his guardian put him in the charge of a mostexcellent tutor, the enlightenedand liberal minded PersianMir Abdullatif, who laid the foundation for Akbar's laterreligious and ethical views. Still, however high we mayvalue the influence of this teacher, the main point lay inAkbar's own endowments,his susceptibility for such teach-ing as never before had struck root with any Mohammedanprince./ Akbar had not his equal n the history of Islam."He is the only prince grown up in the Mohammedancreedwhose endeavor it was to ennoble the limitation of this mostseparatistic of all religions into a true religion of human-ity."*Even the external appearance of Akbar appeals to ussympathetically. We sometimesind reproduceda miniaturefrom Delhi which pictures Akbar as seated; in this the char-acteristic features of the Mongolian race appear softenedand refined to a remarkable degree.* The shape of the

4A.Miiller, II,4i6.* Noer, II as frontispiece (comp. also pp. 327,328); X. Muller, II, 417.


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6 AKBAR,EMPEROR F INDIA.head s rather round, he outlines are softened, he blackeyes arge, houghtful, lmostdreamy, nd only veryslightly lanting,hebrows ull andbushy,he ips some-whatprominentnd henose tiny bit hooked.The aceis beardlessxcept or the rather thin closelycut moustachewhich falls down over the curve of the mouth in soft waves.Accordingo the description f his son, he EmperorJe-hangir,Akbar's omplexions said o havebeen heyellowof wheat; the Portuguese esuitswho came o his courtcalled t plainly white. Although not exactly beautiful,Akbar seemedbeautiful to many of his contemporaries,includingEuropeans, robablybecause f the august andat the same time kind and winsome expression which hiscountenance bore. Akbar was rather tall broad-shoul-dered,strongly built and had long arms and hands.Akbar, the son of the dethroned Emperor ITumfiyun,was born on October 14, 1542,at Amarkot in Simlh, twoyears after his father had been deprived of his kingdomby the usurper Slier Chan. After an exile of fifteen years,or rather after an aimless wandering- and flight of thatlength, the indolent pleasure-and opium-loving Humayunwas again permitted to return to his capital in 1555,-notthrough his own merit but that of his energetic generalBairam Chan, a Turk who in one decisive battle had over-come he Afghans, at that time in possession f the domin-ion. But Humayun was not long to enjoy his regainedthrone; half a year later he fell down a stairway in hispalace and died. In January 1556 Akbar, then thirteenyearsof age,ascendedhe throne. Because f his youthfulyearsBairamChanassumedhe regency s guardianofthe realm or "prince-father" as it is expressedn Hindi,andguidedhewavering hipof statewith a stronghandHe overthrew arious nsurgents nd disposed f themwith coldcruelty. But aftera few yearshe soarousedhe


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AKBAR, EMPEROR OF INDIA. 7illwill of Akbar by deeds of partiality, selfishnessand vio-lence hat in March 1560 Akbar, then 17 years of age, de-cided to take the reins of government into his own hand.Deprived of his office and influence Bairam Chan hastenedto the Punjab and took arms against his Imperial Master.Akbar led his troops in person against the rebel and over-came him. When barefooted, his turban thrown aroundhis neck, Bairam Chan appeared before Akbar and pros-trated himself before the throne, Akbar did not do thething which was customary under such circumstances nthe Orient in all ages. The magnanimous youth did notsentence the humiliated rebel to a painful death but badehim ari^e in memory of the great serviceswhich BairamChan had rendered to his father and later to himself, andagain assume his old place of honor at the right of thethrone. Before the assemblednobility he gave him thechoice whether he would take the governorship of a prov-ince, or would enjoy the favor of his master at court as abenefactor of the imperial family, or whether, accom-panied by an escort befitting his rank, he would prefer toundertake a pilgrimage to Mecca.5 Bairam Chan waswise enough to choose he last, but on the way to Meccahe was killed by an Afghan and the news caused Akbarsincere grief and led him to take the four year old son ofBairam Chan under his special protection.Mahum Anaga, the Emperor's nurse, for whom hefelt a warm attachment and gratitude, a woman revenge-ful and ambitious but loyal and devoted o Akbar, had con-tributed in bringing about the fall of the regent. She hadcared for the Emperor from his birth to his accession andamid the confusion of his youth had guarded him fromdanger; but for this service she expectedher reward. Shesought nothing less than in the role of an intimate con-

6 Noer, I, 131.


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8 AKBAR, EMPEROR OF INDIA.fidante f theyouthfulEmperoro besecretlyhe actualruler of India.MahumAnaga had a son, Adham Chanby name, owhomat her suggestion kbar assignedhe task of re-conqueringndgoverningheprovince f Malwa.AdhamChan was a passionate nd violent man, as ambitiousand avariciousas his mother, and behavedhimself inMalwa as if he were an independent prince. As soonas Akbar learned this he advancedby forced marches toMalwa and surprisedhis disconcertedoster-brotherbe-fore the latter could be warned by his mother. But AdhamChan had no difficulty in obtaining Akbar's forgivenessfor his infringements.

On the way back to Agra, where the Emperor at thattime was holding court, a noteworthy incident happened.Akbar had ridden alone in advance of his escort and sud-denly found himself face to face with a powerful tigresswho with her five cubscameout from the shrubbery acrosshis path. His approaching attendants found the nineteenyear old Emperor standing quietly by the side of theslaughteredbeast which he had struck to the ground witha singleblow of his sword. To how much bodily strength,intrepidity, cold-blooded ourage and sure-sightednesshisblow of the sword testified which dared not come the frac-tion of a second oo late, may be judged by every one whohas any conception f the spring of a raging tigress an-xious for the welfare of her young. And we may easilysurmise he thoughts which the sight aroused n the mindsof the Mohammedan nobles in Akbar's train. At thatmomentmanyambitiouswishesand designsmay havebeencarried to their grave.6The Emperor soon summoned his hot-headed foster-brotherAdhamChan o court n order o keephim wellin sight for he hadcounted ften enough n Akbar's affec-

*Noer, I, 141.


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AKBAR, EMPEROROF INDIA. 9tion for his mother Mahum Anaga to save him from theconsequencesf his sins. Now Mahum Anaga, her son andher adherents,hated the grand vizier with a deadly hatredbecause hey perceived that they were being deprived oftheir former nfluencen mattersof state.This hatred inallyimpelled Adham Chan to a senseless ndertaking. The em-bittered man hatched up a conspiracy against the grandvizier and when one night in the year 1562 the latter wasattending a meeting of political dignitaries on affairs ofstate in the audience hall of the Imperial palace, AdhamChan with his conspirators suddenly broke in and stabbedthe grand vizier in the breast, whereupon his companionsslew the wounded man with their swords. Even now thedeluded Adham Chan counted still upon the Emperor'sforbearance and upon the influence of his mother. Akbarwas aroused by the noise and leaving his apartmentslearned what had happened. Adham Chan rushed to theEmperor, seizedhis arm and begged him to listen to hisexplanations. But the Emperor was beside himself withrage, struck the murderer with his fist so that he fell tothe floor and commanded the terrified servants to bind himwith fetters and throw him head over heels from the ter-race of the palace to the courtyard below. The horribledeed was done but the wretch was not dead. Then theEmperor commanded he shattered body of the dying manto be dragged up the stairs again by the hair and to beflung once more to the ground.7I have related this horrible incident in order to giveAkbar's picture with the utmost possible faithfulness andwithout idealization. Akbar was a rough, strong-nervedman, who was seldom angry but whose wrath when oncearoused was fearful. It is a blemish on his character thatin somecaseshe permitted himself to be carried away tosuch cruel death sentences,but we must not forget that

7J. T. Wheeler, IV, I, 139, 140; Noer, I, 143, 144.


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IO AKBAR, EMPEROROF INDIA.he was hendealingwith the punishment f particularlydesperateriminals, nd that suchsevereudgments adalways een onsideredn the Orient o be righteous ndsensible.Not only n the Orientunfortunately,-evennEurope 00yearsafterAkbar's ime orturesand he rackwere applied at the behestof courts of law.MahumAnagacameoo ate to save er son. Akbarsoughtwith tendercare o console er for his dreadfulend but the heart-broken woman survived the fearful blowof fate only about orty days. The Emperor causedherbody to be buried with that of her son in onecommongraveat Delhi, and he himself accompanied he funeral proces-sion. At his command a stately monument was erectedabove his grave which still stands o-day. His generosityand clemencywere also shown n the fact that he extendedcompletepardon to the accomplices n the murder of thegrand vizier and even permitted them to retain their of-fices and dignities because e was convinced that they hadbeen drawn into the crime by the violent Adham Chan.In other ways too Akbar showed himself to be ready togrant pardon to an almost ncomprehensible'extent. Againand again when an insubordinate viceroy in the provinceswould surrender after an unsuccessful uprising Akbarwould et him off without any penalty, hus giving him theopportunity of revolting again after a short time.It was an eventful time in which Akbar arrived atmanhoodn the midst of all sorts of personaldangers.I will passoverwith but few comments is military ex-peditions hichcan haveno interest or thegeneralpublic.WhenAkbarascendedhe hronehis realmcomprisednlya very small portion of the possessions hich had been sub-ject to his predecessors. ith the energywhich was afundamental characteristicof his nature he once more tookpossession f the provinces which had been orn from theempire, t thesameimeundertakinghe conquest f new


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AKBAR, EMPEROR OF INDIA. 11lands, and accomplished his task with such good fortunethat in the fortieth year of his reign the empire of Indiacoveredmore territory than ever before; that is to say, notonly the whole of Hindustan including the peninsula Gu-jerat, the lands of the Indus and Kashmir but also Af-ghanistan and a larger part of the Dekkhan than had everbeensubject to any former Padishah of Delhi. At this timewhile the' Emperor had his residence at Lahore the phrasewas current in India, "As lucky as Akban"8It was apparent often enough in the military expedi-tions that Akbar far surpassedhis contemporaries n gen-eralship. 9 But it was not the love of war and conquestwhich drove him each time anew to battle; a sincere desireinspired by a mystical spirit impelled him to bring to anend the ceaseless strife between the small states of Indiaby joining them to his realm, and thus to found a greatunited empire.9More worthy of admiration than the subjugation ofsuch large territories in which of coursemany others havealso been successful, is the fact that. Akbar succeeded inestablishing order, peace,and prosperity in the regainedand newly subjugated provinces. This he brought aboutby the introduction of a model administration, an excellentpolice,a regulatedpost service,and especially just divi-sion of taxes.10 Up to Akbar's time corruption had beena matter of course in the entire official service and enormoussums n the treasury were lost by peculation on the part oftax collectors.

Akbar first divided the whole realm into twelve andlater into fifteen viceregencies, and these into provinces,administrative districts and lesser subdivisions, and gov-erned the revenues of the empire on the basis of a uni-

8J.T. Wheeler, IV, I, 180.8 Noer, II, 8, 390, 423.10For the following compare Noer I, 391 f.; M. Elphinstone, 529 f.; G.B. Malleson, 172 ff., 185 f.


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12 AKBAR, EMPEROR OF INDIA.

formly exact survey of the land. , He introduced a standardof measurement, eplacing the hitherto customary landmeasure (a leather strap which was easily lengthened orshortened ccording o the needof the measuringofficer)by a new instrument of measurement n the form of abamboostaff, which was provided with iron rings at defi-nite intervals. For purposes of assessment and was di-vided into four classesaccording to the kind of cultivationpracticed upon it. The first class comprised arable landwith a constant rotation of crops; the second, hat whichhad to lie fallow for from one to two ye^rs in order to beproductive; the third from fhree to four years; tjie fourth1that land which was uncultivated for five years and longeror was not arable at all.x The first two classesof acreagewere taxed one-third of the crop, which according to ourpresent deas seemsan exorbitantly high rate, and it wasleft to the one assessedwhether he would pay the tax inkind or in cash. Only in the case oP luxuries or. manu-factured articles, that is to say, where the use of a circu-lating medium could be assumed,was -cash payment re-quired. Whoever cultivated unreclaimed land! was assistedby the government by the grant of a free supply of seedand by a considerable" reduction in his taxes for the firstfour years.Akbar also introduced a new uniform standard of coin-age, but stipulated that the older coins which were stillcurrent shouldbe acceptedrom peasants or their full facevalue. From all this the Indian peasants could see thatEmperor Akbar not only desired strict justice to rule butalso wished to further their interests, and the peasantshadalways comprised the greatest part of the inhabitants,(even according to the latest census n 1903,vol. I, p. 3, 50to 84 percent of the inhabitants of India live by agricul-ture). But Akbar succeededest in winning the,hearts


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MAUSOLEUMOF AKBAR^SFATHER, II


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AKBAR, EMPEROR OF INDIA. 13of the native inhabitants by lifting the hated poll tax whichstill existed side by side with all other taxes.

The founder of Islam had given the philanthropicalcommand to exterminate from the face of the earth all fol-lowers of other faiths who were not converted to Islam,but he had already convinced himself that it was im-possible to execute this law. And, indeed, f the Moham-medans ad ollowedout this precept, ow would hey havebeen able to overthrow land upon land and finally eventhickly populated India where the so-called unbelieverscomprisedan overwhelming majority? Therefore in placeof complete extermination the more practical arrangementof the poll tax was nstituted, and this was to be paid by allunbelievers in order to be a constant reminder to themof the loss of their independence. This humiliating burdenwhich was still executed in the strictest, most inconsideratemanner, Akbar removed n the year 1565 without regardto the very considerable oss to the state's treasury. Nineyears later followed the removal of the tax upon religiousassembliesand pilgrimages, the execution of which hadlikewise kept the Hindus in constant bitterness towardstheir Mohammedan rulers.

Sometime previous to these reforms Akbar had abol-ished a custom so disgusting that we can hardly compre-hend that it ever could have legally existed. At any rateit alone is sufficient to brand Islam and its supreme con-tempt for followers of other faiths, with one of the greateststains in the history of humanity. When a tax-collectorgathered the taxes of the Hindus and the payment hadbeen made, the Hindu was required "without the slightestsign of fear of defilement" to open his mouth in order thatThis wasmuch more Eana disgustinghumiliation. Whenthe tax-collector availedhimself of this privilege the Hindu

"Noer, II, 6, 7; G. B. Malleson, 174 175-


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I4 AKBAR,EMPEROR F INDIA.lost thereby his greatestpossession, is caste, and wasshut out from any intercoursewith his equals. Accord-ingly he wascompelledo pass is whole ife trembling nterror before this horrible evil which threatened him. Thata man of Akbar's nobility of character should remove suchan atrocious, yes devilish, decree seems o us a matter ofcourse;but for the Hindus it was an enormousbeneficence.Akbar sought also to advance rade and commerce nevery possibleway. He regulated the harbor and tollduties, removed he oppressive axes on cattle, trees, grainand other produceas well as the customary fees of subjectsat every possibleappointment or office. In the year 1574it was decreed hat the loss which agriculture suffered bythe passageof royal troops through the fields should becarefully calculated and scrupulously replaced.Besides hesepractical regulations for the advancementof the material welfare, Akbar's efforts for the ethicaluplift of his subjects are noteworthy. Drunkenness anddebaucherywere punishedand he sought to restrain pros-titution by confining dancing girls and abandonedwomenin one quarter set apart for them outside of his residencewhich received he nameShaitanpuraor "Devil's City."^_The existing corruption in the finance and customs de-partment was abolished by means of a complicated andpunctilious systemof supervision (the bureaus of receiptsand expenditures were kept entirely separated from eachother in the treasury department,) and Akbar himself care-fully examined the accounts handed in each month fromevery district, just as he gave his personal attention withtireless ndustry and painstakingcare to every detail inthe widely ramifieddomainof the administrationof gov-ernment. Moreover he Emperorwas fortunate n havingat the headof the finance epartment prudent, energetic,perfectly honorableand incorruptible man, the Hindu To-

12J. T. Wheeler, IV, I, 173; Noer, I, 4380.


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AKBAR, EMPEROR OF INDIA. 15dar Mai, who without possessing he title of vizier or min-ister of state had assumed all the functions of such anoffice.

It is easily understood that many of the higher taxofficials did not grasp the suddenbreak of a new day butcontinued to oppress and impoverish the peasants n thetraditional way, but the system establishedby Akbar suc-ceededadmirably and soon brought all such transgressionsto light. Todar Mai held a firm rein, and by throwinghundreds of these faithless officers nto prison and by mak-ing ample use of bastinado and torture, spread abroad sucha wholesome terror that Akbar's reforms were soon vic-torious.

How essential it was to exercise the strictest controlover men occupying the highest positions may be seenbythe example of the feudal nobility whose members bore thetitle "Jagirdar." Such a Jagirdar had to provide a contin-gent of men and horses for the imperial army correspond-ing to the size of the estate which was given him in fief.Now it had been a universal custom for the Jagirdars toprovide themselves with fewer soldiers and horses on amilitary expedition than at the regular muster. Then toothe men and horses often proved useless for severe service.When the reserves were mustered the knights dressedupharmless private citizens as soldiers or hired them for theoccasion and after the muster was over, let them go again.In the sameway the horsesbrought forward for the musterwere taken back into private service immediately after-wards and were replaced by worthless animals for the im-perial service. This evil too was abolished at one stroke,by taking an exact personal description of the soldiers pre-sented and by branding the heads of horses, elephantsandcamels with certain marks. By this simple expedient itbecame mpossible o exchangemen and animals presented


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16 AKBAR, EMPEROROF INDIA.at the muster for worthless material and also to loan themto other knights during muster.

The number of men able to bear arms in Akbar's realmhas beengiven as about four and a half millions but thestandingarmy which was held at the expense f the statewas small in proportion. It contained only about twenty-five thousand men, one-half of whom comprised the cavalryand the rest musketry and artillery. Since India does notproduce first class horses,Akbar at once provided for theimportation of noble steeds rom other lands of the Orientwhich were famed for horse breeding and was accustomedto pay more for such animals than the price which wasdemanded. In the same way no expense was too great forhim to spendon the breeding and nurture of elephants, forthey were very valuableanimals for the warfare of that day.His stables contained from five to six thousand well-trainedelephants. The breeding of camelsand mules he also ad-vanced with a practical foresight and understood how toovercome he widespread prejudice in India against theuse of mules.

Untiringly did Akbar inspect stables,arsenals,militaryarmories, and shipyards, and insisted on perfect order inall departments. He called the encouragementof seaman-ship an act of worship13but was not able to make India.a maritime power.Akbar had an especial nterest in artillery, and with ita particular gift for the technique and great skill in mech-anical matters. "He invented a cannon which could betakenapart to be carried more easilyon the march and couldbe put up quickly, apparently or use in mountain batteries.By another invention he united seventeen cannons in sucha way that they could be shot off simultaneously by onefuse.14 Hence t is probably a sort of mitrailleuse. Akbar"Noer, II, 378.

14Noer, I, 429. The secondnvention, however, s questionedby Buchwald


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AKBAR, EMPEROR OF INDIA. 17is also said to have invented a mill cart which served as amill as well as for carrying freight. With regard to theseinventions we must take into consideration the possibilitythat the real inventor may have beensomeone else,but thatthe flatterers at the court ascribed hem to the Emperor be-cause the initiative may have originated with him.The details which I have given will suffice to showwhat perfection the military and civil administration at-tained through Akbar's efforts. Throughout his empireorder and justice reigned and a prosperity hitherto un-known. Although taxes were never less oppressive inIndia than under Akbar's reign, the imperial income forone year amounted to more than $120,000,000,a sum atwhich contemporary Europe marveled, and which we mustconsider in the light of the much greater purchasing powerof money in the sixteenth century.15 A large part of Ak-bar's income was used in the erection of benevolent insti-tutions, of inns along country roads n which ravelerswere entertained at the imperial expense, n the supportof the poor, in gifts for pilgrims, in granting loans whosepayment was never demanded, and many similar ways. Tohis encouragement of schools, of literature, art and scienceI will refer later.

Of decided significance for Akbar's successwas hispatronage of the native population. He did not limit hisefforts to lightening the lot of the subjugated Hindus andrelieving them of oppressive burdens; his efforts wentdeeper. He wished to educate the Mohammedans andHindus to a feeling of mutual good-will and confidence,and in doing so he was obliged to contend in the one caseagainst haughtiness and inordinate ambition, and in theother against hate and distrustful reserve. If with this(II, 372) because of the so-called "organ cannons**which were in use inEurope as early as the I5th century.

15Noer, I, 439.


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jg AKBAR, EMPEROROF INDIA.end n viewhe actually avored he Hindus by keeping"certainonesclose o him and advancing hem to the mostinfluentialositionsn thestate, edid t becausee foundcharacteristicsn the Hindus (especially n their noblestrace,heRajputs)whichseemedo him mostvaluable forthe stabilityof the empireand for the promotion of thegeneralwelfare. He hadseen noughaithlessnessn theMohammedannobles and in his own relatives. Besides,Akbar was born in the houseof a small Rajput prince whohad shownhospitality o Akbar's parentson their flightand had given them his protection.The Rajputsare the descendantsf the ancient Indianwarrior race andare a brave,chivalrous, trustworthy peoplewho possess love of freedomand pride of race quite differ-ent in character rom the rest of the Hindus. Even to-dayevery traveler in India thinks he has been set down in an-other world when he treads the ground of Rajputana andseesaround him in place of the weak effeminate servile in-habitants of other parts of the country powerful uprightmen, splendidwarlike figures with blazing defiant eyes andlong waving beards.While Akbar valued the Rajputs very highly his ownpersonalitywas entirely fitted to please hese proud manlywarriors. An incident which took place before the endof the first year of Akbar's reign is characteristic of therelations which existed on the basis of this intrinsic rela-tionship.16Bihari Mai wasa princeof the smallRajput state Am-bir, and possessedufficientpolitical comprehension tounderstandafter Akbar's first great successeshat hisown insignificant power and the nearnessof Delhi made itadvisableo voluntarilyecognizehe Emperor s his liegelord. Therefore e camewith son,grandsonand retainersto swearallegianceo Akbar. Upon his arrival at the im-

M Noer, I, 224-226


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AKBAR,, EMPEROR OF INDIA. 19perial campbefore Delhi, a most surprising sight met hiseyes. Men were running in every direction, fleeing wildlybefore a raging elephant who wrought destruction toeverything that came within his reach. Upon the neck ofthis enraged brute sat a young man in perfect calmnessbelaboring the animal's head with the iron prong whichis used universally in India for guiding elephants. TheRajputs sprang from their horses and came up perfectlyunconcernedo observe he interesting spectacle, nd brokeout in loud applause when the conquered elephant kneltdown in exhaustion. The young man sprang from itsback an$ cordially greeted the Rajput princes (who nowfor the first time recognizedAkbar in the elephant- amer)bidding them welcome o his red imperial tent. From thisoccurrence dates the friendship of the two men. In lateryears Bihari Mai's son and grandson occupiedhigh placesin the imperial service, and Akbar married a daughter ofthe Rajput chief who became the mother of his son andsuccessorSelim, afterwards the Emperor Jehangir. Lateron Akbar received a number of other Rajput women n hisharem.Not all of Akbar's relations to the Rajputs howeverwere of such a friendly kind. As his grandfather Baberbefore him, he had many bitter battles with them, for noother Indian peoplehad opposed im so vigorously as they.Their domain blocked the way to the south, and from theirrugged mountains and strongly fortified cities the Rajputsharassed he surrounding country by many invasions anddestroyedorder, commerceand communication quite afterthe manner of the German robber barons of the MiddleAges. Their overthrow was accordingly a public neces-sity.

The most powerful of these Rajput chiefs was thePrince of Mewar who had particularly attracted the at-tention of the Emperor by his support of the rebels. The


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20 AKBAR/EMPEROR OF INDIA.controlof Mewarrested pon hepossessionf the fortressChitorwhichwasbuilt on a monstrousliff onehundredand wentymeters igh, isingabruptly rom the plainandwasequippeditheverymeansf defencehat couldbecontrived y themilitary skill of that time for an incom-parablytrong ulwark.On heplainat its summitwhichmeasuredover twelve kilometers in circumference a citywell supplied ith water lay within the fortification walls.There an experiencedeneral,Jaymal, the Lion of Chi-tor," was n command. havenot time to relate the partic-ulars of the siege,he aying of ditchesand minesand theuninterrupted battles which preceded he fall of hitor inFebruary,1568. According o Akbar's usual custom heexposedhimself to showersof bullets without once beinghit (the superstition of his soldiers considered him invul-nerable) and finally the critical shot was one in which Ak-bar with his own hafld laid low the brave commander oChitor. Then the defenders considered their cause lost,and the next night saw a barbaroussight, peculiarly Indianin character: the so-calledJauhar demanded his offering*according to an old Rajput custom. Many great firesgleamedweirdly in the fortress. To escape mprisonmentand o save heir honor rom the horrors of captivity, thewomen mounted the solemnly arranged funeral pyres,while all the men,clad in saffron hued garments, conse-crated themselves to death. When the victors entered thecity on the next morninga battlebegan which rageduntil the third evening,when there was no one left to kill.Eight thousand arriorshad fallen,besideshirty thou-sand nhabitantsof Chitor who had participated n thefight. ^With the conquestof Chitor which I have treated atconsiderableength ecauset endedn a typicallyndianmanner,he resistance f the Rajputsbroke down. AfterAkbar had attainedhis purpose e was on the friendliest


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AKBAR, EMPEROR OF INDIA. 21

terms with the vanquished. It testifies to his nobility ofcharacter as well as to his political wisdom that after thiscomplete successhe not only did not celebrate a triumph,but on the contrary proclaimed the renown of the van-quished throughout all India by erecting before the gateof the imperial palace at Delhi two immense stone ele-phants with the statues of Jaymal, the "Lion of Chitor,"and of the noble youth Pata who had performed the mostheroic deeds n the defense of Chitor. By thus honoringhis conquered oes in such a magnanimousmanner Akbarfound the right way to the heart of the Rajputs. By con-stant bestpwal of favors he gradually succeededn so rec-onciling the noble Rajputs to the loss of their independencethat they were finally glad and proud to devote hemselvesto his service, and, under the leadership of their ownprinces, proved themselves to be the best and truest soldiersof the imperial army, even far from their home in the far-thest limits of the realm.

The great massesof the Hindu peopleAkbar won overby lowering the taxes as we have previously related,and byall the other successfulexpedients or the prosperity of thecountry, but especiallyby the concession f perfect liberty :of faith and worship and by the benevolent nterest withwhich he regarded the religious practices of the Hindus.A people n whom religion is the ruling motive of life, after,enduring all the dreadful sufferings of previous centuriesfor its religion's sake, must have been brought to a stateof boundless everenceby Akbar's attitude. And since heHindus were accustomedo look upon the great heroesandbenefactors of humanity as incarnations of deity we shallnot be surprised to read from an author of that time17that every morning before sunrise great numbers of Hin-* dus crowded together in front of the palace to await theappearance f Akbar and to prostrate hemselves s soon17Badaoni in Noer, II, 320.


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22 AKBAR, EMPEROROF INDIA,as he was seen t a window,at the same ime singingreligiousymns.his anaticalnthusiasmf the Hindusfor hispersonkbar new ow o etainnotonlyby actualbenefits ut alsoby small, well calculated evices.It is a familiar fact that the Hindus considered theGangeso bea holy iver and hat cowsweresacredani-mals. Accordingly ecaneasily nderstand kbar's pur-posewhenwe earn hat at everymealhe drankregularlyof water from the Ganges carefully filtered and purifiedto be sure) calling it "the water of immortality/'18 andthat later he forbade he slaughteringof cattle and eating-their flesh.19But Akbar did not go so ar in his cpnnivancewith the Hindus that he consideredall their customs goodor took them under his protection. For instancehe forbadechild marriages among he Hindus, that is to say the mar-riage of boys under sixteen and of girls under fourteenyears, and he permitted the remarriage of widows. Thebarbaric customsof Brahmanism were repugnant to hisvery soul. He therefore most strictly forbade the slaught-ering of animals for purposes of sacrifice, the use of ordealsfor the execution of justice, and the burning of widowsagainst their will, which indeed was not established accord-ing to Brahmanaw but wasconstantly racticed ccordingto traditional custom.20 To be sure neither Akbar nor hissuccessor ehangir were permanently successful in theirefforts o put an end o the burning of widows. Not untilthe year 1829was he horriblecustompractically doneaway with through the efforts of the English.Throughout is entire ife Akbar was a tirelessly in-dustrious,estlessly ctiveman. By means f ceaselessactivity hestruggledsuccessfullygainsthis natural tend-ency o melancholy nd n this way kept his mind whole-some,which s mostdeserving f admiration n an OrientalMNoer,I, 317, 18. */&., 376, 17.*J. T.Wheeler,V, , 173; .Elphinstone,26;G.B.Malleson,76.


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AKBAR, MPERORF NDIA. 23monarch howas broughtn contactayby daywith m-moderate flattery and idolatrousveneration. Well didAkbarknow hat noOrientalation an egovernedith-out a displayof dazzling splendor; ut in the midstof thefabulous luxury with which Akbar's court was fitted outand his campon the march, n thepossessionf an incom-parably rich harern whichaccompaniedhe Emperor n hisexpeditions and journeys n large palatial tents, Akbaralways showed a remarkable moderation. It is true thathe abolished the prohibition of wine which Islam had in-augurated and had a court cellar in his palace,but he him-self drank only a little wine and only ate oncea day andthen did not fully satisfy his hunger at this onemeal whichhe ate alone and not at any definite time.21 Though hewas not strictly a vegetarian yet he lived mainly on rice,milk, fruits and sweets, and meat was repulsive to him.He is said to have eatenmeat hardly more than four timesa year.22Akbar was very fond of flowers and perfumes andespecially enjoyed bloodeddoveswhosecare he well under-stood. About twenty thousandof thesepeacefulbirds aresaid to have made their home on the battlements of hispalace. His historian23 relates: "His Majesty deigned oimprove them in a marvelousmannerby crossing he raceswhich had not been done formerly."Akbar was passionatelyond of hunting and pursuedthe noble sport in its different orms, especiallyhe tigerhunt and the trapping of wild elephants,24ut he alsohunted with trained falcons and leopards, owning no lessthan nine hundred hunting eopards. He wasnot fond ofbattue; he enjoyed the excitementand exertion of the

aNoer, II, 355-22 . T. Wheeler,V, I, 169,ollowingheold English eographeramuelPurchas.33Abul Fazl in Noer, I, 511.84M. Elphinstone, 519.


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24 AKBAR, EMPEROR OF INDIA.actual hunt as a means for exercise and recreation, fortraining theeyeandquickeningheblood.Akbar took pleas-ure also in games. Besideschess,cards and other games,fights betweenanimals may especiallybe mentioned,ofwhich elephant ights were the most common, ut therewere also contests between camels, buffaloes, cocks, andeven frogs, sparrows and spiders.Usually, however, the whole day was filled up from thefirst break of dawn for Akbar with affairs of governmentand audiences, for every one who had a request or agrievance to bring forward could have access o Akbar,and he showed the same nterest in the smallest incidentsas in the greatestaffairs of state. He alsoheld courts ojustice wherever he happened o be residing. No criminalcould be punished there without his knowledge and nosentence f death executeduntil Akbar had given the com-mand three times.25

Not until after sunset did the Emperor's time of recrea-tion begin. Since he only required three hours of sleep26he devoted most of the night to literary, artistic and scien-tific occupations. Especially poetry and music delightedhis heart. He collected a large library in his palace anddrew the most famous scholars and poets to his court. Themost mportant of thesewere the brothers Abul Faiz (withthe nom de plume Faizi) and Abul Fazl who have madeAkbar's fame known to the whole world through theirworks. The former at Akbar's behest translated a seriesof Sanskrit works into Persian, and Abul Fazl, the highlygifted minister and historian of Akbar's court (who tobe sure can not be exonerated rom the charge of flattery)likewise composed n the Persian language a large his-torical work written in the most flowery style which is themain sourceof our knowledge of that period. This famous

28 . T. Wheeler, IV, I, 168.*Loc. cit., 169.


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AKBAR, EMPEROROF INDIA. 25work is divided in two parts, the first one of which underthe title Akbarname, "Akbar Book/' contains he completehistory of Akbar's reign, whereas the secondpart, the Ami Akbari, "The Institutions of Akbar," gives a presentationof the political and religious constitution and administra-tion of India under Akbar's reign. It is also deserving ofmention in this connection that Akbar instituted a boardfor contemporary chronicles,whoseduty it was to composethe official record of all events elating to the Emperor andthe government as well as to collect all laws and decrees.27When Akbar's recreation hours had come n the nightthe poet of his court brought their verses. Transla-tions of famous works in Sanskrit literature, of the NewTestament and of other interesting bookswere read aloud,all of which captivated the vivacious mind of the Emperorfrom which nothing was farther removed than onesided-ness and narrow-mindedness. Akbar had also a discrimi-nating appreciation for art and industries. He himselfdesigned the plans for some extremely beautiful cande-labra, and the manufacture of tapestry reachedsuch a stateof perfection in India under his personal supervision thatin those days fabrics were produced n the great imperialfactories which in beauty and value excelled the famousrugs of Persia. With still more important results Akbar in-fluenced the realm of architecture in that he discoveredhow to combine two completely different styles. For in-deed, "the union of Mohammedan and Indian motivesin the buildings of Akbar (who here as in all other de-partments strove to perfect the complete elevation of na-tional and religious details) to form an improved thirdstyle/528s entirely original.

Among other ways Akbar betrayed he scientific trendof his mind by sending out an expedition in search of the"Noer, 1,432,433-28 . Muller II. 386.


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26 AKBAR, EMPEROROF INDIA.sources f the Ganges.29 hat a man of sucha wonderfuldegreeof versatility shouldhave recognizedhe value ofgeneraleducation ndhavedevoted imself o its improve-ment, we would simply take for granted. Akbar causedschools to be erected throughout his whole kingdom forthe children of Hindus and Mohammedans, whereas hehimself did not know how to read or write.30 This re-markable fact would seem ncredible to us after considering*all the abovementioned acts if it was not confirmed by theexpress testimony of his son, the Emperor Jehangir. Atany rate for an lliterate manAkbar certainlyaccomplishedan astonishing amount. The universal character of theendowments of this man could not have been increased bythe learning of the schools.

I have now come to the point which arouses moststrongly the universal human interest in Akbar, namely,to his religious development and his relation to the reli-gions, or better to religion. But first I must protest againstthe position maintained by a competentscholar31hat Akbarhimself was just as indifferent to religious matters as wasthe houseof Timur as a whole. Against this view we havethe testimony of the conscientiousness ith which he dailyperformed his morning and evening devotions, the valuewhich he placed upon fasting and prayer as a means ofself-discipline, and the regularity with which he madeyearly pilgrimages to the graves of Mohammedan saints.A better insight into Akbar's heart than these egular ob-servancesof worship which might easily be explained bythe force of custom s given by the extraordinary manifesta-tions of a devoutdisposition.When we learn that Akbar in-variably prayed at the grave of his father in Delhi32 before

"J. T. Wheeler, IV, I, 174.80 . T* Wheeler, loc. cit., 141; Noer, I, 193; II, 324, 326.81 . Muller, II, 418.22Noer, I, 262.


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AKBAR, EMPEROROF INDIA. 27starting upon any important undertaking,or that during -the siege of Chitor he made a vow to make a pilgrimageto a shrine in Ajmir after the fall of the fortress, and thatafter Chitor was in his power he performed this journeyin the simplest pilgrim garb, tramping barefooted over theglowing sand,33t is impossible or us to look upon Akbaras irreligious. On the contrary nothing moved the Em-peror so strongly and insistently as the striving after re-ligious truth. This effort led to a struggle against the mostdestructive power in his kingdom, against the Moham-medan priesthood. That Akbar, the conqueror n all do-mains, should also have been victorious in the struggleagainst the encroachmentsof the Church (the bittereststruggle which a ruler can undertake), this alone shouldinsure him a place among the greatest of humanity.The Mohammedan priesthood, the community of theUlemas in whose hands lay also the execution of justiceaccording to the dictates of Islam, had attained great pros-perity in India by countless arge bequests. Its distin-guished membership formed an influential party at court.This party naturally represented he Islam of the stricterobservance, he so-calledSunnitic Islam, and displayed hegreatest severity and intolerance towards the representa-tives of every more liberal interpretation and towards un-believers. The chief udgepf^Agira entenced jgji o deathbecause hey were Shiltes, that, s tCL3ay hey^belongpadUtothe other branchof Islan^and the Ulemasurged Akbar toproceed ikewise against the heretics.34 That arroganceand vanity, selfishnessand avarice, also belonged to thecharacter of the Ulemas is so plainly to be taken forgranted according o all analogieshat it needhardly bementioned. The judicature was everywhere utilized bythe Ulemas as a means for illegitimate enrichment.

** Noer, I, 259.w J. T. Wheeler, IV, I, 156.


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2& AKBAR, EMPEROR F INDIA.This ecclesiastical arty which in its narrow-mindedfolly consideredtself in possession f the whole truth,standsopposedo the nobleskepticAkbar, whose doubt ofthe divine origin of the Koran and of the truth of itsdogmasbeganso o tormenthim that he would pass entirenights sitting out of doorson a stone ost in contemplation.The above mentioned brothers Faizi and Abul Fazl intro-duced to his impressionablepirit the exalted teaching of

Sufism, he Mohammedan ysticismwhose spiritual pan-theismhad ts origin in, or at leastwas strongly influencedby, the doctrine of the All-One, held by the Brahman Ve-danta system. The Sufi doctrine eachesreligious tol-erance and has apparently strengthened Akbar in his re-pugnance towards the intolerant exclusiveness of SunniticIslam.The Ulemas must have been horror-stricken when theyfound out that Akbar even sought religious instructionfrom the hated Brahmans. We hear especially of two,Purushottama and Debi by name, the first of whom taughtSanskrit and Brahman philosophy to the Emperor in hispalace, whereas the secondwas drawn up on a platformto the wall of the palace n the dead of the night and there,suspended in midair, gave lessons on profound esotericdoctrines of the Upanishads to the emperor as he sat bythe window. A characteristic bit of Indian local color!The proud Padishah of India, one of the most powerfulrulers of his time, listening in the silence of night to thewords of the Brahman suspended there outside, who him-self as proud as the Emperor would not set foot inside thedwelling of one who in his eyes was unclean, but whowould not refuse his wisdom to a sincere seeker after truth.

Akbar left no means untried to broaden his religiousoutlook. From Gujerat he summoned some Parsees, fol-lowers of the religion of Zarathustra,and through theminformed himselfof their faith and heir highly developed


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AKBAR'S GRAVE.


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AKBAR, EMPEROR OF INDIA. 29system of ethics which places the sinful thought on thesame level with the sinful word and act.

From olden times the inhabitants of India have had apredisposition for religious and philosophical disputations.So Akbar, too, was convincedof the utility of free discus-sion on religious dogmas.Basedupon his idea,and perhapsalso in the hope that the Ulemas would be discomfitedAkbar founded at Fathpur Sikri, his favorite residence nthe vicinity of Agra, the famous 'Ibadat Khana, literallythe "house of worship/' but in reality the house of con-troversy. This was a splendid structure composed f fourhalls in which scholarsand religious men of all sectsgath-ered together every Thursday evening and were given anopportunity to defend their creeds in the presence and withthe cooperation of the Emperor. Akbar placed he discus-sion in charge of the wise and liberal minded Abul Fazl.How badly the Ulemas, the representatives of Moham-medan orthodoxy, cameoff on thesecontroversial eveningswas to be foreseen. Since they had no successwiththeir futile arguments they soonresorted to cries of fury,insults for their opponentsand even to personal violence,often turning against each other and hurling cursesupontheir own number. In these discussions he inferiority ofthe Ulemas, who nevertheless had always put forth suchgreat claims, was so plainly betrayed that Akbar learnedto have a profound contempt for them.

In addition to this, the fraud and machinations bymeansof which the Ulemas had unlawfully enriched them-selvesbecameknown to the Emperor. At any rate therewas sufficientground for the chastisementwhich Akbar nowvisited upon the high clergy. In the year 1579a decreewasissued which assigned to the Emperor the final decisionin matters of faith, and this was subscribed to by the chiefsof the Ulemas,-with what personal feelings we can wellimagine. For by this act the Ulemas were deprived of


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2O AKBAR, MPERORF NDIA.their ecclesiasticaluthoritywhichwas ransferred o theEmperor.That heOrient oopossessests particular f-ficial mannerof expressionn administrativematters sveryprettilyshown y a decreen whichAkbar grantedthe ong herishedish"of these amehiefs f theUlemasto undertakehe pilgrimage o Mecca,which of coursereally meanta banishmentf several ears. Other un-worthyUlemasweredisplacedrom their positions r de-privedof their sinecures;therswho in their bitternesshad caused ebellion or incited or supported mutiny werecondemnedor high treason. The rich property of thechurcheswas for the mostpart confiscated nd appropri-ated for the generalweal. In short, the power and in-fluence of the Ulemas was completely broken down, themosques tood empty and were transformed nto stablesand warehouses.Akbar had long ceasedo be a faithful Moslem. Nowafter the fall of the Ulemas he came forward openly withhis conviction, declared the Koran to be a human compila-tion and its commands olly, disputed the miracles of Mo-hammed and also the value of his prophecies,and deniedthe doctrine of recompense fter death. " He professed heBrahman and Sufistic doctrine that the soul migratesthrough countless existences and finally attains divinityafter completepurification.The assertionof the Ulemas that every person cameinto the world predisposed owards Islam and that thenatural language f mankindwas Arabic (the Jews madethe same claim for Hebrew and the Brahmans for San-skrit), Akbar refutedby a drastic experimentwhich doesnot correspond with his usual benevolence,but still ischaracteristic f the tendency f his mind. In this caseaconvincing emonstrationppearedo him so necessarthat some ndividuals would have to suffer for it. Accord-ingly in the year 1579 e causedwenty nfants o be


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AKBAR, EMPEROR F INDIA. 3!taken from their parents in return for a compensation ndbrought up under the care of silent nurses n a remote spotin which no word shouldbe spoken. After four years twas proved that as many of theseunhappy children as werestill alive were entirely dumb and possessed o trace of apredisposition for Islam.35 Later the children are said tohave learned to speakwith extraordinary difficulty as wasto be expected.

Akbar's repugnance o Islam developed nto a completerevulsion against every thing connectedwith this narrowreligion and made the great Emperor petty-souled inthis particular. The decrees were dated from the deathof Mohammed and no longer from the Hejra (the flightfrom Mecca to Medina). Books written in Arabic, thelanguage of the Koran were given the lowest place n theimperial library. The knowledge of Arabic was prohib-ited, even the sounds characteristically belonging to thislanguage were avoided.36 Where formerly according toancient tradition had stood the word Bismillahi, "in thename of God," there now appeared he old war cry Alldhuakbar, "God is great/' which came nto use the more gen-erally-on coins, documents, etc.- the more the courtierscame to reverse he senseof the slogan and to apply to itthe meaning, "Akbar is God/'Before I enter into the Emperor's assumption of this

85 . T. Wheeler, IV, I, 174; Noer, I, 511, 512. A familiar classical paral-lel to this incident is the experiment recorded by Herodotus (II, 2) whichthe Egyptian king Psammetich s said to have performed with two infants.It is related that after being shut up in a goafs stable or two yearsseparatedfrom all human intercourse these children repeatedly cried out the allegedPhrygian word jSe/efo,bread," which in reality was probably simply an imita-tion of the bleating of the goats. CompareEdward B. Tyler, Researchesntothe Early History of Mankmd. 2d edition, (London, 1870),page 81: "It is avery trite remark that there is nothing absolutely ncredible in the story andthat Bek} bek is a good imitative word for bleating as in /3\i?x*oAu,Kdottat,bloken, meckern, etc." Farther on we find the account of a similar attemptmade by James IV of Scotland as well as the literature with regard to otherhistorical and legendary precedentsof this sort in both Orient and Occident.

*8Noer, II, 324, 325. Beards which the Koran commanded o be wornAkbar even refused to allow in his presence. M. Elphinstone, 525; G. B.Malleson, 177.


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32 AKBAR, EMPEROROF INDIA.flattery and his conception f the imperial dignity as con-ferred by the graceof God, mustspeakof the nterestingattemptsof the Jesuits o win over o Christianity he mostpowerful ruler of the Orient.As early as in the spring of 1578a Portuguese esuitwho workedamong he Bengalsas a missionaryappearedat the imperial court and pleasedAkbar especiallybecausehe got the betterof the Ulemas n controversy. Two yearslater Akbar sent a very polite letter to the Provincial ofthe Jesuit order in Goa,requestinghim to send wo Fathersin order that Akbar himself might be instructed "in theirfaith and its perfection/' It is easy to imagine how gladlythe Provincial assented to this demand and how carefullyhe proceededwith the selectionof the fathers who were tobe sent away with such great expectations. As gifts tothe Emperor the Jesuits brought a Bible in four languagesand pictures of Christ and the Virgin Mary, and to theirgreat delight when Akbar received them he laid the Bibleupon his head and kissed the two pictures as a sign ofreverence.37

In the interesting work of the French Jesuit Du Jarric,published n 1611,we possess ery detailed accountsof theoperations of these missionaries who were honorably re-ceived at Akbar's court and who were invited to take uptheir residence n the imperial palace. The evening as-semblies n the 'Ibadat Khana in Fathpur Sikri at oncegave the shrewd Jesuits who were schooled in dialectics,an opportunity to distinguish themselvesbefore the Em-peror who himself presidedover this Religious Parliamentin which Christians, Jews, Mohammedans, Brahmans,Buddhists and Parsees debated with each other. Abul Fazlspeaks with enthusiasm in the Akbarname of the wisdomandzealousaith of FatherAquaviva, he eaderof this Jes-uit mission,and relateshow he offered o walk into a fiery

87 . T. Wheeler, IV, I, 162; Noer, I, 481.


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AKBAR, EMPEROR OF INDIA. 33furnace with a New Testament in his hand if the Mullahswould do the same with the Koran in their hand, but thatthe Mohammedan priests withdrew in terror before thistest by fire. It is noteworthy in this connection hat theJesuits at Akbar's court received a warning from theirsuperiors not to risk such rash experiments which mightbe induced by the devil with the view of bringing shameupon Christianity.38 The superiors were apparently wellinformed with regard to the intentions of the devil.

In conversation with the Jesuits Akbar proved to befavorably inclined towards many of the Christian doctrinesand met, his guests half way in every manner possible.They had permission to erect a hospital and a chapel andto establish Christian worship in the latter for the benefitof the Portuguese in that vicinity. Akbar himself occa-sionally took part in this servicekneeling with bared head,which, however, did not hinder him from joining also inthe Mohammedan ritual or even the Brahman religiouspractices of the Rajput women in his harem. He had hissecondson Murad instructed by the Jesuits in the Portu-guese language and in the Christian faith.

The Jesuits on their side pushed energetically towardtheir goal and did not scorn to employ flattery in so far asto draw a parallel between the Emperor and Christ, butno matter how slyly the fathers proceeded n the accom-plishment of their plans Akbar was always a match forthem. In spite of all concessionswith regard to the ex-cellenceand credibility of the Christian doctrines he Em-peror never seemed o be entirely satisfied. Du Jarric"complains bitterly of his obstinacy and remarks that therestless ntellect of this man could never be quietedby oneanswer but must constantly make further inquiry."39 The

88 T v/heeler, IV, I, 165,note, 47; M. Elphinstone, 523,note 8; G. B.Malleson, 162.89 n Noer, I, 485.


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34 AKBAR, EMPEROR OF INDIA.clever historian of Islam makes the following comment:"Bad, very bad;-perhaps he would not even be satisfiedwith the seven riddles of the universe of the latest naturalscience/540

To every petition and importunity of the Jesuits to turnto Christianity Akbar maintained a firm opposition. Asecond and third embassywhich the order at Goa sent outin the nineties of the sixteenth century, also labored in vainfor Akbar's conversion in spite of the many evidences offavor shown by the Emperor. One of the last Jesuits tocome, Jerome Xavier of Navarre, is said to have been in-duced by the Emperor to translate the four Gospelsnto Per-sian which was the language of the Mohammedan court ofIndia. But Akbar never thought of allowing himself tobe baptized,nor could he consider t seriously from politicalmotives as well as from reasons of personal conviction.A man who ordered himself to be officially declared thehighest authority in matters of faith-to be sure not somuch in order to found an imperial papacy in his countryas to guard his empire from an impending religious war-at any rate a man who saw how the prosperity of his reignproceeded rom his own personal nitiative in every respect,such a man could countenance no will above his own norsubject himself to any pangs of conscience. To recognizethe Pope as highest authority and simply to recognize asobjective truth a finally determined system n the realm inwhich he had spent day and night in a hot pursuit after aclearer vision, was for Akbar an absolute impossibility.Then too Akbar could not but see hrough the Jesuitsalthough he appreciated and admired many points aboutthem. Their rigid dogmatism, their intolerance and in-ordinate ambition could leave him no doubt that i theyonce arose to power the activity of the Ulemas, once bygood fortune overthrown, would be again resumedby them

"A. Miiller, II, 420 n.


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AKBAR,EMPERORF NDIA. 35to a stronger ndmoredangerousegree. t is alsoprob-able hatAkbar,whosaw ndheard verything,ad earnedof the horrors of the Inquisition at Goa. Moreover, heclearness of Akbar's vision for the realities of national lifehad oooftenputhimonhisguard o permit im o ookuponthe introduction of Christianity,howeverhighly esteemedby him personally, as a blessing or India. He had brokenthe power of Islam in India; to overthrow in like man-ner the secondgreat religion of his empire, Brahmanism,to which the great majority of his subjectsclung withbody and soul, and hen n placeof both existing religionsto introduce a third foreign religion inimically opposedto them-such a procedure would have hurled India intoan irremediable confusion and destroyed at one blow theprosperity of the land which had been brought about bythe ceaseless efforts of a lifetime. For of course it wasnot the aim of the Jesuits simply to win Akbar personallyto Christianity but they wished to see their religion madethe state religion of this great empire.As has been already suggested, submission o Chris-tianity would also have been opposed o Akbar's inmostconviction. He had climbed far enoughup the stony pathtoward truth to recognizeall religions as historically devel-oped and as the products of their time and the land of theirorigin. All the nobler religions seemed o him to be radia-tions from the one eternal truth. That he thought he hadfound the truth with regard to the fate of the soul in theSufi-Vedantic doctrine of its migration through countlessexistences and its final ascension o deity has been pre-viously mentioned. With suchviews Akbar couldnot be-come a Catholic Christian.The conviction of the final reabsorption nto deity, con-ditions also the belief in the emanation of the ego fromdeity. But Akbar's relation to God is not sufficientlyidentified with this belief. Akbar was convinced that he


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36 AKBAR,, MPERORF NDIA.stood nearer to God than other people. This is alreadyapparent n the title 'The Shadowof God" which he hadassumed. The reversed, or rather the double, meaningof the sentence Allahu akbar, "Akbar is God," was notdispleasing to the Emperor as we know. And when theHindus declared him to be an incarnation of a divinity hedid not disclaim this homage. Such a conceptionwas noth-ing unusual with the Hindus and did not signify a com-plete apotheosis. Although Akbar took great pains hewas not able to permanently prevent the people fromconsidering him a healer and a worker of miracles. ButAkbar had too clear a head not to know that lie was aman,-a man subject to mistakes and frailties; for whenhe permitted himself to be ed into a deedof violencehe hadalways experienced he bitterest remorse. Not the slightestsymptomof Qaesaxomamajcane discoveredn Akbar.Akbar felt that he was a mediator between God andman and believed "that the deity revealed itself to him inthe mystical illumination of his soul."41 This convictionAkbar held in commonwith many rulers of the Occidentwho were much smaller than he. Idolatrous marks of ven-eration he permitted only to a very limited degree. Hewas not always quite consistent n this respect however,and we must realize how infinitely hard it was to be con-sistent in this matter at an Oriental court when the cus-tomary servility, combined with sincere admiration and^reverence, onged to actively manifest itself.

Akbar, as we have already seen, suffered the Hinducustom of prostration, but on the other hand we have theexpress estimony to the contrary from the author Faizi,the trusted friend of the Emperor, who on the occasionofan exaggerated homage iterally says: "The commandsofHis Majesty expressly orbid such devout reverenceand asoften as the courtiers offer homage of this kind becauseof

"Noer, II, 314, 355.


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AKBAR, MPERORF NDIA. 37their loyal sentiments is Majesty orbids hem, or suchmanifestationsf worship elongo God lone/'42inallyhoweverAkbar felt himselfmovedo forbid prostrationpublicly, et o permit t in a privatemanner, sappearsnthe following words of Abul Fazl43:"But sinceobscurantists onsiderprostration o be ablasphemousdoration f man,His Majesty n his prac-tical wisdomhas commandedhat it be put an end o withignorant peopleof all stations and also that it shall not bepracticedevenby his trustedservants n publiccourt days.Neverthelessf people ponwhom he star of good ortunehas shone are in attendanceat private assemblies nd re-ceive permission to be seated, hey may perform the pros-tration of gratitude by bowing their foreheads o the earthand so share in the rays of good fortune. So forbiddingprostration to the people at large and granting it to theselect he Emperor fulfils the wishes of both and gives theworld an example of practical wisdom."The desire to unite his subjects as much as possiblefinally impelled Akbar to the attempt to equalize eligiousdifferences as well. Convinced hat religions did not differfrom each other in their innermost essence,he combinedwhat in his opinion were the essentialelementsand aboutthe year 1580 founded a new religion, the famous Din iIlahi, the "religion of God." This religion recognizesonlyone God, a purely spiritual universally efficientbeing fromwhom the human soul is derived and towards which ittends. The ethics of this religion comprises the highmoral requirements f Sufismand Parsism: completeol-eration, equality of rights among all men, purity inthought, word and deed. The demandof monogamy,oo,was added later. Priests, images and temples,-Akbarwould have none of these n his new religion, but from the

"In Noer, 11,409.aInNoer, II, 347, 348.


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38 AKBAR,EMPERORF NDIA.Parseeshe took the worship of the fire and of the sun asto him light and its heat seemed he most beautiful symbolof the divine spirit.44 He also adopted the holy cord of theHindus and wore upon his forehead the colored token cus-tomary among them. In this eclecticmanner he accommo-dated himself in a few externalities to the different reli-gious communities existing in his kingdom.Doubtless in the foundation of his Din i Ilahi Akbarwas not pursuing merely ideal ends but probably politicalonesas well, for the adoption of the new religion signifiedan increased oyalty to the Emperor. The novice had todeclare himself ready to yield to the Emperor his property,his life, his honor, and his former faith, and in reality theadherents of the Din i Ilahi formed a clan of the truest andmost devoted servitors of the Emperor. It may not bewithout significance hat soonafter the establishmentof theDin i Ilahi a new computation of time was introducedwhich dated from the accession of Akbar to the throne inI556'After the new religion had been in existence perhapsfive years the number of converts began to grow by thethousandsbut we can say with certainty that the greaterportion of these changed sides not from conviction buton accountof worldly advantage,since hey saw that mem-bership in the new religion was very advantageous to acareer in the service of the state.45 By far the greatestnumber of those who professed the Din i Ilahi observedonly the external forms, privately remaining alien to it.In reality the new religion did not extend outside ofAkbar's court and died out at his death. Hence if failurehere can be charged o the accountof the great Emperor,yet this very failure redounds to his honor. Must it notbe counted as a great honor to Akbar that he considered

** M. Elphinstone, 524.45Noer, I, 503.


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AKBAR,EMPERORF NDIA. 39it possibleo win overhispeopleo a spiritualmagelessworshipof God? Had he known hat the religiouse-quirementsf themassesanonlybesatisfiedy concreteobjects f worship ndby miraclesthemore tartlinghebetter), that a spiritualizedaith can neverbe he posses-sion of any but a few chosen ouls, e wouldnot havepro-ceededwith the founding of the Din i IlahL And still wecannot call its establishmentan absolute ailure, for thespirit of tolerancewhich lowedout from Akbar's eligionaccomplishednfinite good and certainlycontributedustas much to lessening he antagonismsn India as did Ak-bar's social and industrial reforms.

A man who accomplisheduchgreat things and desiredto accomplishgreater, deserves better fortune than wasAkbar's towards the end of life. He had provided or hissons the most careful education,giving them at the sametime Christian and orthodox Mohammedan instructors inorder to lead them in their early years to the attainmentofindependentviews by meansof a comparison etween on-trasts ; but he was never to have pleasure n his sons. Itseems that he lacked the necessaryseverity. The twoyounger boys of this exceedingly temperate Emperor,Murad and Danial, died o delirium tremens in their youtheven before their father. The oldest son, Selim, later theEmperor Jehangir, was also a drunkard and was savedfrom destruction through this inherited vice of the Timurdynastyonly by the wisdom nddeterminationf his wife.But he remained a wild uncontrolled cruel man (as differ-ent as possiblerom his fatherand apparently oby inten-tion) who took sideswith the party of the vanquishedUlemas and steppedorth as the restorerof Islam. Infrequent open rebellionagainsthis magnanimousatherwrlio was only too ready o pardonhim, he broughtuponthis father the bitterest sorrow; and especiallyby havingthe trustworthyministerand friendof his father,Abul


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4O AKBAR, EMPEROROF INDIA.Fazl, murdered while on a journey. Very close to Akbaralso was the loss of his old mother to whom he had clunghis whole life long with a touching love and whom he out-lived only a short time.Akbar lost his best friends and his most faithful ser-vants before he finally succumbedo a very painful abdom-inal illness, which at the last changedhim also mentally toa very sad extent, and finally carried him off on the nightof the fifteenth of October, 1605. He was buried at Sikan-dra near Agra in a splendid mausoleumof enormous pro-portions which he himself had caused o be built and whicheven to-day stands almost uninjured.This in short is a picture of the life and activities ofthe greatest ruler which the Orient has ever produced.In order to rightly appreciateAkbar's greatness we mustbear in mind that in his empire he placed all men on anequality without regard to race or religion, and granteduniversal freedom of worship at a time when the Jews werestill outlaws in the Occident and many bloody persecutionsoccurred from time to time: when in the Occident menwere imprisoned, executed or burnt at the stake for thesake of their faith or their doubts; at a time when Europewas polluted by the horrors of witch-persecution and themassacre of St. Bartholemew.46 Under Akbar's rule India'stood upon a much higher plane of civilization in the six-teenth century than Europe at the same time.Germanyshouldbe proud that the personality of Akbarwho according to his own words "desired to live at peacewith all humanity, with every creature of God," has soinspired a noble German of princely blood in the last cen-tury that heconsecratedhework of his life to the biographyof Akbar. This man is the Prince Friedrich August ofSchleswig-Holstein,ountof Noer,whowanderedhroughthe whole of Northern India on the track of Akbar's ac-

40Noer, I, 490 n.


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MAUSOLEUM OF AKTAR AT SIKANDRA.


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AKBAR, EMPEROR OF INDIA. 4!tivities, and on the basis of the most careful investigationof sourceshas given us in his large two-volumed work thebest and most extensive information which has been writ-ten in Europe about the Emperor Akbar. How much hiswork has been a labor of love can be recognizedat everystep in his book but especiallymay be seen n a touchingletter from Agra written on the 24th of April, 1868, nwhich he relates that he utilized the early hours of thisday for an excursion to lay a bunch of fresh roses on Ak-bar's grave and that no visit to any other grave had evermoved him so much as this.47

47Noer, 11,564, 572.

fAce. Mo. 3Class No.

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Akbar The Emperor Of India

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