AIR COMBAT MANEUVERING

NAVAL AIR TRAINING COMMAND NAS CORPUS CHRISTI, TEXAS CNATRA P-1289 (Rev. 08-09)

AIR COMBAT MANEUVERING

FLIGHT TRAINING INSTRUCTION T-45 STRIKE AND IUT

2009

FLIGHT TRAINING INSTRUCTION

FOR

AIR COMBAT MANEUVERING

T-45

P-1289

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HOW TO USE THIS FTI This Flight Training Instruction (FTI) is your textbook for the Air Combat Maneuvering (ACM) stage of your Jet Pilot Training and is the source document for all procedures related to ACM. In addition, it includes suggested techniques for performing each maneuver and making corrections. Use your FTI to prepare for and afterward to review lessons and flights. This information will help you effectively prepare for lessons: know all the procedures in the assigned section(s), review the glossary, and be prepared to ask your instructor about anything that remains unclear. Then you can devote your attention to flying the T-45A. After a flight, review the FTI materials to reinforce your understanding and to clarify any difficult maneuvers or procedures. Note that this FTI also contains information on emergencies related to this stage. This section of the FTI amplifies but does not supplant the emergency procedures information contained in the T-45A NATOPS manual. Reading requirements for flight procedures lessons (lectures) are listed in Appendix A, "Lesson Preparation," along with the course learning objectives. The end-of-stage exam will be based on these objectives. Complete the required reading prior to each lesson (lecture).

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LIST OF EFFECTIVE PAGES Dates of issue for original and changed pages are: Original...0...15 Feb 07 (this will be the date issued) Revision1007 Oct 09 TOTAL NUMBER OF PAGES IN THIS PUBLICATION IS 176 CONSISTING OF THE FOLLOWING: Page No. Change No. Page No. Change No

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INTERIM CHANGE SUMMARY The following Changes have been previously incorporated in this manual:

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TABLE OF CONTENTS HOW TO USE THIS FTI............................................................................................................ iv LIST OF EFFECTIVE PAGES................................................................................................... v INTERIM CHANGE SUMMARY............................................................................................. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................... vii TABLE OF FIGURES............................................................................................................... viii INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................... x CHAPTER ONE - BASIC AERODYNAMIC REVIEW....................................................... 1-1

100. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1-1 101. BACKGROUND ......................................................................................................... 1-2 102. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS .................................................................. 1-3 103. ENERGY MANEUVERABILITY.............................................................................. 1-4 104. TURN PERFORMANCE NUMBERS........................................................................ 1-9 105. T-45 GOUGE NUMBERS ........................................................................................ 1-10 106. APPLIED EM CONCEPTS....................................................................................... 1-11 107. MANEUVERING OUR AIRCRAFT........................................................................ 1-11 108. 1 V 1 ACM................................................................................................................. 1-17 109. 1 V 1 ACM EXECUTION......................................................................................... 1-20 110. DEFENSIVE ACM.................................................................................................... 1-49

CHAPTER TWO - SAFETY/EMERGENCY CONSIDERATIONS ................................... 2-1

200. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 2-1 CHAPTER THREE - SELF-TEST .......................................................................................... 3-1

300. INTRODUCTION N/A ............................................................................................... 3-1 APPENDIX A - GLOSSARY................................................................................................... A-1

A100. GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................... A-1 SYMBOLOGY ....................................................................................................................... A-9

APPENDIX B - STUDY RESOURCES FOR ACMFP......................................................... B-1 APPENDIX C 2 V 1 ACM COMM SCRIPT ...................................................................... C-1 APPENDIX D - INDEX............................................................................................................ D-1

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TABLE OF FIGURES Figure 1-1 Aerodynamic Forces Acting Upon an Aircraft in Flight ........................ 1-1 Figure 1-2 Angle Of Attack.......................................................................................... 1-2 Figure 1-3 Turn Rate Advantage Comparison .......................................................... 1-4 Figure 1-4 Generic E/M Diagram................................................................................ 1-6 Figure 1-5 Turn Performance - 10,000 Feet ............................................................... 1-9 Figure 1-6 Vertical Maneuvering - The Egg............................................................. 1-12 Figure 1-7 Flight Path Overshoot.............................................................................. 1-13 Figure 1-8 3/9 Line ...................................................................................................... 1-14 Figure 1-9 Pursuit Curves .......................................................................................... 1-22 Figure 1-10 Control Zone Entry................................................................................ 1-24 Figure 1-11 Bubble Entry........................................................................................... 1-25 Figure 1-12 Attack Window Entry............................................................................ 1-27 Figure 1-13 Misaligned Turn Circles ........................................................................ 1-28 Figure 1-14 Offensive Break Turn Evaluation......................................................... 1-30 Figure 1-15 Flat Scissors ............................................................................................ 1-32 Figure 1-16 Rolling Scissors....................................................................................... 1-34 Figure 1-17 Rolling Scissors Positions....................................................................... 1-36 Figure 1-18 Snap Shot Drill ....................................................................................... 1-40 Figure 1-19 Flat Scissors ............................................................................................ 1-43 Figure 1-20 Rolling Scissors....................................................................................... 1-44 Figure 1-21 Starting Inside The Bubble.................................................................... 1-46 Figure 1-22 Break Turn Exercise .............................................................................. 1-48 Figure 1-23 Angle Off-Tail Recognition ................................................................... 1-52 Figure 1-24 Attacker Bubble Entry........................................................................... 1-53 Figure 1-25 Misaligned Turn Circles ........................................................................ 1-55 Figure 1-26 Flight Path Overshoot............................................................................ 1-57 Figure 1-27 Flat Scissors ............................................................................................ 1-59 Figure 1-28 Rolling Scissors....................................................................................... 1-60 Figure 1-29 Snap Guns Exercise................................................................................ 1-66 Figure 1-30 Flat Scissors ............................................................................................ 1-67 Figure 1-31 Rolling Scissors....................................................................................... 1-68 Figure 1-32 Starting Inside The Bubble.................................................................... 1-69 Figure 1-33 Break Turn Exercise .............................................................................. 1-71 Figure 1-34 One-Circle Flow...................................................................................... 1-76 Figure 1-35 Two-Circle Flow ..................................................................................... 1-77 Figure 1-36 Vertical Merges ...................................................................................... 1-78 Figure 1-37 ACM Environment................................................................................. 1-80 Figure 1-38 Fighter Nose High vs Opponent Hi/Level/Lo ...................................... 1-85 Figure 1-39 Fighter Nose Low vs Opponent Hi/Level/Lo ....................................... 1-86 Figure 1-40 Fighter Level vs. Opponent Hi/Level/Lo.............................................. 1-87 Figure 1-41 Butterfly Set ............................................................................................ 1-90 Figure 1-42 Multi-Switch Scenario.......................................................................... 1-104 Figure 1-43 Multi-Switch Scenario.......................................................................... 1-107 Figure 1-44 Multi-Switch Scenario.......................................................................... 1-108

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Figure 1-45 Multi-Switch Scenario.......................................................................... 1-109 Figure 1-46 Disengagement Bugout (Hawk)........................................................... 1-112 Figure 1-47 Counterflow .......................................................................................... 1-113 Figure 1-48 Counterflow Exercise........................................................................... 1-114 Figure 1-49 Counterflow Free Fighter 90-Degree Checkpoint............................. 1-114 Figure 1-50 VFQ Setup (Skull) ................................................................................ 1-117 Figure 1-51 VFQ Bandit Flow .............................................................................. 1-118 Figure 1-52 Knock It Off Flow (Tiger) ................................................................... 1-119 Figure 1-53 VFQ Overall Flow to Fox-2.............................................................. 1-121 Figure 1-54 BVR Bandit Abeam the Section (Hawk)......................................... 1-123 Figure 1-55 BVR Bandit In-Plane/In-Phase Two-Circle Flow .......................... 1-124 Figure 1-56 Classic Two-Circle Flow ...................................................................... 1-125 Figure 1-57 Free/Engaged Fighter Initial Move (Hawk)....................................... 1-126 Figure 1-58 BVR One-Circle Flow (Hawk) ............................................................ 1-127 Figure 1-59 BVR Fighters Use Threat Information (Hawk) ......................... 1-127 Figure 1-60 BVR Late Fighter Maneuver (Hawk).............................................. 1-128 Figure 1-61 BVR Late Fighter Maneuver Unknown Bandit Target.............. 1-128 Figure 1-62 BVR Bandit Switch Post-Merge (Hawk)......................................... 1-129 Figure 1-63 BVR Bandit Unseen Entry (Hawk).................................................. 1-130 Figure 1-64 BVR Counterflow Defensive ............................................................ 1-130 Figure A-1 Symbology ................................................................................................. A-9

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INTRODUCTION This Flight Training Instruction (FTI) is your textbook for the Air Combat Maneuvering (ACM) stage of your Jet Pilot Training and is the source document for all procedures related to ACM. In addition, it includes suggested techniques for performing each maneuver and making corrections. Use your FTI to prepare for lessons and flights and afterward to review. In order to effectively prepare for lessons you should: know all the procedures in the assigned sections, review the glossary, and be prepared to ask your instructor about anything that remains unclear. You can then devote your attention to flying the T-45. After a flight, review the FTI materials to reinforce your understanding and to clarify any difficult maneuvers or procedures. Note that this FTI also contains information on emergencies related to this stage. This section of the FTI amplifies but does not supplant the emergency procedures information contained in the T-45 NATOPS manual. Undeniably, 1 v 1 Air Combat Maneuvering (ACM) training is fun, but there are a number of other reasons why it is important that strike-fighter aircrew continue to study and train in 1 v 1 air combat.

Combat Lessons Learned Despite operating in an era of all-aspect, beyond visual range missiles, history has continuously proven that the majority of air battles are fought and won in the visual arena. Even in the largest furball or multi-plane engagements, for that brief moment when the decision is made to engage an opponent, we are involved in a 1 v 1 engagement. Strike-fighter aircrew MUST be proficient at 1 v 1 ACM to minimize time-to-kill and ensure they leave merges unscathed.

Develops Fundamental Tactical Skills Through ACM we are allowed to practice

briefing, debriefing; stick, rudder and throttle mechanics and tactical decision-making. The development of these core tactical skills and the confidence we gain in maneuvering our aircraft throughout its flight envelope improves our ability to perform and maintain situational awareness in other strike-fighter missions.

The fundamental tactics and maneuvers of air combat have changed little in the last 70 years. In this stage, we will introduce the classic fighter versus fighter maneuvers and discuss how to employ them in staged and dynamic situations. It is incumbent upon all strike-fighter aircrew to have a sound understanding of 1 v 1. The 1 v 1 ACM discussion will use a building block approach, progressing from basic aerodynamic review, to a look at the capabilities of our aircraft and to a 1 v 1 game plan development and execution.

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Baron Manfred von Richthofen, the infamous Red Baron of World War I, once described the basic scope of air combat maneuvering (ACM) as fighter pilots roving in an area allotted to them, spotting an enemy, attacking, and shooting him down. The mission statement is grossly over-simplified when you take into account all the principles of today's section engaged maneuvering, along with modern technology and sophisticated weapon systems. The statement does, however, point out two key concepts in ACM: 1) the basics of ACM have not changed since the early days of aviation, and 2) a fighter pilot must maintain constant aggressiveness for success. As you move through ACM, you will expand on the basic tactical maneuvers learned in TacForm. You will first review the basic performance of low/high yo-yos and displacement rolls, and then be introduced to additional basic ACM maneuvers. Unlike previous blocks, your success will be gauged not on how well you perform particular maneuvers, but on how well you integrate them with tactics and strategies to win one-versus-one against an enemy. Finally, you will be introduced to coordinating your flying with a wingman and practicing section engaged maneuvering against a single bandit. What you learn here will go with you throughout your career in tactical aviation. By the time you complete ACM, you will not be an expert. That happens only in time through constant coaching, practice, and experience. Next to CQ, ACM probably will be your most demanding phase of flight training, requiring immense concentration and attention to your instructors. You must go beyond just mastering the procedures and concepts presented in the classroom or simply applying them in the air. ACM is in many ways an art form - the ultimate art form of aviation. How well you assimilate those principles, maneuvers, tactics, and strategies will depend upon an open mind and your willingness to never give up.

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CHAPTER ONE BASIC AERODYNAMIC REVIEW

100. INTRODUCTION The forces acting on an aircraft in flight are thrust, weight, lift and drag (Figure 1-1). The interactions and changes between these forces define the motion of an aircraft through the air.

Figure 1-1 Aerodynamic Forces Acting Upon an Aircraft in Flight During ACM, because thrust is usually at the maximum (MRT or Full Afterburner) and weight change is negligible at any given moment, thrust and weight will be considered constant during the aerodynamics review. This leaves the aerodynamic forces of lift and drag as the primary variables to consider when analyzing an aircraft's maneuvering performance. We will introduce some definitions for our discussion. 1. LIFT - Lift is created by the resulting pressure differential as air flows over a wing. 2. Coefficient of Lift (CL) - A non-dimensional constant that is based on the shape of the wing. It is a function of angle of attack (AOA), which is the angle between the airfoil chord line and the relative wind. Figure 1-2 depicts the relationship between CL and AOA.

BASIC AERODYNAMIC REVIEW 1-1

CHAPTER ONE AIR COMBAT MANEUVERING

Figure 1-2 Angle Of Attack As AOA is increased, lift is also increased up to CLMAX. The steep drop in CL at high AOA's indicates the point at which a portion of the wing stalls. CLMAX occurs at 21 units AOA. At the lift limit the aircraft will be in heavy buffet. Lift and performance quickly diminish when pulling beyond CLMAX. 101. BACKGROUND 1. Lift versus Drag (L/D) - The ratio between CL and CD is the lifting efficiency of the wing and is dependent on AOA. This ratio is maximized at L/DMAX, which in jet aircraft corresponds to maximum endurance AOA. L/DMAX for the T-45 is 14 units. A more efficient wing (greater L/D ratio) at all AOA's results in better performance throughout the flight envelope. 2. Total Drag - The forces of drag acting on an aircraft are a combination of induced, parasitic and Mach Drag and act parallel to the relative wind. 3. Induced Drag (Dl) - A direct by-product of lift and is associated with wingtip vortices. In general, induced drag is the predominant drag contributor at lower airspeeds. At higher airspeeds, when pulling high g, the Dl curve flattens and DI may actually become the predominate form of drag.

1-2 BASIC AERODYNAMIC REVIEW

AIR COMBAT MANEUVERING CHAPTER ONE

4. Parasitic Drag (Dp) - Drag created by skin friction and frontal area. Parasitic drag increases with external stores loading (higher drag count) and is more pronounced at higher airspeeds. 5. Mach Drag (Dm) - Since air accelerates over an airfoil to produce lift, the local velocity will become supersonic at some free airstream Mach number less than 1.0 IMN. This airspeed is defined as critical Mach (Mcr). At Mcr, drag sharply increases due to local shock wave formation across the airfoil. 102. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS Aerodynamic theory is an important tool and you need to have a working understanding of your aircraft's performance characteristics. Applying a basic knowledge of aerodynamics, the pilot must be able to identify and compare the factors that will have the greatest influence on tactics. These include: 1. Wing loading 2. Instantaneous g 3. Thrust-to-Weight 4. Sustained g 5. Acceleration 6. Turn Rate 7. Turn Radius Knowing where these factors are optimized for the aircraft and that of the adversary's should have a direct impact on how to fight. Turn Rate - The rate at which an aircraft changes direction in its plane-of-motion (POM). Higher g available, especially at lower airspeeds, will increase the turn rate of an aircraft. Turn rate differences as low as 1 degree per second are tactically significant. Figure 1-3 shows three comparisons between two aircraft turning at different rates. In this example, when fighter B's turn rate is 1 degree per second greater, the positional advantage after 360 degrees of turn is 24 degrees. Furthermore, with 3 and 6-degree turn rate advantages; the positional advantage is 84 and 216 degrees after 360 degrees of turn respectively. Over time, just a few degrees per second advantage can result in a huge positional advantage.



Turn Radius - Turn radius is the distance that an aircraft displaces in a turn. An aircraft that can pull high g at low airspeeds will have a small turn radius. Moving towards the right side of the Turn Performance diagram (increased airspeeds), the turn radius rapidly increases. To minimize separation between aircraft and keep a fight collapsed, attempt to remain towards the left side of the diagram.

Figure 1-3 Turn Rate Advantage Comparison Acceleration - To maximize acceleration, we need to minimize drag and maximize thrust. Our practical application of this is achieved by selecting MRT and unloading at 0 g. If 0 g is good, is -1 g better? The answer is no because -1 g actually creates lift in the opposite direction thus developing induced drag. Total Energy - The total energy of an aircraft is a combination of potential energy (altitude) and kinetic energy (airspeed). Due to different weights and configurations of various aircraft, it is more useful to apply derivations of Total Energy - Specific Energy and Specific Excess Power - for accurate maneuver performance comparison. Specific Energy (Es) - ES is defined as total energy divided by aircraft weight expressed in units of feet. Specific Excess Power (PS) - By deriving the change in ES over time, aircraft performance can be related to energy. In other words, the energy gained or lost can be determined for the performance. PS depends on the relationship between thrust and drag. If thrust is greater than drag, then PS is positive and energy is added. If thrust is less than drag, then PS is negative and energy is bled. PS also allows the pilot to measure an aircraft's ability to pull g's and transfer energy into turn performance. Comparing aircraft at various performance parameters (turn rate and radius as a function of airspeed and g) and the corresponding PS values give an indication of how an engagement might evolve. 103. ENERGY MANEUVERABILITY Energy maneuverability (EM) is a comparison technique initially developed by Major John R. Boyd, USAF and Mr. T. P. Christie in 1966 to explain what had been observed in Southeast Asia between the F-4C and MIG-21C and to provide a game plan for F-4 aircrew. EM must be used in



conjunction with other comparison techniques to fully develop a winning game plan. An EM diagram charts the specific maneuverability of an aircraft based on its energy state. From the EM diagram we can derive many useful ACM parameters. 1. Corner Speed 2. Minimum Instantaneous Turn Radius 3. Maximum Energy Addition Rates 4. Turn Rate Capability: Instantaneous and Sustained 5. Turn Radius Capability: Instantaneous and Sustained 6. Load Limit 7. Lift Limit



The EM diagram (Figure 1-4) is only accurate for a specific altitude, configuration and power setting. However, in the T-45 that is typically around 10,000 ft, clean at MRT. Your fleet airplane will take into consideration the use of high lift devices (maneuvering slats and flaps) as well as combat weapons loads.

Figure 1-4 Generic E/M Diagram



The lift limit line is indicative of slow speed handling, and effective wing loading. Wing loading may not be as simple to derive as it used to be because of the modern fighter's tendency to possess high lift devices, machines, strakes, and other aerodynamic improvements. The T-45, however, is pretty straightforward. Corner velocity is the lowest airspeed at which maximum "G" is available and as such equates to the instantaneous best turn the aircraft is capable of performing. This is not to say that you can be doping along at corner velocity, put the stick in your lap for a break turn and expect to get 7.33 "G's" from the jet. Note the high Ps value on the generic diagram. This equates to a large airspeed bleed-off. The T-45 does not necessarily have this problem. It sustains energy very well, but this equates to a fairly large turn radius. We will see this when we examine the T-45 Turn Performance diagram. The large turn radius of the T-45 would be a definite detraction in some cases, but in the Training Command you will only fight other T-45s, so the disadvantage is negated. Take a look at the Ps = 0 line. Ps = 0 is really only significant on the deck where you can't trade altitude for airspeed. The peaks of the various lines of constant Ps indicate our best speed for energy addition. Lift Limit Line - As discussed earlier, for a given Mach number, lift can only be increased by increasing AOA to CLMAX before the wing stalls. This lift limit capability is represented on the maneuvering diagram as the left hand boundary to the maneuvering envelope. At the lift limit, the aircraft performance and load factor capability are aerodynamically limited. Limit Load Factor - The available load factor is limited by the structural (maximum g) capability of an aircraft. This structural limit determines the upper boundary of an aircraft's performance envelope. Q-limit - Total dynamic air pressure, or maximum Q, defines the right hand boundary of the maneuvering envelope. Ps = 0 Line - One of the most important and overlooked comparison tools on the EM diagram. The top indicates an aircraft's maximum sustained turn rate. The intersection along the horizontal axis is the maximum turning and level airspeed the aircraft can sustain. Corner Airspeed - Corner airspeed is the lowest airspeed at which maximum "G" is available. For comparison, four parameters should be noted at the aircraft corner velocity: 1. Turn Rate 2. Turn Radius 3. KCAS/KIAS 4. Bleed Rate



While the maximum instantaneous turn rates at corner airspeed may appear impressive, realize that the EM diagram depicts a snapshot in time. In a level, maximum performance turn, airspeed will quickly decrease. Best 1-G Acceleration - The best energy addition rate for an aircraft occurs beneath the highest value positive PS contour depicted on the graph and is normally associated with an airspeed or Mach number. This corresponds to the velocity where drag is minimized. Altitude Effects on Maneuverability - For our discussions, we will use a 10,000 ft as a basis for all our EM discussions. Realize that sustained and instantaneous turn rates will increase approximately 2-3 degrees/second for every 5,000 ft of altitude loss.



104. TURN PERFORMANCE NUMBERS Before considering how to effectively perform our aircraft in the 1 v 1 arena, be absolutely familiar with the performance of your own machine throughout the flight envelope. Because it would be impractical to reference an EM diagram throughout the flight envelope, commit some gouge performance numbers to memory. These numbers are required information. Don't show up to fight without them.

Figure 1-5 Turn Performance - 10,000 Feet



105. T-45 GOUGE NUMBERS 1. Target AOA's

a. Break Turn - 19-21 units b. Hard Turn - 17 units c. Sustained -Turn 14 units (PS = 0) d. Unload - 5-10 units

2. Airspeeds

a. Corner Airspeed - 410 KIAS b. Max Instantaneous Turn Rate - 410 KIAS at max g c. Sustained Turn Rate Band - 300-330 KIAS d. Maximum Sustained Turn Rate at 10,000 ft - 230 KIAS e. Minimum Radius Airspeed Band - 130-150 KIAS f. Minimum Vertical Airspeed - 300 KIAS g. Best Acceleration - 0 g



106. APPLIED EM CONCEPTS Quickest 180-Degree Turn. To consider our quickest turn, focus on getting our nose turned around as quickly as possible (Turn Rate). If our best instantaneous turn rate occurs at 410 KIAS and maximum g, we will start there. When we pull, we want to use whatever altitude we have above the hard deck to keep our speed up, thus giving us more energy available to obtain a faster turn rate. This means we will overbank and descend throughout the turn. From 15,000 ft we can overbank initially to 135 degrees while pulling max g. As we slow and descend we will adjust our Lift Vector (LV) and nose to avoid hitting the deck while keeping our knots up. We should pull nibble of buffet until we run out of altitude and hit our best-Sustained Turn rate airspeed band (230 KIAS/300-330 KIAS) at 10,000 ft. Smallest 180-Degree Turn. On the deck, we can see that our smallest radius of turn occurs just below 0.3 Mach, which is around 145 kts. We start there and select MRT. Pull hard enough to fly 145 kts level. This will give you max lift and keep our airspeed in the min. radius band. 107. MANEUVERING OUR AIRCRAFT Vertical Maneuvering. The following diagram (Figure 1-6) represents another theoretical loop in the vertical plane at constant TAS and constant indicated g. Unlike a purely horizontal turn, your turn performance in a purely vertical turn is affected differently depending upon where you are in the turn. When the aircraft lift vector is above the horizon (at the bottom of the egg), radial g decreases because gravity opposes the load factor of the aircraft, resulting in a larger turn radius and a lower turn rate. When the lift vector is below the horizon (at the top of the egg when the fighter is inverted), radial g increases because gravity assists the load factor and lift, resulting in a smaller turn radius and faster turn rate. When the aircraft is pure vertical (side of the egg) the load factor is parallel to the horizon and, therefore, equals radial g, indicating an intermediate turn performance. So when your lift vector (load factor) falls below the horizon, gravity assists your turn performance.



Figure 1-6 Vertical Maneuvering - The Egg Tactical Vertical Fight. No longer do we need excessive airspeed to perform a simple loop. While some techniques vary, the T-45 can generally go over the top with any speed 300 KIAS or greater. As we come over the top, we need to keep an eye on our airspeed. As it approaches 100 KIAS, it's prudent to think about engine conservation and select idle. If we start some vertical move at airspeeds less than 300, we should probably consider some attitude less than pure vertical. REMEMBER, IF WE SLOW BELOW 85 KIAS, WE ARE NO LONGER FLYING AND ARE THUS A TARGET TO GET KILLED. You should have seen some techniques to execute vertical maneuvering on your OCF syllabus. In general, smooth maneuvering will help us to preserve our energy and still allow us to reorient our LV to keep the pressure on the bandit.



Vertical Extension. Especially versus aircraft where the thrust-to-weight ratio is less than 1:1, a vertical extension can give you a significant advantage when used properly. In the T-45, in a vertical fight, typically the first aircraft to go nose down will lose. Thus, extending in the vertical can give you an offensive advantage and the opportunity to get some rear quarter shots. However, we need to remember that if we extend vertically, we may be showing tail aspect to the bandit. The vertical extension should only be used if the bandit's nose is not a threat. Another concern for the vertical extension is our 85 kts KIO number. We can only extend long enough to avoid being nose high less than 85 KIAS. Therefore, we need to nudge the nose out prior to seeing 85 KIAS or the fight is over. Reversal Techniques. Before we discuss reversal techniques we need to understand the circumstances leading up to the reversal. A flight path overshoot (Figure 1-7) occurs anytime the offensive aircraft flies through the defensive aircraft's flight path at or aft of the defensive aircraft's 3/9 line. A 3/9-line overshoot occurs anytime the attacker flies from aft of the defender's 3/9 line to in front of the defender's 3/9 line (a.k.a. flying out in front).

Figure 1-7 Flight Path Overshoot



In close (at or very close to the defender's 3/9 line) flight path overshoots are extremely significant in that an instantaneous reversal by the defender may also cause a 3/9-line overshoot, possibly resulting in a role reversal. A flight path overshoot that occurs well aft of the defender is often insignificant because the defender cannot perform a role reversal (Figure 1-8).

Figure 1-8 3/9 Line If the overshoot occurs at the defender's control point (1 turn radius of the defender's turn aft of the defender) the attacker will be able to maintain his nose-to-tail separation by continuing his original turn to the defender's reversal point. By reversing at a control point overshoot the defender actually helps the attacker solve some of his degrees-to-go problem. In order for the fighter to take advantage of the Bandits overshoot, three criteria must be satisfied: 1. The Bandit must have a High-Track Crossing Rate (>100 kts Vc). 2. The Bandit must have an In-Close Overshoot (


1. Figure 1-7 depicts a flight path overshoot. 2. Figure 1-8 depicts an aircraft's 3-9 line. 3/9 Line Overshoot - If we are defensive and we see somewhere, somehow we have induced an overshoot in which the attacker moves ahead of our wingline (forward of abeam), then we reverse. The attacker has been neutralized or the roles have reversed and we can look to shoot and bug. In Close, Flight Path Overshoot - How close is "In Close"? If the overshoot occurs inside the forward limit of the Control Zone, we will consider it "In Close." We also need high Angles Off Tail (>60-degree AOT). If the defender does an immediate, aggressive reversal after the overshoot, he may be able to induce a 3/9 Line Overshoot from this Flight Path Overshoot. Flight Path Overshoot - As the defender, if we observe a Flight Path Overshoot where the attacker is in the control zone or aft and we attempt to reverse, we merely help his lag problem and aid in our own demise. Techniques - If we decide to reverse, we must do so with speed and precision. We need to get off our pull (unload) then reverse to reorient our lift vector on/aft of the bandit. Once there, we need to pull to get our nose up and work into an airspeed band more appropriate for our redefined fight. We are pulling into a one-circle fight, so 300 kts is probably not the place to be. If we execute a break turn (21 units) we will bleed while getting our nose position established. If we are already slow, a nibble of buffet pull might help us preserve some energy for the follow on merge. LV placement is crucial. If we merely pull up after the decision to reverse, we give turning room for the bandit to capitalize on. Try to neutralize the bandit's positional advantage, and then we can set up our bug. Longitudinal Pull. We will discuss a lot of AOA regimes throughout this FTI. The most effective AOA will change with airspeed. In FAM's we used a 17-unit pull during the MRT. At 300 kts this 17-unit pull makes the airplane start to vibrate. We called this the "nibble of buffet." At 150 kts this nibble is felt more around 22 units. The important thing to realize is that the jet is performing reasonably well in this regime. We describe the break turn as a 19-21-unit pull. This is generally for a high speed (250 kt +) break. This would feel like heavy or rumble of buffet. The airplane is rumbling and shaking, but not in pitch buck. There may be some wing rock associated with this regime. In this regime, the aircraft is rapidly bleeding airspeed. The aircraft performs well here, but it is costly. There are other AOA's that will give us other performances. For instance, what happened to 18 units? The wings begin to rumble here and we are bleeding, but not performing as well as a break turn. In general, if you don't know what to do, nibble of buffet is a good place to start to maneuver your airplane well. Unloaded Pushover. When we discuss unloading, it can mean various things. If, while turning, we decrease our AOA from 17 to 14 units, we are easing our pull and probably accelerating because the wing has less loading.



If we want to execute a true unload, the aircraft will feel quite different than what we have been doing. In general, in the T-45, a good unload will occur at zero g, in almost any attitude. We are removing the induced drag caused by the wing producing lift. If we feel zero g, then we are said to be on a ballistic profile so we are basically letting gravity drive the profile of the airplane. Thus the wing is not producing any lift, thereby not producing much drag, so we are maximizing thrust. We may use this maneuver to gain knots or maneuver to lag. The AOA tends to move in the 7-unit regime, well in the heart of the 5-10 units that is usually considered for the unload.



108. 1 V 1 ACM ACM Problems Range - We need separation to employ our weapons. In the Training Command, no weapons can be employed inside 1,000 ft (for training rules). Angles - Fuselage alignment will help us maintain an offensive advantage. Closure - The rate at which range is changing. ACM Cues Constantly assess how the ACM problems are changing. Focus on these visual cues when briefing and flying. Eyeball Call - Unless we have yardstick up constantly, the eyeball is our only available tool for determining range in the 1 v 1 arena. Aspect - The angular position of the adversary's aircraft. Canopy Position - It is good if the adversary is forward or moving forward on your canopy. Looking aft or an aft moving adversary is bad. ACM Tools By recognizing how the problems are progressing, ACM tools can be applied. Velocity (V) - The ability to manage the kinetic energy of our aircraft will dictate our ability to manage closure and range between aircraft. G - The relationship between "G" and "V" defines an aircraft's performance. How much g is available and how much is actually used will determine how quickly the aircraft changes its position relative to the opponent. Pursuit Curve - Affects range, angles and closure.



ACM Training Rules. The following ACM training rules apply to all ACM training and shall be strictly observed. These rules include those found in OPNAVINST 3710.7. Because you will hear these rules before each flight, their meaning may become just "words." For the most part, they will be the same rules you hear in the fleet. It is important to note that these rules were developed over a long period and each is based not only on common sense but also on situations where pilots were guilty of making serious and even tragic mistakes. GENERAL 1. BRIEF OUT-OF-CONTROL/SPIN, ENGINE STALL PROCEDURES, AND CURRENCY - As the student you are responsible for OCF and Engine Stall for the brief. For Currency, consult the MCG. 2. FACE-TO-FACE BRIEF OF ALL MANEUVERS FOR ALL PARTICIPANTS - ACM is learned well only through constant practice and experience. Because each experience in ACM is unique, all aspects of the flights need to be briefed and debriefed thoroughly. 3. ALL AIRCRAFT MUST HAVE OPERABLE UHF AND ICS (MULTI-CREW) AND MONITOR GUARD - If you are lost comm, proceed with your lost comm procedures. "G" AWARENESS MANEUVER REQUIRED PRIOR TO ACM - CONFIGURATION CHANGES OTHER THAN SPEED BRAKES ARE NOT AUTHORIZED - You may not drop your flaps or gear. ALWAYS ASSUME THE OTHER AIRCRAFT DOES NOT SEE YOU - You are personally responsible for collision avoidance AT ALL TIMES. IF LOST SIGHT, TRANSMIT "LOST SIGHT" AND REMAIN PREDICTABLE. OTHER AIRCRAFT SHALL ACKNOWLEDGE WITH "CONTINUE" OR "KNOCK-IT-OFF" AS APPROPRIATE, PROVIDING DIRECTIVE COMM AS NECESSARY FOR SAFETY OF FLIGHT. ONCE SIGHT IS REGAINED, TRANSMIT "TALLY." Be sure to differentiate between "Lost sight" and "No joy." "Lost sight" means, "I cannot see anyone, anywhere." It is a call made strictly to maintain safety. "No joy" responds to your wingman's call that he has sighted a bandit that you cannot see. UP-SUN AIRCRAFT IS RESPONSIBLE FOR SAFE SEPARATION. IF DOWN-SUN AIRCRAFT LOSES SIGHT, BREAK OFF THE ATTACK, LAG THE UP-SUN AIRCRAFT AND BROADCAST "BLIND SUN." If you are in the sun, you are using a tremendously powerful tactic because it blinds the bandit. But because he is blind, it is your responsibility to maintain the safe separation. Also, if the weather is hazy, the sun creates a halo when you are looking down with the sun at your back. If the bandit is in the halo area, he cannot see you. 500-ft BUBBLE AROUND ALL AIRCRAFT. This safety rule applies for training, both in the Training Command and in the fleet. In the real world, though, you must consider your adversary. For instance, if you maintain 500 ft on a head-on pass with a bandit who has forward-quarter weapons, you may be putting yourself directly into his weapons envelope. In the real world,



know who you will be going up against as much as possible. DO NOT MAKE BLIND LEAD TURNS - A blind lead turn is when your nose is out in front of the bandit's flight path, and you can't see the bandit. MAINTAIN THE ESTABLISHED TREND ON HEAD-TO-HEAD PASSES. WHERE NO TREND EXISTS, EACH AIRCRAFT SHALL GIVE WAY TO THE RIGHT FOR A LEFT-TO-LEFT PASS. TRANSMIT YOUR OWN INTENTIONS. This is simply a rule of the road. You may have to change this rule in a situation where you do not have enough maneuverability to pass left-to-left without crossing the bandit's nose, which would put you in a possible head-on midair. Maintain enough situational awareness to call your intentions long before a possible midair situation develops. Once the pass is called and acknowledged by both fighters, the direction will not be changed. LOW AIRCRAFT IN A HORIZONTAL SCISSORS IS RESPONSIBLE FOR SAFE SEPARATION. NOSE HIGH GOES HIGH, NOSE LOW GOES LOW. TRANSMIT YOUR OWN INTENTIONS. This will ensure safe separation. Nose low must make way if the high aircraft departs or somehow can't stay high. Do not delay this call. MINIMUM RANGE FOR GUNS IS 1,000 ft, NO HEAD ON GUNS (Forward of 3-9 line). CNATRA WEAPONS ENVELOPES APPLY. See the CNATRA Weapons Envelope in the TacForm FTI. IN A DESCENDING FIGHT, THE OFFENSIVE (HIGH) AIRCRAFT SHALL MONITOR THE DEFENSIVE (LOW) AIRCRAFT'S ALTITUDE AND ATTITUDE AND BREAK OFF THE ATTACK PRIOR TO EITHER AIRCRAFT BREAKING THE DECK. Typically a "Watch the Deck" call is sufficient to warn the other aircraft. This is for safety and to continue the fight. ANYONE CAN CALL A "KNOCK-IT-OFF." AIRCRAFT SHALL MANEUVER TO SAFELY TERMINATE THE ENGAGEMENT AND ACKNOWLEDGE WITH THEIR OWN "KNOCK-IT-OFF." KNOCK-IT-OFF FOR ANY ONE OF THE FOLLOWING: 1. Dangerous situation/loss of situational awareness. May be due to a/c malfunction/nuisance light, FOD in cockpit, any other distracter. 2. Radio failure/loss of ICS. An aircraft rocking wings is an automatic "knock-it-off." 3. G-LOC experienced or suspected. (Aircrew RTB). 4. Airspeed less than 85 kts (nose high and decelerating)/departure/out-of-control. Eighty-five (85) kts nose low and accelerating requires 85 kts, continue call. NATOPS calls for throttle to idle below 85 kts above 15,000 ft. BINGO FUEL STATE IS REACHED. Applies in the Training Command as well as out in the Fleet. You must keep your scan moving.



INTERLOPER (UNBRIEFED A/C) ENTERS THE ENGAGEMENT AREA. ENGAGED AIRCRAFT CROSSES THE BORDER OF TRAINING AREA. ANY TRAINING RULE IS VIOLATED. TRAINING OBJECTIVES HAVE BEEN MET. This is usually determined by the trunk IP. ACM WILL BE CONDUCTED IN AN AUTHORIZED AREA ONLY, WITH A 10,000-FT AGL HARD DECK. Weather As stated earlier, you will not consider weather conditions as part of your tactical repertoire until you face a real bandit. But it warrants remembering that you can effectively use clouds, haze, or other weather phenomena to gain or regain the advantage. ACM WX mins:

- 5 miles visibility with a defined horizon - 15,000 ft between broken/overcast layers - 1 nm horizontally and 2,000 ft vertically from all clouds

ACM may be conducted above broken/overcast layer provided the highest layer is below 7,000 ft AGL for solo events and 8,000 ft AGL for dual events. The flight lead will then establish the hard deck 5,000 ft above that layer and all A/C will acknowledge the new hard deck. 109. 1 V 1 ACM EXECUTION We will take a building block approach and break the ACM discussion into the following parts:

- Offensive ACM - Defensive ACM - High Aspect ACM - Three-Plane ACM



Offensive ACM Objectives The ultimate goal of Offensive ACM, as in all ACM, is to kill the adversary as quickly as possible. If this primary goal is not achieved, ensure a positional advantage is maintained for follow-on weapons employment. Finally, if time to kill is up or you are losing the advantage, separate prior to becoming neutralized. Simply put, the goals of Offensive ACM are, in order: 1. Kill the adversary 2. Maintain an Offensive Position 3. Separate prior to being neutralized Execution Once a positional advantage has been established and we can say we are offensively maneuvering our aircraft, then the problem is to efficiently maneuver our aircraft to an effective firing solution in the minimum amount of time. In classic ACM terms (NOT in the missile age) that position is the extended 6 o'clock of your opponent at about 1/2 nm with fuselage alignment, i.e., in the heart of the control zone. In order to reach that position from our original position of advantage an offensive aircraft needs to: 1. Increase/control the nose-to-tail separation (N-T) (Range) 2. Reduce the angle off the tail (AOT) (Angles) 3. Reduce/control the closure (Vc) (Closure) It should be obvious that an offensive aircraft will achieve these goals by using lag pursuit techniques and out-of-plane maneuvering. The only exceptions to this will be when he is ready to employ weapons, at which time he will usually maneuver with lead pursuit (missile launch or gun shot). When we discuss the specifics of offensive maneuvers, remember what you are trying to accomplish and how you need to do it. That should enable you to answer any "why?" questions that may arise. What all this means is that as the offensive aircraft you should: 1. Employ lead pursuit only for gunshots or when it is necessary to close nose to tail distance. Be ready to follow a lead pursuit maneuver with a lag pursuit maneuver to reduce Vc and the AOT developed while flying lead pursuit.



2. Utilize pure pursuit (i.e., have your opponent in the HUD field of view) when you are ready to employ a weapon or possibly, (aspect/range dependent) attempting to enter the opponent's bubble. 3. Mainly utilize maneuvers consisting of lag pursuit/out-of-plane techniques in order to correct back to the control zone or increase range. Outside The Bubble Pursuit curves - When maneuvering offensively, the nose of your aircraft (at high airspeed) or your lift vector (at slower airspeed) is either pointed at, behind, or in front of your opponent. Depending on where your nose is pointed, you will fly a distinctive pursuit curve in relation to your opponent. We will discuss these pursuit curves in terms of their effect on angle off tail (AOT) of your opponent, closure rate (Vc), and nose-to-tail separation (N-T), the key factors to being able to get to and maintain your position in the control zone.

Figure 1-9 Pursuit Curves



If your nose/lift vector is pointed out in front of your opponent, you are flying a lead pursuit curve. Lead pursuit is generally flown during maneuvers designed to decrease N-T or during gun attacks. Assuming co-speed and inside your opponent's turn circle, lead pursuit will: 1. Decrease N-T (Range) 2. Increase AOT (Angles) 3. Increase Vc (Closure) If your nose/lift vector is pointed at your opponent, you are flying a pure pursuit curve. Pure pursuit is generally used only when necessary for employing a weapon (bore sight Fox-2, in the Training Command). Again, assuming co-speed inside your opponent's turn circle, pure pursuit will (to a lesser degree than lead pursuit): 1. Decrease N-T 2. Increase AOT 3. Increase Vc If your nose/lift vector is pointed behind your opponent, you are flying a lag pursuit curve. Again, assuming co-speed inside your opponent's turn circle, lag pursuit will: 1. Increase/maintain N-T 2. Decrease/maintain AOT 3. Decrease/maintain Vc How do we determine where and when to employ the proper pursuit curve? The next sections will help describe the cues to look for in order to properly enter the bubble. Bubble Entry With the information already provided, we will begin to discuss maneuvering in terms of the turn circle. The turn circle is the basis of ACM, and a thorough understanding of the factors affecting key turn circle parameters is required. Looking at the diagram below, we see the turn circle of the aircraft and the radius depicted. Any change in the radius directly affects the size of the turn circle and the location of the center point of the circle. If an aircraft is performing to its maximum turn radius capability, or developing its minimum radius turn, it is unable to turn any tighter. This seems obvious, but it illustrates an important point: An aircraft cannot turn inside its own bubble. This means that if you are inside another aircraft's bubble you are, at least momentarily, immune from attack from that aircraft. This is important to note both offensively and defensively.



If we put an attacker on the defender's turn circle one turn radius behind it, we could demonstrate the point we just made. If an aircraft is incapable of turning inside its own bubble, it is equally incapable of turning to engage an aircraft 1 turn radius behind it if that aircraft is on his turn circle or bubble if he is max performing. (Figure 1-10)

Figure 1-10 Control Zone Entry If an attacking aircraft can arrive at this point and maintain it, he can control the fight, at least momentarily. Thus the point 1 turn radius behind an aircraft is referred to as the "control point." It is important to note that if the attacking aircraft wishes to arrive at this point, he must consider the effects of his own turn circle in putting himself there. As an attacker approaches another aircraft, it becomes essential that he recognize where he is in relation to the other aircraft's bubble. We can begin with an aircraft outside the bubble. Since the defender cannot prosecute an attack on an aircraft inside its bubble that is the first place the attacking aircraft will want to go. So, the attacker's first move will be to arrive as quickly as possible inside the other aircraft's turn, employing a weapon as he does so (if able). The fastest method to bubble entry, provided you are still low aspect, is to fly pure pursuit. We will notice initially that the defending aircraft has a relatively slow Track Crossing Rate, that is, the defending aircraft's relative motion is not drifting very much in our windscreen. We will also notice that AOT, or aspect change, will be increasing rapidly. As we approach the defender's bubble, the attacker will notice that the Track Crossing Rate starts to increase and the aspect change slows (the defending aircraft will also notice an increased Track Crossing Rate as he watches the attacker. Upon bubble entry (Figure 1-11), the attacker



must make a lag correction, if required, to remain behind the Post. This may be driving straight ahead for 2-4 seconds or may require a momentary turn away from the defender. To avoid pulling in front of the post, the attacker must avoid the temptation of keeping the bandit in his front windscreen. Once the line of sight rate increases, the attacker should extend wings-level, aiming for a point just inside of where the defender started his break turn. If the attacker extends until the bandit is at his 2 or 10 o'clock, he will definitely turn around the post. Note that the defending aircraft will also see this and use it as information as well. We will continue this lag pursuit until we have entered the attack window.

Figure 1-11 Bubble Entry The Attack Window Attack Window - A three-dimensional window located aft of the defender's post inside his turn circle. An attacker, who executes a properly timed max performance offensive break turn from inside this window, will arrive in the defender's control zone with angles, airspeed and closure under control. The attack window is a position in space and a moment in time. We have discussed how to get inside the bubble, but what cues tell us when we are in the attack window?



We are typically around 3,000 ft from the bandit and that equates to one turn radius away. We can see a rapid line of sight change from the bandit, telling us that we are there. To utilize the positioning of the attack window, we need to arrive with enough airspeed to pull 21 units and bleed some excess airspeed to gain an instantaneous turn rate advantage. We need to max perform the airplane for this rate war. We continue to pull at or below the bandit, using altitude available, while keeping on our best rate numbers. Pull To Control Zone When the bandit has been sufficiently lagged, the attacker should execute a max performance turn in plane to pull toward the bandit's control zone. After the turn is commenced, the attacker will notice the bandit's aircraft stabilize relative to his. This is the point where the two aircraft have essentially the same rate of turn. The N-T distance will be stabilized as well as the AOT. Most importantly, the attacker is in an offensive position in the aft portion of the bandit's control zone and the bandit's only move is to continue his turn in the same direction. If the bandit reverses at this time, he will only help the attacker close the N-T distance and decrease the degrees-to-go. A smart bandit will stay in the same direction of turn. At this time, the attacker needs to close the N-T distance in order to employ weapons. The way to close N-T distance is to maneuver out-of-plane in order to employ lead pursuit. During this "lead pursuit maneuver" or Low Yo-Yo, the amount of out-of-plane maneuvering is largely dependent on how much altitude above the hard deck is available.



Figure 1-12 Attack Window Entry The attacker should use all available altitude in order to employ lead pursuit. Remember that maneuvering out-of-plane effectively reduces radius of turn with respect to the vertical. After establishing lead pursuit, the attacker will come nose on the bandit and will be closing nose to tail distance. If the distance is still too great for the gun envelope, the attacker may elect to employ a missile. He will be nose on with less than 40 degrees angle off. The Launch Acceptability Region (LAR) for the training command IR missile should be recognized; however, the saying goes, "There's no kill like a guns kill." Simply put, the missile envelope should be recognized and valid shots should be taken at will (they may "buy" a reaction from the defender in the form of a break turn), but the idea is to maneuver to a gun envelope. The gun is the hardest weapon to employ because the envelope is very restrictive and a pilot must execute good BFM principals to achieve a guns kill. This is why we will perform our maneuvers to arrive at a firing position within 1,500 ft aft of the opponent in the tracking gun envelope.



Misaligned Turn Circles If we are late or weak on our pull to the control zone we may see that we have a flight path overshoot with low angles off tail. If we panic and attempt to pull inside the bandit's circle, we will bleed airspeed and hurt our turn rate. So what do we do when we find ourselves nose off, in lag in a rate fight? We need to be patient and understand how misaligned turn circles (MATC) will help us (Figure 1-13). Because we are offensive, turning about our own post (not the bandit's) we will come nose on to bandit as our turns progress. When the opportunity arises, we need to reorient our lift vector to take advantage of the MATC and shoot or saddle into the control zone.

Figure 1-13 Misaligned Turn Circles



Rate War (Offensive) During the rate war, we are concerned with degrees per second, how fast we can track our nose around the circle. Unfortunately, the T-45 doesn't exhibit very good rate numbers, however, we need to understand the Turn Performance diagram to maximize our rate performance. Offensively, we will have some options during the fight and be able to utilize any airspeed excursions to suit our attack. According to the diagram we see that our best instantaneous turn rate is achieved at 410 KIAS while pulling the lift limit (it's near 7.3 g's). Our best tactical turn rate is an airspeed band 300-330 KIAS. This isn't to say that we can't pull from 330 to 250 and get some good instantaneous turn rate, but once settled at 250, we are stuck with few options to maneuver in the vertical and poor acceleration. Once established in the rate war, maneuver the jet to get on our rate numbers. These change under different situations. Here are some examples: 1. Overshoot/Lag - We are stuck in lag; our nose is not threatening the bandit. We need to increase our rate and let MATC do their magic. We can pull some lead and increase our rate by using gravity to help us keep our airspeed while we increase our AOA. Essentially this appears like a low yo-yo. 2. High Aspect/Lead - If we maneuver too aggressively, we need to maintain our offensive advantage. Our nose is a threat, but an overshoot is pending. If we try to slow our closure with power/airspeed, we can save the overshoot, but follow-on ACM will be difficult. If we use lag pursuit, we can keep our rate numbers up while remaining offensive. This can be accomplished in a few different ways.

- Tight Range/Low AOT - A simple unload will increase our radius such that we will not pull inside the bandit. This can also help to increase our airspeed if necessary, usually used when in-close/time critical situations.

- In Control Zone - Reorienting our lift vector outside the bandit's turn will result in

reducing our closure; unfortunately it will also increase AOT so we will need to pull some lead soon after to reorient our nose into a weapons envelope.

- Outside Control Zone - A full wings-level lag maneuver is sometimes warranted.

This is essentially another control zone entry requiring an offensive break turn to align fuselages.

Redefining the Rate War Unfortunately, the T-45 is not a good platform to redefine the rate war in the vertical. It lacks the performance to either rate the nose quick enough or climb sufficiently to avoid being shot. Therefore, redefining the rate war may mean inducing your own overshoot or simply disengaging.



If the defender chooses to redefine our two-circle fight to something else, we need to recognize the change and maintain our offensive advantage while fighting our best fight. For example, if the bandit reverses in a two-circle fight, we may get a quick shot while transitioning to a one-circle fight. It's probably useful to get the nose up to exchange our rate energy for potential energy in our one-circle fight. Then we need to fight our best flats. Starting from Inside the Defender's Bubble When you have entered the turn circle (or "bubble"), you will notice the defender's aircraft begin to move laterally relative to you. This is called a Line of Sight rate increase. It signifies that you have entered the defender's bubble. Now you can begin to manage AOT and N-T distance.

Figure 1-14 Offensive Break Turn Evaluation When entering the defender's turn circle, the attacker must execute some type of lag maneuver in order to decrease his AOT and degrees to go. Ideally, he will recognize the indicators of entering the defenders bubble and will respond appropriately.



Refer to the turn circle diagram earlier in this instruction (Figure 1-9). If you are able to recognize entering the opponent's bubble (by noticing an increase in Line of Sight rate), you should proceed to a point that causes you to turn around the "post" of his turn circle. Turning in front of the post is a huge ACM error. You will know if you have turned in front of the post if the bandit is easy to keep in your windscreen and the Angle off is increasing. You will be thinking that you could employ a gun snap shot, but the next thing you will see is an in-close flight path overshoot, and maybe even a 3/9 overshoot. To avoid pulling in front of the post, the attacker must avoid the temptation of keeping the bandit in his front windscreen. Once the Line of sight rate increases, the attacker should extend wings-level, aiming for a point just inside of where the defender started his break turn. If the attacker extends until the bandit is at his 2 or 10 o'clock, he will definitely turn around the post. When the bandit has been sufficiently lagged, the attacker should execute a max g turn in plane to pull toward the bandit's control zone. Defender Redefines If we induce our own overshoot, or the bandit merely tries to redefine the fight, his only option will probably be a one-circle/flat scissors fight. If he chooses to go aggressively nose low with the altitude available, you should be able to counter by going nose low and keeping the fight a two-circle fight. If the bandit goes nose high you have some options. With sufficient turning room, you may achieve a shot as the reversing bandit pulls through your HUD. However, if we are tight or very fast, this may increase our closure and neutralize our advantage. In a tighter fight, we need to start thinking one-circle early after the reversal and start working a radius fight quickly. This usually means getting the nose up and maneuvering our lift vector to keep us behind the bandit. A nibble/break turn to get the nose up, then a smooth reorienting of the lift vector towards the bandits control zone should be sufficient. Be mindful of ROE while pulling aft, as a closure problem may have occurred. Safety is paramount. Offensive Deck Transitions As we head downhill in most of these engagements, it's prudent to consider the fight we are in and predict how we will arrive on the deck. We need to think ahead so we can get to the deck in the best parameters to kill the bandit. In general, our one-circle engagements will not be near the deck; however, we need to consider some altitudes with respect to our flats. If a bandit decides to exit a one-circle fight, the deck will be a consideration as we chase him down. We have a minimum Split S altitude that we need to be aware of, which may hinder our LV placement on the bandit. If we transition to a two-circle fight from the flats, we have limited altitude to accelerate and get into our rate numbers. Similarly, if we are chasing a bandit around in a two-circle fight, we can look ahead to determine how we would like to arrive at the deck. If we are slow, we may need to ease our pressure to get into our rate band on the deck to ensure that we are max performing the airplane. This may mean giving up a few angles to get our airspeed up, but we will reap the benefits as the fight progresses. This is called an Energy-Rate Deck Transition and it allows us to use the altitude between our aircraft and the deck to convert altitude into turn rate and airspeed. Use the 10



degree rule (3,000 ft/30 degrees, 2,000 ft/20 degrees, 1,000 ft/10 degrees) to maximize turn rate and keep energy package while transitioning to the deck. Basically, use 10 degrees nose low for every 1,000 ft above the deck. If we have the available altitude and airspeed we can use it above the deck to arrive low with a great positional advantage. This is called a Positional Deck Transition. For instance, if we have the altitude to get one real nice, aggressive nose low (yo-yo) just above the deck to arrive nose on the bandit at 10,000 ft, we can do that to really pressure him, possibly driving him into the deck. We are basically using the altitude between our aircraft and the deck to take away angles for ourselves. Flat Scissors The flat scissors (Figure 1-15) results from an in-close horizontal overshoot. Because you would never offensively enter a horizontal scissors on purpose, several situations force you to enter one: 1. A delayed or poorly performed lag maneuver 2. Following a Snap or Raking guns attempt 3. Follow-on from a rolling scissors

Figure 1-15 Flat Scissors The horizontal scissors is a slow-speed, high-AOA radius fight (one-circle) where both fighters are trying to minimize their respective turn radii. Both the fighter and the bandit will be trying to minimize their turn radius to gain a positional advantage. Remember positional advantage based on the 3/9 line? The aircraft behind will be winning.



Both aircraft will also be attempting to decrease their downrange travel by performing a series of S turns. This effect of weaving in and out, or "scissoring" gives this fight its name. If both aircraft are flying at the same speed, one flying in a straight line and the other turning, the turning aircraft will eventually end up behind the other. The attacker should attempt to get in-phase with the defender on the defender's 6 o'clock. He should do this by a series of early/lead turns, eventually aligning fuselages. Kinetic energy is transferred to potential energy by using the vertical to help control your airspeed and downrange travel. Because the T-45 does not bleed airspeed very well, the initial reversal back into your opponent will be very nose high and will require an overbank in order to avoid parking the nose too high. A modified rolling scissors could possibly be entered, but in these ACM hops the idea is to learn to fly a flat scissors. After the overbank, both fighters will be oriented in a nose high, climbing (one-circle fight). Each will turn into each other attempting to flush the other out as stated in the above paragraph. The two aircraft will cross flight paths at some point. It is imperative that the student initiates the ROE for each flight path crossing (high/low). The bandit will attempt to force you into his forward quarter by aggressively establishing himself nose high and repositioning lift vector behind you. You have the advantage of initiating your one-circle entry earlier than the bandit and gaining whatever lateral turning room that existed between you when you began your nose-high maneuver. Get your wings under you and get the nose tracking up, while banking to reposition lift vector behind the bandit. As you pull to get your nose up, kick in full rudder in the direction of the bandit to get your LV oriented. Adjust your attitude as your airspeed reaches 140-150 KIAS. As we fly slower, the angle of bank we can use diminishes. As our airspeed slows, the amount that we can pull behind the bandit decreases, thus the radius increases again. Review the Turn Performance Diagram to confirm this. A good rule of thumb is the airspeed over 100 kts is the max usable AOB (e.g., 150 kts ~ 50 degrees). This is not to say that we can't exceed this AOB, but our nose will slice and we will accelerate. As our airspeed increases, so does our radius. Once you are behind the bandit's wingline, reverse and attempt to align fuselages while maintaining nibble of buffet, around 22-24 units AOA (this is called an early turn). As a general rule when you are on or aft of the bandit's 3/9 line and your nose is on him, you should start your reversal. A reversal forward of the 3/9 line (in front of the post) may allow you a snap shot; however, in reversing early you will decrease the nose-to-tail separation and potentially be less than 1,000 ft (min Gun range). If no nose-to-tail exists, reverse as you cross the bandit's flight path. This will allow you to continue to pull aft of the bandit for a longer period of time and keep your turn radius tight. At this point you should be established in a flat scissors with your aircraft at slow speeds and High AOA. During your reversals and subsequent maneuvering, utilize rudder and back stick to maintain optimum performance while monitoring your aircraft's attitude, airspeed, and AOA. You may find yourself wanting to overbank the aircraft to gain a quick advantage. By doing this, you will find it harder to keep the nose above the horizon, which means you will have to execute reversals with more rudder. Additionally, with your nose below the horizon, airspeed will increase leading to the tendency to use excessive back stick. Increased backstick pressure beyond



the optimum performance level will bleed off energy. The combination of these errors will increase your radius to a point where you not only lose some advantage, but you may even end up defensive. During these attempts, do not compromise your offensive advantage. Sustained Flat Scissors: 10-15 degrees nose up, 30-45 degree AOB and 130-150 kts. Rolling Scissors The rolling scissors (Figure 1-16) results from an in-close vertical overshoot and is usually a product of a successful counter to a Barrel Roll Attack (BRA). The scissors develops into a series of horizontal and vertical overshoots. Offensively, if you find yourself in a "roller," you have made a mistake, which means you must strive to remain offensive or disengage at the earliest opportunity. A rolling scissors is not a desirable maneuver for an attacker because it limits opportunities for weapons employment.

Figure 1-16 Rolling Scissors To practice this maneuver, set up by executing a BRA from a medium-angle perch. As you start your conversion over the top of the barrel roll, the bandit hard turns into you to create a horizontal overshoot. Before you can adjust for the horizontal overshoot, the bandit will pull up to create a vertical overshoot as he performs a BRA against you. Continue your barrel roll and



place your lift vector on the bandit or slightly aft. To do this, we must pirouette at the right time and use the correct mechanics. Pull across the top until the bandit is either beneath you or he is coming up. This will ensure proper nose attitude after our pirouette. Next, pull the power to idle and use coordinated stick and rudder to place the LV on or slightly aft of the bandit. Then, get the power back up to MRT and begin a 21 unit pull. Selection of idle during the pirouette will slow your airspeed increase and give you a smaller turn radius at the bottom. Continue to roll and pull with the LV on the bandit until the nose reaches 30-35 degrees. Once we have achieved our nose high attitude, we can roll to put the LV in front of the bandit while continuing our 21 unit pull. This will effectively cut the top of your egg off and allow you to get fuselage alignment. Finally, we will execute the pirouette as before and continue the fight. It is important to not let the nose drop until the pirouette. This will preserve altitude and turning room. Your goal is to execute the scissors perfectly and capitalize on any mistake the bandit makes. To stay offensive in a rolling scissors, use the three-dimensional environment to control your energy effectively by: 1. Proper LV placement 2. Properly controlling your AOA 3. Trading airspeed for altitude to reduce your forward vector 4. Coordinate LV changes with nose attitude to use the vertical to your advantage In all this, you are trying to stay behind the bandit. A key determinant in winning the roller is to strive to get your nose up when you are at the bottom before the bandit can get his nose down when he is at the top, and vice versa. If you can continually do this without sacrificing your position, you are then gaining the advantage you need to win in a rolling scissors. You must understand that it is the steepness of your climbs and dives that will determine your horizontal movement more than your absolute speed differential. Control your acceleration based on the bandit's position relative to you. To maintain your advantage, control your airspeed gain in the pullout. Keep your lift vector on, or aft of, the bandit throughout the maneuver except when you are trying to align fuselages or when you want to reduce your forward vector. To align fuselages, use lead pursuit and a smooth nibble/rumble of buffet over the top. Radial g (Figure 1-17) affects your "picture" of being offensive, neutral, or defensive at various points in the maneuver. You will experience several optical illusions. At the top, your slower airspeed and radial g give you a smaller turn radius, while your greater airspeed at the bottom causes a larger turn radius. As a result, relative position of the aircraft alone does not determine actual advantage.



Figure 1-17 Rolling Scissors Positions If you are neutral with respect to the bandit, at the bottom you are ahead the bandit, while at the top you are behind of him. In Figure 1-17, compare the bottom aircraft with the top middle aircraft. Because a rolling scissors is a slow-speed fight with predictable flight paths and poor shot opportunities, you or the bandit will look for an opportunity to disengage. The only appropriate time to disengage is from the top of the roller. It helps to be aware of this to time your disengagement or to anticipate when the bandit may decide to disengage. Should the bandit attempt to disengage from the top of the roller, roll off your vertical climb early to reduce airspeed loss and minimize nose-to-tail separation. Pull for a shot and remain in-phase using a combination of Lead and Lag. Put the LV below the bandit and use altitude to gain energy and turn rate. Ideal airspeed at the bottom of the roller is 250-275 kts (basically something less than vertical airspeed for the average student). If both the fighters are countering each other correctly, they will be required to keep their airspeed slow to avoid becoming defensive. In a full engagement, a fighter with tactical vertical airspeed should take it vertical as this will further minimize his turn radius with respect to the "God's eye view." As with the flat scissors, the goal for an offensive fighter is to kill the opponent (hopefully quickly).



For most aircraft with less than a one-to-one thrust-to-weight ratio, the rolling scissors is a descending series of barrel rolls because of the heavy use of the vertical. To successfully roll through the bottom and continue in the rolling scissors, you will need approximately 2,500 ft above the hard deck with proper LV placement. Students should use about 4,000 ft as the minimum altitude to continue in the roller. As you approach the deck, one or both of you must either flatten the roller, convert the maneuver to a flat scissors, disengage, or be scraped off the deck. Converting a roller to a flattened scissors reduces the vertical separation. This conversion usually occurs when you run out of altitude to continue your offensive pursuit. Flattening the scissors will work to your advantage only if your energy state has not deteriorated below that of the bandit's. If his energy is greater than yours, he can generate sufficient vertical displacement for subsequent rolls instead of flattening his scissors, thus forcing you out in front. Assuming your energy packages are at least equal, flatten the scissors after reaching the top by continuing to roll through more rapidly or reverse at the top after the horizontal overshoot occurs. Put your lift vector slightly in front of the bandit to both shallow your slice turn and miss the deck. If the bandit rolls through without being aware of an altitude problem, he will hit the deck. However, if he is aware of the altitude and your tactic, he will be forced to put his lift vector out in front, resulting in reordering the relative geometry. A roller can be converted to a flat scissors anytime, but it must be converted when altitude becomes a factor. Typically, flattening a roller results in a horizontal scissors if the bandit follows through on your tactic. If you decide to convert a normal rolling scissors to a flat scissors, remain nose-high at the top of the roller and continue to pull back toward the bandit to generate an overshoot. Instead of rolling through the vertical, reverse nose-high and pull back toward the bandit's six forcing him out in front of your position, resulting in a flat scissors. Should you decide to enter the flat scissors during a normal roller, you will be bleeding off a tremendous amount of energy. If the bandit is smart, he will convert his kinetic energy to potential energy by going vertical and, more than likely will get an offensive advantage on you. Bug Recognition/Counter It's critical to recognize the bandit's bug as soon as possible, for many reasons. The most important is because you want to kill the bandit, not let him run away. Early recognition allows you to keep more airspeed up and reorient your LV to cut him off. Generally, the bug will go opposite of where the fight was going. If your flats were progressing south, the bug will go northerly. It will also go out our tail, which will make keeping sight an issue. It's imperative that we not lose sight; since we may give away all of our offensive advantage and get ourselves killed. We need to take whatever altitude we have and convert it to airspeed, typically with a nibble of buffet pull. LV placement should be leading the bandit's nose, especially if he is in a turn where we can use radius to close the range effectively.



In the roller, the bandit will try to bug from the top, so we need to get our nose in his direction as we come across the bottom and try to keep our kts up as we pull to get nose on. It's imperative to stop climbing and use the altitude for airspeed without hitting the deck. In general: 1. MRT, Unload 2. Get nose low 3. Nibble of buffet pull 4. LV in front TACADMIN To establish proper habit patterns and to expedite the ACM sorties, the following procedures will be utilized. The admin portion of the flight (i.e., departure and RTB) will be conducted just as your flights were in the TacForm stage. The SNA will join-up, be put into cruise, and then put into combat spread during the climb once established in the a climb. Once you have been put into cruise, you may perform the initial steps of the combat checklist. Once established in combat spread your lead will initiate the g-warm. The lead initiates the comm. Following the g-warm, climb or descend to 14,000 ft, capture 300 kts and maintain assigned heading. The combat checklist should be completed, (Master Arm "on," Tape in AUTO/ON,) and Wing will initiate a "fenced in" call, i.e., "Hawk 2 fenced in, (g's) and (fuel)." Lead responds, "Hawk 1, fenced in, (g's) and (fuel)." The section will use combat spread maneuvering to position itself in the operating area when the checks are complete. It is imperative that you are ready to "fight" the moment you call that you are "fenced in." Often times the Snapshot Drill will be conducted enroute to your particular working area. Once established in a clear area with required weather minima, the section can begin 1 v 1 ACM. Upon the conclusion of each set, the IP in your jet (on dual hops) or the Bandit (on solos) will call a "Knock It Off." The bandit lead will echo the call and add a heading, i.e., "Hawk 1, knock it off 270." You will echo the Bandit lead's call with your call sign and the heading, i.e., "Hawk 2, knock it off 270." The priorities, in order, for you as the fighter following the knock it off are: 1. Maintain sight 2. Hard turn to the knock it off heading, deconflict as required 3. Capture 300 kts and bearing line 4. Climb to appropriate altitude 5. G's and fuel with general SA and on hdg/brg line in 300 kts climb.



The Wing will initiate all g's and fuel calls. You do not have to wait until you are established on the PADS for the next set, however, do not sacrifice a sound lookout doctrine for expediency. Typically, once established on the KIO heading with overall SA and climbing at 300 kts, we can check our gas and g's. The Bandit lead will set up the geometry for the follow on sets. Your job is simple; maintain whatever heading the Bandit has assigned you while getting into position, airspeed as appropriate and be at the proper altitude. Often times the Bandit will need to check the flight to a new heading (for geometry, area management, etc.) Echo the new heading, utilize a hard energy sustaining turn and get there. If the set starts at 250 kts you will maintain 300 kts until you are told to slow by the lead. Then do what ever it takes to stay in position as the A/C slow down. We will accept slight deviations from the PADS not to exceed the following: 1. Position: 10 degrees of bearing line 2. Altitude: 200 ft 3. Distance: .1 nm 4. Speed: 10 kts When we are within these parameters, we can call "Speed and Angels." The Lead will initiate the call when he feels the wingman is in a good position. Snap Shot Drill (SSD)

- P Abeam - A 14,000 ft - D .8 1.0 nm - S 300 kts

The snapshot drill is a cooperative maneuver designed to teach employment of the gun at high angles off. The snap shot is used when attacking at medium to high angles off in an attempt to achieve a quick kill, thereby precluding subsequent maneuvering. The aerial gun was the first weapon employed in dog fighting and still remains the most difficult weapon to use in the ACM arena. In a tracking shot, the attacker has aligned fuselages and can put the maximum amount of ordnance on the defender with angles, airspeed and closure under control. The snap shot is a quick opportunity shot. It is employed with high angles off, high track crossing rate and high closure. Obviously, because of the more difficult nature of this type of shot, the attacker must abide by a few rules in order to set this up.



In order to simplify this, as the shooter in the guns weave, you must accomplish three basic things. 1. PLANE OF MOTION 2. RANGE 3. LEAD Plane of Motion is the most important parameter to solve for and it is also the easiest parameter for the bandit to break and deny the shot.

Figure 1-18 Snap Shot Drill The SSD will be set up at 300 kts and 14,000 ft. The two aircraft will be in combat spread, level, and 1.0 nm, with the shooter being aft of the target's beam by 10 degrees. Once the g-warm is completed, the wingman will initiate the fenced in call with g's and fuel. The Lead will initiate



the "Speed and Angels" call when he feels wing is in a good position. The lead will initiate the "In" call for each engagement, regardless if he is offensive or defensive. The comm will be "Hawk 1, in target," "Hawk 2, in shooter." The student will be the shooter on his offensive ACM hops, and the target on his defensive ACM hops. The two aircraft will turn in towards each other. This is a cooperative maneuver, so whoever is the target will pull/float to place the shooter at his 10 or 2 o'clock and hold him there. When the shooter calls "Trigger down, snap," the target should evaluate what the nose position of the shooter is, and then reverse his turn to complete a shackle turn. The trigger down call should be made at the same time as the trigger squeeze. The snap call is made when the target is going through the pipper. This is immediately followed by an evaluation of the shot. You can call many things: "Fuselage," "Canopy," or "Missed Hi/Lo." The more specific, the better for a debriefing tool. Generally, eight snapshots are accomplished, but there can be more. On the last four snapshots, the instructor will call, "Hawk 1, in target/shooter, maneuvering." During these, the target jet will attempt to maneuver out of the bullet stream and avoid getting shot. To do this, the target will put his wingtip on the attacker and maneuver out-of-plane. Even th

AIR COMBAT MANEUVERING

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