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JBICI Research Paper No. 36-3
July 2008
ISSN 1347-5703
4-1, Ohtemachi 1-chome, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8144, Japan
Tel: 03-5218-9720 (JBIC Institute)Internet: http://www.jbic.go.jp/ Recycled paper
JBICI R
esearch Paper No. 36-3
JBIC InstituteJapan Bank for International Cooperation
July 2008
Aid Effectiveness to Infrastructure:A Comparative Study of East Asia and
Sub-Saharan Africa
Case Studies of Sub-Saharan Africa
Aid Effectiveness to Infrastructure: A
Com
parative Study of East Asia and Sub-Saharan A
frica, Case Studies of Sub-Saharan A
frica
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Ahmadou Aly MbayeUniversity of Dakar
Aid Effectiveness to Infrastructure:A Comparative Study of East Asia and
Sub-Saharan Africa
Senegal Case Study
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Table of CONTENTS
1. BACKGROUND …………………………………………………………………………… 1
2. THE DEBI-TIGUET PROJECT (DIP) CASE ………………………………………… 32.1 Irrigation in the valley of Senegal river …………………………………………… 52.2 Institutional and Impact Analysis of DIP …………………………………………… 82.3 Benchmarking DIP institutional design ………………………………………… 15
3. REGIONAL HYDROPOWER DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (RHDP) …………… 213.1 The Energy sector in Senegal ……………………………………………………… 213.2 OMVS and the management of Senegal river …………………………………… 253.3 Institutional linkage between OMVS, SOGEM and ESKOM ………………… 303.4 The RHDP: a further description …………………………………………………… 343.5 RHDP: institutional spillovers ……………………………………………………… 363.6 Observed institutional weaknesses ………………………………………………… 453.7 Aid relationship in RHDP …………………………………………………………… 49
4. FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS …………………………………………… 54
REFERENCE ………………………………………………………………………………… 57ANNEXES …………………………………………………………………………………… 60
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List of Figures
Figure 1 : Geographic location of DIP …………………………………………………… 4Figure 2 : Institutional setting of Debi-Tiguet Managing Unit ……………………… 10Figure 3 : Interactions in service rendering inside the Union ………………………… 11Figure 4 : Interactions in seeds production and distrobution inside the Union …… 12Figure 5 : Total consumption in energy in Senegal (2003) …………………………… 21Figure 6 : Electricity supply to SENELEC in 2006 …………………………………… 22Figure 7 : Three countries and one river ………………………………………………… 27Figure 8 : Manantali Energy Project ……………………………………………………… 28Figure 9 : Institutional schema of Energy Project ……………………………………… 31Figure 10: Organigramm of SOGEM ……………………………………………………… 33Figure 11: Manantali dam: an aerial view ……………………………………………… 35Figure 12: OMVS member countries quotas in total Manantali energy production … 37
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List of Tables
Table 1 : Donor funded projects on irrigation in the Valley: 1990-2005 (CFA millions) ……………………………………………………… 7
Table 2 : Uses and resources on rice in Senegal (1995-2002) ………………………… 8Table 3 : Benchmarking DIP against reference projects ……………………………… 17Table 4 : Donor funded projects in energy in Senegal (1998-2005) …………………… 25Table 5 : Project Financing Shares ………………………………………………………… 29Table 6 : The costs of project’s components are broken down as follows …………… 36Table 7 : Losses according to the Fichtner Study ……………………………………… 42Table 8 : Correlation between shares of Manantali project financed
by France and nationality of successful tenderers ………………………… 50Table 9 : The amendements ………………………………………………………………… 51
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Annex
Annex 1: Indicators on DIP (1994 à 2003) ……………………………………………… 60Annex 2: Irrigated agriculture in Senegal ……………………………………………… 62Annex 3: Some Indicators on reference projects ………………………………………… 63Annex 4: Note on the Desk Review of World Bank Regional Energy Projects ……… 64Annex 5: Others World Bank project’s in the valley of Senegal River ……………… 67Annex 6: Debi-Lampsar Irrigation Project ……………………………………………… 70Annex 7: Fourth Irrigation Project ………………………………………………………… 74
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Acronyms and Abbreviations
BCI Budget Consolidé d’Investissement
BEC Bureau d’Etudes et de Contrôle
CAP Project and Programme Implementation Support Unit
CCCE Caisse Centrale de Coopération Economique
CERER Centre d’Etudes et de Recherches sur les Energies Renouvelable
CFAA Country Financial Accountability Assessment
CIDA Canadian International Development Agency
CM Council Minister
CNCAS Caisse Nationale de Crédit Agricole
CPAR Country Procurement Assessment
CSS Compagnie Sucrière Sénégalaise
DCEF Division of Economic and Financial Cooperation
DDI Division of Debt and Investment
DGTCP Direction General of Treasury and Public Accounting
DIP Debi Irrigation Project
DRC Development Cooperation Report
ESP Ecole Supérieure Polytechnique
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
FMTE Framework or Medium Term Expenditure
FNDP Fonds National de Développement Pétrolier
FNE Fonds National de l’Energie
GDP Gross Domestic Product
HC Haut Commissariat de l’OMVS
ICS Industrie Chimique du Sénégal
IDB Islamic Development Bank
ISRA Institut Sénégalais de Recherche Agricole
NGO Non Governemental Organization
OMVS Organisation pour la Mise en Valeur du fleuve Sénégal
PCRBF Projet de Coordination des Réformes Budgétaires Financières
PDEF Programme Décennal de l’Education de la Formation
PO Producer Organizations
PPTE Pays Pauvres Très Endettés
PRPF Programme de Recouvrement de Puissance et de Fiabilisation
PSAOP Programme des Services Agricoles et Organisations des Producteurs
PTIP Programme Triennal d’Investissement Public
RENES Programme de Redéploiement Energétique du Sénégal (RENES)
RHDP Regional Hydropower Development Project
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SAED Société d’Aménagement et d’Exploitation des Terres du Delta du
Fleuve Sénégal
SAR Société Africaine de Raffinage
SCA Stratégie de Croissance Accélérée
SENELEC Société National d’Electricité
SNP System of Planning
SNTI Société Nationale de Tomate Industrielle
SOGED Société de Gestion et d’Exploitation du barrage de Manantali
SOGEM Société de Gestion et de l’Energie de Manantali
SONACOS Société Nationale de Commercialisation des Oléagineux du Sénégal
TOFE Tableau des Opérations Financières de l’Etat
UEMOA West African Economical Monetary Union
PETROSEN Société des Pétroles du Sénégal
UNDP United Nation for Development of Population
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1. BACKGROUND
This study is part of a broader assessment of aid effectiveness, using a comparative
case study approach on Africa and Asia. It aims to shed some light on the current
debate on aid effectiveness in Africa by studying project cases in Senegal.
Foreign bilateral and multilateral flows of aid play a significant role in the
Senegalese economy. Such flows make up more than 10% in GDP, and are major
sources of funding for development policies in Senegal. In 2003/2004, Senegal received
$418 millions in aid, which made up about 8.9% of GDP. On average, the amount of
aid per head was $48.1 in 2002/2004. Bilateral aid makes up 55.6% of total flows while
the rest comes from multilateral donors. Up to 60 different bilateral and multilateral
donors (excluding NGOs, private foundations and the like) are operating in Senegal,
and about 750 projects are now underway. There are more than 400 NGOs currently
operating in the country. Although Senegal attracts far more foreign aid donors than
most developing countries (the average number of foreign aid donors for developing
countries is 23), aid is highly concentrated in Senegal, with only four partners
providing more than half of the total flows. Infrastructure is a major beneficiary of aid,
as more than 80% of total bilateral and multilateral interventions are devoted to this
sector.
The main objective of this study is to assess the effectiveness of these interventions,
mainly in terms of capacity building, institutional design, and sustainability. The
irrigation and energy sectors are cases in point, since both figures prominently
in Senegalese government strategies to accelerate growth and to reduce poverty.
Moreover, several institutional settings have been experimented to increase
effectiveness in the design, implementation and management of investment projects
in these sectors.
The methodology used in this document is inductive and seeks to generalize findings
from two case studies. In this study, we spell out the institutional accomplishments
and failures of two Senegalese development projects, the Regional Hydropower
Development Project (RHDP) and the Debi Irrigation Project (DIP), using results from
field missions and secondary documents, primarily donor evaluations. A benchmarking
exercise is also undertaken to better assess case project outcome in terms of capacity
building, institutional upgrading and economic and financial viability. We chose to
study these two projects because they met some basic criteria for case study selection,
mainly:
- Significance of project with regard to size ;
- Being in the sector of infrastructure, including irrigation ;
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- Being completed 5 years ago from now ;
- Being funded by Japan, at least for one project cases ;
- Not being a white elephant, in order for the analysis to elicit some relevant
lessons.
The RHDP is funded by the World Bank and helps develop power generation from
the Senegal River. The DIP is funded by the Japanese Government and manages
irrigation in the northern part of Senegal.
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2. THE DEBI-TIGUET PROJECT (DIP) CASE
The DIP is located in the left hand side of Senegal River, at 45 km upstream. The
rack is in the middle of the delta, covering an area of 500 square km. It benefits
favorable geographic conditions, soil quality and water availability, as compared to
other racks in the delta. Two villages are involved, the Debi village and the Tiguet
village, with a total population of 1622 inhabitants. DIP is funded entirely by Japan
with a total budget of 1,596 yen. The project’s goal is to rehabilitate the Debi rack. Its
main objectives are:
An increase in food self-sufficiency ;
Encouragement of autonomous management of agricultural exploitations by
peasants;
An improvement of hydro-agricultural infrastructure in the two villages, and;
An increase in productivity and producer income in the region by introducing
double harvesting in the year.
Investments consist of building a warehouse, availing tractors and trucks, and
rehabilitation of the road linking the two villages. The project also has a technical
assistance component, which consists of training SAED’s agents in the mastery of
accounting systems adapted to these kinds of projects. Peasants are also trained to
be capable of implementing techniques of double culture and to prepare necessary
documents for bank loan applications. The Société Nationale d’Aménagement et
d’Exploitation des Terres du Delta du Fleuve Sénégal (SAED) was set up in 1965 to
manage the irrigation perimeter of the region. The organization consists of 5 divisions
and 4 delegations. DIP is under the jurisdiction BEC (Bureau d’Etudes et de Contrôle)
and the Dagana delegation.
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Fig
ure
1: G
eogr
aphi
c lo
catio
n of
DIP
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2.1 Irrigation in the valley of Senegal river
Agriculture has an overwhelming role in the Senegalese economy. More that 70%
of total labor force works directly in this sector. The country has direct access to two
major rivers, the Senegal River and the Gambian River, and is heavily dependent on
rainfall for its agricultural sector. Irrigated agriculture is particularly encouraged to
increase domestic food supply and to foster exports. The principal zones of irrigation
are the main coast (from Dakar to Saint-Louis), the southern part of the country, and
the Senegal River valley, using notably water resources from the dams of Diama and
Manantali.
2.1.1 Characteristics of irrigation in Senegal River valley
The Senegal River valley is populated by about 3.5 million people (roughly 35%
of the Senegalese population) out of which 85% live close to a basin. The economic
potentialities of the valley have been recognized since the colonial era. They
encompass fishing, livestock, and, overwhelmingly, irrigation for agricultural purpose.
The first irrigation trials date back to 1940, and occurred in Richard Toll. But it
was not until 1965, post-independence, that the government owned SAED (Société
d’Aménagement et d’Exploitation des Terres du Delta du Fleuve Sénégal) was set up
to take charge of irrigation in the valley and to encourage food production (mainly
rice cultivation) in this area. SAED began by managing a cultivatable area of 650
hectars of land. Throughout the seventies, several irrigated areas were developed to
insure against drought. With the construction of the dams in Manantali and Diama,
improved irrigation fuelled further agricultural growth. Nowadays, this kind of
activity is the main activity in the region and has won the support of several donors.
The use of technology is quickly growing in this area, as is the use of high quality
seeds. The array of production has also increased to include rice, onions, potatoes,
sweet potatoes, and tomato. Approximately 100,000 hectares of land are now being
cultivated, out of which 60,000 in the rainy season and 20,000 in the dry season.
There is a great potential for irrigation in the valley due to the diversity of water
resources as well as the large quantity of stored and usable water resources. 500,000
hectars of land are potentially irrigable, but only 60,000 are now actually irrigated,
which makes up 1.6% of cultivatable land, or 2.8% of cultivated land. Agriculture in
the valley consists primarily of rice and vegetables. Irrigation in the area uses mainly
surface water, and underground water contributes only for 10%. The techniques used
are very diverse and include:
The traditional system using watering cans ;•
The improved traditional system: portions of land are watered through flexible •
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drains plugged into the watering terminal;
The gravity system using submersion;•
The gravity system using land parting ;•
The sprinkling system of irrigation, which is more prevalent now in the valley and •
has the advantage of consuming less water.
2.1.2 Development policies and programs in the valley
It is now widely acknowledged by Senegalese authorities as well as by the
community of donors that irrigation can dramatically mitigate the very severe
agricultural crisis in Senegal. The agricultural sector is hampered by several
constraints, which include1:
Very low levels of investment, resulting in very low levels of mechanization and •
diminutive yields;
Rainfall levels following a downward trend due to the process of desertification in •
the Sahel region;
Increased soil degradation, water salinity, and parasite attacks;•
Furthermore, government withdrawal from this sector since the early nineties has
dramatically reduced fertilizer and phytosanitary product use, as well as further
diminishing the mechanization of agriculture.
These constraints have contributed to the lower levels of productivity and income
in rural areas. In order to mitigate their effects, several donors have encouraged the
development of irrigated productive processes in the valley. Among the donors, the
most visible are France, The World Bank, and Japan. Table 1 gives us some major
donor projects and programs in the valley. It shows that this kind of activity is one of
the most assisted in the country.
1 For a deeper analysis of the constrains on agriculture in Senegal, see Mbaye (2005).
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Tab
le 1
: Don
or fu
nded
pro
ject
s on
irrig
atio
n in
the
Val
ley:
199
0-20
05 (
CFA
mill
ions
)
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2.1.3 Rice cultivation in the valley of the Senegal river
Agricultural opportunities in the valley are abundant due to soil fertility and
water availability. Several commodities are developed in this region, notably: maize,
sorghum, industrial tomato, onions, sweet potatoes, groundnut, cotton, and rice. Rice
cultivation is by far the most prevalent activity in the valley and is also undertaken
in the southern part of the country, in Casamance, which the rainiest region in the
country, and in Kolda, with the help of irrigation. However, nowhere in the country
are the levels of rice yields and output comparable to what is observed the valley. Rice
is the basis of nutrition in Senegal and domestic production only covers less than 20%
of total needs. The remainder is imported, mainly from Asia (see table 2).
Table 2: Uses and resources on rice in Senegal (1995-2002)
Years 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Populations (adult equivalent) 6483645 6658703 838488 7023128 7212752 7407496 7607499 7812901
Average consumption/year/capita (kg) 60 62 63 65 67 69 70 72
Total demand in rice (metric tons) 389019 410309 432765 456450 481431 507779 535569 564881
Total rice production (metric tons) 100750 96850 113100 141700 138450 124103 137124 158013
Imports (metric tons) 435500 627200 452000 535300 658070 501657 632253 709575
Food assistance in rice (metric tons) 6765 4904 8238 1997 8993 6000 6000 6000
Total supply of rice (metric tons) 543015 728954 573338 678997 805513 631760 775377 873588
Inventory (metric tons) 153996 318645 140573 222547 324082 123981 239808 308703
Source: SAED, 2003
The major constraint for rice cultivation in Senegal is the level of certified seed
utilization. Most of seeds used come from the preceding year’s crops. Thus, they are
cheaper but also less effective than the certified ones. However, the use of certified
seeds is increasing very rapidly recently, rising from 634 metric tons in 1994 to
2250 metric tons in 2000, and yields have followed a similar trend, thanks to donors
intervention in the valley. But the major challenge now is how to make domestic rice
production competitive as compared to asian rice which is much cheaper even in local
markets.
2.2 Institutional and Impact Analysis of DIP
RHDP and DIP have had important impacts on beneficiaries’ incomes. The
connection of neighboring villages to the national electricity network has dramatically
improved living standards in the villages. Irrigation has allowed for double harvesting
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and increasing levels of yield and income in these regions, as well as on production
diversification.
2.2.1 Institutional and capacity building impact of the project
The villages Debi and Tiguet used to be fishing villages. Economic activities used
to be rudimentary and, apart from fishing, consisted of gathering and food oriented
agriculture. The first irrigation trial in the area took place in the Djoudj basin, in
1964. It covered an area of 80ha and doubled to 160ha in 1966. Kuwait funded land
management in these villages in 1980. An area of 737ha was covered under this
program. The Japanese began funding the project in 1996, but the rehabilitation of
the rack commenced in 1992. The area of managed land is 982 ha. Other surrounding
areas are also favourable for irrigation. It is estimated that 1700 ha of irrigable land
is available there for private operations. The major impression we got throughout
our interviews with the beneficiaries is that the program has dramatically improved
living standards in the two villages. More importantly, it has improved domestic
capabilities in managing human organizations. Before the project’s implementation,
the organizational patterns in the two villages as well as in surrounding ones was
cenetered around cooperatives, and villages were sections of such cooperatives. The
management unit of the project consists of a Union2 of the producer organizations
(PO) of 28 people (14 from each village) chosen on a parity basis. The organizational
hierarchy of the management structure is:.
- The PO, whose presidents are automatically members of the board;
- The General Assembly, which is composed of all the people living in the two
villages, organized in PO. It has meetings twice a year: at the beginning and at
the end of the production cycle. The general assembly appoints the members of
the board;
- The board consists of 28 people (14 from each village) chosen on a parity basis.
The board meets once a month to evaluate past activities and follow up on
current projects. The board is directly accountable to the general assembly. The
board is responsible for land distribution inside the community and is structured
by commissions ;
- The board appoints the members of the managing unit of the project. The
unit consists of 6 members chosen on a parity basis, 3 from each village. This
managing unit meets once every 15 days and is managing the project locally. It
is appointed for a 3-year term
2 The official name is: « Union des exploitants de Débi ».
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Figure 2: Institutional setting of Debi-Tiguet Managing Unit
28 people
23 people
6 members
The various departments (commissions) of the board are each managed by a
commissioner and a deputy commissioner. The existing commissions are:- The commission in charge of collecting income and engaging expenses,
- The commission in charge of land management,
- The commission in charge of operation (seed and fertilizer distribution),
- The commission in charge of equipment (tractor and truck) management;
- The commission in charge of the management of rice broking machines,
- The commission in charge of equipment parts management
Each commission presents a report of its activities every meeting. Each PO is
allotted a given parcel of land, assesses its needs and prepares an application for
a loan to CNCAS3. SAED evaluate the technical and financial feasibility of the
application before giving its clearance to CNCAS for the loan to be approved. The
3 Caisse Nationale de Crédit Agricole du Sénégal. CNCAS is the bank that was set up by Senegalese authorities to fund agricultural activities. It grants loans on a subsidized basis at a rate of 7.5%. Commercial banks offer loans at up to double that rate.. The national average level of loan recovery for CNCAS is very low; however, the bank recovers at least 95% of its loans granted to the Debi-Tiguet project.
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SAED monitors loan disbursements with the POs. The loan application is personal,
putting each producer in touch with CNCAS, even though the process is collective. It
is worth noting that POs are not receiving cash, but are instead receiving vouchers
that can be traded in for seeds, fertilizes or whatever input they may need in the
production process. Before granting loans, the bank asks for a deposit amounting to
the fourth of the financial needs, ensuring that each PO has a deposit at the bank.
The harvests are centralized to the board and each deposit is certified by a title. The
board (through its commission in charge) shell the rice, sells the output, repay the
bank according to the share of each producer and return the balance to the POs.
Figure 3: Interactions in service rendering inside the Union
The Union charges producers for various services at the following rates:
- Irrigated water: CFA 62500 per ha,
- Agricultural techniques management: CFA 19000 per ha;
- Certified seeds: CFA 250 per kg ;
- The trucks, 4 of 5 metric tons useful load, and 1 of 10 metric tons useful loads,
are rented to the POs. The costs charged are CFA 25000 per day; but exceptional
discounts are granted for some particular activities. For example the price
charged for the shelling machine is CFA 10000, and CFA 5000 for operational
activities. Regarding the truck of 10 ton metric load, it is affected to fertilizer,
seeds, and crops delivery, and the costs charged for these services are only CFA
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5000 per day. The trucks can be rented by people outside the Union for private
use. In such case, the commission in charge of its management determine on a
discretionary basis, the amount to be charged;
- Rice shelling: CFA 13 per kg.
All these services are also available to private operators who grow rice in the
surroundings of Debi-Tiguet, but at a higher price than what the POs pay. Each
commission determines its margin by comparing proceeds to costs. In recent years,
costs have tended to outpace proceeds; service fees have not increased for the past
10 years except for tractor location fees, which increased by CFA 1500, while the fee
charged for water dropped by CFA 5000 over the same time period, and the costs of
shelling have decreased by 1 per kg, also. The proceeds are used by the Union in the
following ways:
- 44% for the management of the pumping station: gasoline for draining and for
irrigation stations, equipments parts, maintenance (this service is performed by
SAED and is charged to the Union), etc.,
- 41% for in charge of operation (seed and fertilized distribution )
- 15% of total proceeds are deposited at the bank in a savings account, in order
to insure against unexpected risks; however, no such risks have presented
themselves for the past ten years. The current value of the deposit is CFA 147
millions.
Figure 4: Interaction in seeds production and distribution inside the Union
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Cooperation with the research institute is also deemed satisfactory. ISRA4 is
producing pre basic quality seeds and sells them to the Union at the price of CFA
720 per kg. Then, the Union chooses the peasants who have best demonstrated
their abilities to follow the technical itinerary drawn by research, to duplicate the
seeds. This seeds produced by peasants are of basic quality and cost CFA 175 per kg.
In return, The Union sells those at the price of CFA 350 after bearing the costs of
wrapping, sorting out, transportation, and so forth to POs. The Union is realizing an
estimated profit margin of CFA 20. The final stage is that POs further duplicate these
seeds to levels R1 and R2, and distribute them to peasants for production.
2.2.2 Why is the Debi Tiguet Union more effective than similar Unions in the Valley?
According to SAED engineers as well as community members, the main reason
for the effectiveness of the union lies in the type of organization that was put in
place. It ensures total ownership of the organization, and it effectively handles land
management, seed and fertilizers distribution, technology extension, loan application
and reimbursement, and most of all, harvest commercialization. The efforts of the
Union in harvest commercialization are of utmost importance. In many neighboring
villages, the producers deal with crops by trading amongst themselves, even though
they have neither the financial capabilities nor the skills to properly do it. They are at
the mercy of intermediaries who take the spread between sale price and purchasing
price, which is put at its highest. Here, all POs centralize their harvest to the board
which divides it into three components: one for producer self consumption, one for loan
repayment and one for sale.
Another factor for success is the level of available technology, understood both by
methods of production and availability of equipment. SAED makes sure the best
productive itinerary is used by peasants. With regard to equipment, peasants are
provided tractors, shelling machines, and trucks by JICA. According to many expert
opinions, the level of rice yields is among the highest in the world. Average yield is
5.8 metric tons per ha, with peaks reaching 9 metric tons. The availability of tractors
throughout the year is critical. CNCAS’s credit committee meets at around June,
so loans are only available in July. Peasants from other unions are obliged to wait
until these loans are in place to start the production process, while those from Debi-
Tiguet start the field work as early as May, and at that time, they do not need to pay
for tractor service fees. Such payment is deferred until the loans are available to the
peasant. Thus, the production cycle and the technical itinerary are fully respected,
and this ensures the higher yields.
4 Institut Sénégalais de Recherche Agricole
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POs, accompanied by SAED engineers, organize rack towers throughout the
production cycle: one 15 days after sowing, another one 30 days after sowing and a last
one 60 days after sowing. These are intended to evaluate the potential of each field,
to identify the major problems it faces, and to accompany the owner with solution.
Whenever POs realize the existence of very severe deficiencies that could hamper the
quality of harvest and hence the solvency of the owner, they stop all loan processes to
the peasant.
The idea of the project emerged from SAED, which developed it in partnership
with JICA. It is a principle of JICA to work with governments, and SAED was the
governmental body which served as the interlocutor with JICA for this project.
SAED also monitors the production cycle and the loan processes alongside with the
Union, and oversees the overall financial management of the unit. Since 2004, it
has established centers to manage rural organizations called CGER5. These centers
prepare financial statements for each peasant organization and send a copy to SAED;
they review the accounts and make relevant recommendations about management
to the organization. SAED reserves the rights to order additional audits if necessary.
Besides, SAED appoints a permanent representative to the Union with the title of
Conseiller agricole6, who is an agronomic engineer, who attends all board meetings as
an observer. Throughout the production cycle, he avails himself to POs for technical
advices. The Conseiller is permanently based in Debi-Tiguet. His duties include:
planning for the next agricultural campaign, tracking tractor maintenance, assessing
financial and technical needs from POs and helping them prepare loan application to
CNCAS, and, finally, double-checking the conformity of deliveries to their orders. On
the technical side, he verifies that water drainage and spreading are completed on
time, and he follows each peasant individually and provides advice on an individual
and collective basis.
Training is also an important factor of success. When the Union was set up in 1996,
each commissioner and deputy commissioner was granted a training on his field of
interest. The peasants were trained on how to manage a rack. This training was
provided by a body called ATOP7, which depends on SAED. Literacy activities were
also taken in charge. Currently, peasants are trained about the technical itinerary at
the beginning of each agricultural campaign. For more advanced training modules,
SAED invites the management of the union, who replicate the training received to the
remainder of the group. Furthermore, the management of the Union organizes trips
5 Centre de Gestion des Economies Rurales ;6 Agricultural advisor.7 Appui Technique aux Organisations paysannes.
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abroad to expose themselves to other technical experiences in rice cultivation. Also, as
part of the project, SAED engineers are sometimes invited to Japan for training.
JICA is directly dealing with the government via SAED and not with the POs. It
has mainly two funding instruments in Senegal: technical cooperation and grant aid
cooperation. The funding of Debi-Tiguet falls under grant aid cooperation. Under this
scheme, rehabilitation works of irrigation facilities and drainage pumps are conducted
and necessary equipments are provided. In addition, Japanese engineers are sent to
ministries and Senegalese civil servants or engineers are sent to Japan for capacity
building. In the case of grant aid project, the Japanese and the Senegalese government
agree on the sector and the projects to be supported, and JICA intervenes accordingly.
The disbursement rate of JICA is 100% since they do not give money to recipient
government. They can install equipments, build classrooms, or roads, but none of
these is directly managed by recipient government. The major areas of concentration
of Japanese cooperation in Senegal are health, education, hydraulics, and support to
productive initiative mainly in agriculture and fishing.
2.3. Benchmarking DIP institutional design
2.3.1 The methodology and its main limitations
This benchmarking exercise is to compare the accomplishments of the DIP in terms
of institutional design and capacity building with other reference projects. The projects
that are chosen for this purpose are the Ndombo Thiago and the Thiagar projects.
We will compare the accomplishments of DIP to those of the reference projects to
determine how good its relative performances are as compared to average projects of
the same nature. The exercise is likely to yield a robust outcome if it is proven that
the reference projects are not outliers from the average projects. To address this issue,
we selected projects that have more or less the same level of success as DIP. Another
prospective problem is that projects are implemented in different time periods. This
can influence technology based indicators such as yield and quality of seeds. However,
this is tempered by the fact that technology does not experience huge increases in
productivity in a short period of time; thus it is realistic to assume that variations in
technological skills and quality of equipment are not very significant. The following
are the criteria were used in the selection process of reference projects:
- The reference projects are in the same sector as DIP; both are irrigation projects
in the delta of Senegal river,
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- They are financed by different donors8; the Ndombo-Thiago (1981-1986)
perimeter is funded by French cooperation, while the Thiagar irrigation project
(1987 – 1992) is funded by the World Bank
- They are comparable in scale to the DIP; 590 ha of land management for
Ndombo-Thiago, 1270 ha for Thiagar, and 982 ha for DIP
- Information on institutional set-up and mode of implementation for both are
available from secondary sources. Some basic information on institutional and
developmental impacts are also available.
2.3.2 A brief description of reference projects
Ndombo and Thiago are located in the Delta of the river, south of Richard Toll. In
1981, SAED implemented 12 autonomous perimeters, divided into subsets of 6 each,
and fed water by a 45-horsepower pump. The total cultivatable surface was 590 ha.
Each perimeter was designed to cultivate rice and tomato. The Thiagar perimeter
is located close to Rosso Senegal and the Senegal River. It was first managed in
1976 and rehabilitated in 1986/87. The rehabilitation concerned the management
of the irrigation network, the strengthening of pumping stations, and the repair of
production tracks. This project was part of a bigger program which was intended to
rehabilitate 7000 ha of land in the delta and to transfer them to POs.
The implementation of Ndombo-Thiago project dramatically increased the level
of production and yield of beneficiary peasants. Tomato production increased from
17 metric tons in 1982 to 88 metric tons in 1990, even though it decreased in the
following years. If we look at rice, production rose from 174.35 metric tons in 1982 to
462 in 1989. Yields increased from 3.96 in 1982 tons per ha to 5.82 in 1989 for rice in
Ndombo, and 18.5 to 51 for tomato. In Thiago, the corresponding figures are 5.16 to
6.58 for rice and 17.10 to 159 for tomato. Yields in Thaigar increased from 2.5 metric
tons per ha in 1981/82 to 4.7 in 1990/91. None of these projects has a transformation
component (i.e. rice breaking machines) or transportation equipments, like in DIP.
2.3.3 The results of the analysis
In order to rank the DIP project against the two reference projects, we judged the
three projects on a few quantitative indicators (the first five indicators in the chart
below) and many other qualitative indicators (the remainder). The indicators all have
8 JICA is now funding a project in Thiago, but for the period under consideration, this was not the case.
9 These figures which are published by SAED are a lot above the ones obtained by Le Gal 1991, from his surveys in the Delta.
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the same weights, thus reflecting that they are each equally important. For each of
these indicators the three projects are ranked by order of performance. That is the
project that performs better for a given indicator is assigned a score of 2, the following,
a score of 1, and the last a score of 0. We then sum up all the scores to give an overall
ranking of the three projects according to these criteria. Below, we give some insight
on the rationale of each criterion (see table 3).
Table 3: Benchmarking DIP against reference projects
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In order to implement this benchmarking methodology, we used the evaluation
missions prepared by CCCE10 on the Ndombo- Thiago and Thiagar projects, as well
as documents from DIP which we collected from various sources: JICA, Debi Tiguet
Union of producers, SAED, Ministry of agriculture, and other sources. Data for
DIP are much more diversified and reliable than data form reference projects. The
multiplicity of these data allows for double-checking our results for the DIP, which
is not the case for reference projects. This can dramatically entail the benchmarking
outcome for some indicators (indicators related to yields and production)11, for the
other indicators, they seem quite reliable. We have skipped indicators referring to
poverty incidence and severity since the available statistics cannot be disaggregated
for these villages.
With the expressed reservations about data reliability in mind, we see that DIP is
not performing as well as the reference projects in the fields of growth of output level
and growth of yield level. If we turn to output diversification, we can see that the
reference projects target at least two types of products (rice and tomato) while DIP
only targets rice cultivation, so the reference projects scored higher for this indicator,
too. Apart from that, DIP has much higher scores for all other indicators, except for
producer involvement in the project design, for which all the projects scored a 0. It
is also shown in the evaluation for reference projects (CCCE, 1992) that populations
were not at all involved in identification of Ndombo Thiago and Thiagar perimeter
rehabilitation projects. While for DIP the main interlocutor with JICA was the
Senegalese government through SAED, the POs we met with during the field mission
said that the peasants were not involved enough in these phases of the projects. This
is despite the fact that it was assumed that peasants were strongly involved in project
identification and design stages. Furthermore, it seemed that training for both SAED
and producers was sufficient in the reference projects and the DIP, so all three projects
scored equally for the related indicators.
Indicators related to loan are a case in point, to illustrate DIP highest performances
for the majority of indicators. The level of bank loan recovery is higher for DIP
(more than 95%) than in reference projects. Evaluation documents indicate that loan
recovery rate tended to turn lower and lower as we move forward on time for the
reference projects. For the DIP, however, a very strong organization involving SAED,
the Union, and the CNCAS ensures a very high and stable rate of loan recovery. Also
in DIP, we have a very deed involvement of the whole community in loan application
10 Caisse Centrale de Cooperation Economique, which became Agence Française de Développement.11 For example, Le Gal (1991) indicated reported levels of yields much lower in the order of 3.53
metric tons per ha than what is found in some evaluation documents. So indicators related to yields and production should be used with caution.
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process, even if each producer is the only responsible of his (her) own loan. This type of
organization is not observed in reference projects. That is why they both are scored a
0 for this indicator, while the DIP scored the maximum for the indicator. The DIP has
achieved a savings level of CFA 147 millions, while for most PO groups in references
projects, working capital has totally faded away.
DIP also performed better in indicators related to equipment availability.
For reference projects12, investments consist mainly of irrigation and drainage
equipments, threshing machines, plough, while investments for DIP include all of
those plus tractors and trucks. DIP is thus scored higher for these indicators, while
the reference projects are both scored a 0 for them. These investments are crucial
for explaining the impressive accomplishments of DIP. Equipment management
and maintenance are better dealt with in DIP than in reference projects. Evaluation
reports for the reference projects show a very weak peasant organization for assuming
such an important task. In DIP, producers have set up a very strong mechanism
for equipment maintenance; furthermore, fees are levied for services rendered by
such equipments which are intended to be used to purchase parts when needed.
Maintenance of irrigation and drainage equipments is done directly by SAED, which
is contracted by peasants to perform said jobs when needed. There is no similar
mechanism observed for the reference projects.
We see the biggest accomplishment of DIP is in establishing a sustainable overall
organizational setting. As shown in preceding sections, the organizational setting of
DIP is much stronger than in reference projects. The pattern of irrigation in Ndombo-
Thiago is very much scattered: we have two main cooperatives, one for each village,
and 6 POs per village. If we look at Thiagar, most POs that were constituted within
the project eventually broke up. Financial statements from Thiagar were deemed
unreliable. The head of the POs was deemed very authoritarian and tended to decide
without input from others. With these institutional weaknesses, Ndombo- Thiago
started having problems towards the end of the project, as is evident in rice harvest
yields, which dropped from 462 metric tons at the end of the project (1989) to only 70
metric tons the following year. Contrastingly, POs have taken over the management
of the whole process for DIP and the managing unit is functioning autonomously with
the support of SAED; donors have never been involved in the management of the
project. Hence, the DIP scored higher than the reference projects for this indicator.
The overall assessment of project performance shows that DIP received a total score
12 It is worth noting that the situation dramatically changed in Thiago when the JICA availed new tractors to Thiago’s POs.
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of 26 while Thiagar received a 19 and Ndombo Thiago received a 13. DIP received
higher scores for 10 out of the 18 indicators, the same score for 3 of them, and lesser
scores for 5 of them.
2.3.4 The role of donors in project outcome
It is difficult to single out the contribution of the Japanese donor on the outcome
of the DIP project because Japanese funding came to consolidate previous initiatives
in this area. The Senegal River vally has long benefited from the support of various
donors, for land management, technical assistance and capacity building, for SAED
and for producers. It is worth mentioning the PSAOP (programme des services
agricoles et organisations des producteurs), implemented by the World Bank. This
program emphasizes producer organisations in the way that is observed in Debi, in
line with government withdrawal from agricultural activities in Senegal. Therefore,
the accomplishments observed in Debi are the results of consolidated efforts from a
number of donors, the government and the POs, with the support of several financing
schemes.
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3. REGIONAL HYDROPOWER DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (RHDP)
3.1 The Energy sector in Senegal
In Senegal, energy consumption is still very low, as only 56% of energy needs are
met in urban areas and 12.5% in rural areas, in 2004. Figure 12 shows the breakdown
of energy consumption in Senegal per broad category of energy.
Figure 5: Total consumption in energy in Senegal (2003)
Source: Sarr, 2003.
3.1.1 Constraints on energy supply in Senegal
The energy sector in Senegal is characterized by the following:
- A very high energy dependence on foreign countries, since Senegal is not oil
producer;
- A high level of ligneous combustible consumption relative to the level of forest
resources and, more importantly, their rates of regeneration;
- Electric energy production is mainly from thermal sources, highly dependant on
imported oil, and its distribution is monopolized by one firm: SENELEC
Energy production in Senegal is dominated by wood generated energy, which meets
56% of total output; charcoal represents 40% of output and firewood represents 16%.
The consumption of ligneous combustibles are more prevalent in cities, notably in
Dakar which consumes 79,100 metric tons, representing half of the nation’s charcoal
consumption for electricity and 22,100 metric tons of firewood. The consequence of this
is deforestation that destroys about 30,000 hectars of forest per year. In recent years,
the government has started to implement a voluntaristic policy to reduce domestic
consumption of ligneous combustibles.
Electricity production is a central focus of national energy policy. Electricity is
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almost all from thermal source and is almost totally produced by SENELEC, which
also has in charge electricity distribution. Some major firms such as CSS, SAR,
SONACOS, SNTI, ICS, and the GMD13 produce their own electricity for consumption
because of the incapacity of SENELEC to provide reliable power on a continuous
and competitive basis. Electricity supply is considered one of the most serious
constraints to Senegal’s economic growth and competitiveness. Surveys of firms show
how deeply Senegalese private sector development is hampered by power outages
and uncompetitive costs of electricity. The amount of non distributed energy due to
insufficient level of production has increased by 302% between 2005 and 2006 and a
total number of days in which power outages took place was recorded in 2006.
SENELEC, the national electricity supply company, has various suppliers
of electricity, including its own generators, foreign suppliers (namely GTI and
AGGREKO, both of which are US nationals), and SOGEM. Figure 6 provides a
breakdown of electricity supply to SENELEC.
Figure 6: Electricity supply to SENELEC in 2006
Source : rapport de la SENELEC, 2006
The sources of energy supply in Senegal are the following:
Fossil sources of energy: Fossil fuels in Senegal include gas, peat, and lignite. A ten billion cubic meter deposit of natural gas was discovered in 1997 in the administrative
region of Thies and is extracted by PETROSEN. An estimated 52 million cubic
meter deposit of peat was discovered in 1980 and has been extracted by Compagnie
Sénégalaise des Tourbières since 1982.
New and Renewable sources of energy: Renewable sources of energy in Senegal
13 Respectively, Compagnie Sucrière du Sénégal, Société Africaine de Raffinage, Société Nationale de Commercialisation des Oléagineux au Sénégal, Société Nationale de Tomate Industrielle, Industries Chimiques du Sénégal, Grands Moulins de Dakar.
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include solar energy, wind energy and hydro electric energy. With 3,000 hours of
sun per year, and a global radiation estimated at 2,000 KWH per square meter per
annum, solar energy is an important potential source of energy in Senegal. Some
donors, notably Germany and Japan, have strongly encouraged the Senegalese
government to turn to this alternative source of energy. The various applications
of this type of energy involve: public and domestic lighting, water pumping,
refrigeration, dehydration of agriculture and sea products for storage, and so forth. A
few of the major Senegalese programs to harness solar power include the settlement of
photovoltaic solar centrals in the localities of Niaga Wolof, Notto, Diaoulé and Ndiébel,
and the settlement of more than 1500 photovoltaic systems throughout the country,
especially for rural households.
The potential of eolian energy does not seem to have been properly exploited in
Senegal. There are some eolian energy installations located in a strip between Dakar
and Thies supported mainly by NGOs. The major impediment to developing this
source of energy is that the location of sites should be considered with caution, since
this used to be the most important factor of failure in Senegalese experience in this
field.
The Senegal, Gambia, and Casamance Rivers are strong potential sources of
hydroelectric energy for the country. Of these rivers, only the Senegal has been used so
far for hydroelectric purpose. Two dams have been constructed along it: the Manantali
dam and the Diama dam, both jointly operated with neighbouring countries Mali and
Mauritania. It is estimated that the consolidated potential of the Senegal and Gambia
Rivers is 1000 KWH. The Manantali hydroelectric central was finalized in 2002 and
has a total capacity of 200 MWH; it is intended to deliver power to the capital cities
of the three countries (Bamako, Dakar, and Nouackchott), as well as neighbouring
villages.
Alternative sources of energy. In this heading, we discuss all alternative sources
not listed above. Biomass is one important alternative source of energy. The biomass
components that are used the most in Senegal are agricultural and animal waste and
biogas. This source of energy is not widely utilized though. Only some few enterprises
resort to them to meet their energetic needs, mainly CSS and SONACOS. Biogas,
which is obtained from the fermentation of organic waste, has been of real interest
to the Senegalese government since 1992 in its effort to diversify energy supply
sources Apart from providing an alternative source of energy, it can also be used for
soil fertilization. This source of energy is mainly used by SAED, which has set up 10
production units of biogas.
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3.1.2 Energetic policies and programs
The ministry energy, mining and industry are in charge of designing Senegal’s
energy policies. The backbone of policy design is the Commission Nationale de
l’Energie, an interministry body headed by the Minister of Energy. The Centre d’Etudes
et de Recherches sur les Energies Renouvelables (CERER) et de l’Ecole Supérieure
Polytechnique (ESP) are playing central roles in the research and promotion of
renewable sources of energy, as well.
The following funds are designed to implement the government energy policy:
- The Fonds National de l’Energie (FNE), which is manage by the Ministry of
Finance and is supported by fiscal revenues collected on oil and oil byproducts.
It is designed to finance rural and urban electrification programs and relies on
public/private partnerships. The fund also subsidizes the transportation costs of
energy into the hinterland to ensure the same price for energy between Dakar
and the other regions of the country.
- The Fonds de Préférence, which is supported by a special tax levied on each
KWH of electricity sold. Its purpose is to help private firms that are most
vulnerable to fluctuations in the price of electricity.
- The Fonds National de Développement Pétrolier (FNDP), which was set up to
help PETROSEN in its mission.
It is worth noting the following energy programs:
The Programme de Redéploiement Energétique du Sénégal (RENES), which •
was put in place after the oil crises of the 70s and 80s. It has two components,
the rehabilitation of the electric sector, and the economizing of energy in large
firms. The purpose of the program is to reduce the country’s dependence on
foreign sources of energy, to reduce the dependence on ligneous sources of energy
(primarily in rural areas), and to reduce the costs of energy. The following actions
needed to be taken :
- Energy redeployment in favor of fossil resources and new and renewable sources
of energy, as well as hydro electricity;
- Rehabilitation of energetic infrastructure and rationalization of distribution and
consumption;
- A progressive adjustment of power prices in order to reduce the deficits of power
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producing firms;
- A better connection between research and applications at the level of firms;
- An improvement in the pace of rural electrification.
A specific program for SENELEC was implemented to address the monopoly’s •
deficits of electricity production distribution. This program is supported by donors
like Japan, The Islamic Development Bank and the World Bank. The following
projects are parts of the program :
o Building new power centrals on the interconnected network of SENELEC,
such as the Kounoune (Rufisque) central, funded by the French government
(AFD) and the World Bank with a budget of euro 15 millions; the Bel-Air
central which is funded by IDB and the Programme de Recouvrement de
Puissance et de Fiabilisation (PRPF).
o Building solar energy equipment in the Saloum Islands under project
ISOFOTON, which is funded by ADF and Spain to the tune of 15 million
Euros.
Table 4: Donor funded projects in energy in Senegal (1998-2005)
DonorDate of
convention signature
Project title Budget (CFA 000)
IDA 29-oct-98 PASE (Energy) 50 000 000BOAD 09-avr-98 Energy (Manantali) 5 000 000FAD 2 mai 2000 Energy (Manantali) 8 687 250IDA 27-juil- 01 PPF (Electricity) 525 000
Espagne 24-juil- 02 Rural electrification using solar energy (662 villages) 7 022 945, 24
Espagne 26-nov- 02 Photovoltaic electrification (Saloum Islands) 9 084 313, 550BAD 29-nov.-04 Rural electrification project 7 558 620BID 18-mai-05 SENELEC 2 826 000BID 18-mai-05 SENELEC (Leasing) 13 696 382,160BID 03-déc.-05 SENELEC (Phase 2) 7 779 650,020ICO 21-févr.-05 Rural electrification using solar energy (phase II) 3 012 066,500IDA 31-mars-05 Access to electric services in rural areas ruraux 16 171 000IDA 28-juin-05 Electricity project 8 242 500
Source: Ministry of Finance/DDI, 2007.
3.2 OMVS and the management of Senegal river
The Senegal River is 1800 km long and is fed by three main tributaries, Bafing,
Bakoye and Falémé, all of which have their sources in Fouta Djalon (Guinea). The
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26 27
river crosses out Mali and stands as the border between Senegal and Mauritania.
The first studies for Senegal River management were completed in 1861 by colonial
authorities. In 1934, they created the ‘Mission d’aménagement du fleuve’ which
coordinated all the studies and experiments on the river, for the purpose of better
understanding navigation, energy production, and irrigation. The mission was mostly
interested in cotton production in the valley. Immediately after independence, the
4 newly independent countries (Senegal, Guinea, Mali, and Mauritania), took over
the project and sought ways to manage the river. In 1964, the four countries created
OERS (Organisation des Etats Riverains du Sénégal), which had broader integration
objectives. However, the organization proved ineffective due to political tensions
between Senegal and Guinea14, and in 1972, it was officially dissolved and replaced
by OMVS, which has a less ambitious integration agenda. OMVS’s mandate is only
limited to cooperation to manage the river resources (irrigation, hydroelectricity, and
navigability) and rules out other aspects of integration.
The work to build the Manantali and Diama Dams started in 1981. Manantali
is designed for electricity production and irrigation, while Diama is intended to
prevent salt water from the Atlantic to flow back15 through Senegal River and
deteriorate the land intended for agriculture. The Diama Dam allows for continued
agricultural activities on 375 000 ha, out of which, 240 000 are located in Senegal.
The Mananatali Dam has the installed capacity to produce 200 MW of hydroelectric
power and distributes 52% of the power to Mali, 33% to Senegal, and the remainder
to Mauritania. Hydrological data from 1950 to 1994 suggests that the Dam can
potentially produce 807 GWH; if we just consider data from 1972 – 1994, there is still
the potential to produce 560 GWH.
14 Guinea said no to De Gaulle who launched the idea of setting up a community of France and his former colonies. This opened up the doors for independence in francophone Africa. Senghor, the Former Senegalese president was considered by progressive African leaders as the man of France.
15 This flow back can affect up to 240 km of land.
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Figure 7: Three countries and One River
Source: SOGEM (2007), présentation du réseau interconnecté de Manantali, Séminaire
d’Information sur le projet d’Achat de Crédits de Réduction d’Emission de Gaz à effet de Serre,
03-05 Octobre 2007
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The total cost of the two dams is E 737 million, out of which E 145 million is for
Diama, and the remainder E592 for Manantali. The French funded one third of the
Diama project but only 0.7% of the costs of the Manantali Dam. The Manantali Dam
was built during between 1982 and 1987 on Bafing tributary, 1000 km away from
the river mouth. It supports a storage basin of 11 billion cubic meters of impounded
water, allowing for a river flow stabilization at 300 cubic meters per second in Bakel.
The central is different from the dam; it is comprised of 5 generators with a capacity
40MWH each. The investments also include 1300 km of high voltage power lines for
energy distribution to the three capitals. The funding for the central is broken down
as follows:
Table 5: Project Financing Shares
Doner/Lender % Share AFD 22%KFW 14%
FADES 10%UE 9%BEI 9%IDA 9%FAD 8%BID 6%
ACDI 6%BOAD 5%
SOTELMA 1%MAURITEL 1%
Interest 2%Total 100%
OMVS is led by a conference of members’ heads of state which meets once yearly.
Strategic decisions about the organization are taken at this level. Accountable to the
heads of states is the council of ministers, which meets twice a year and oversees
execution of the decisions of the heads of states. The following level is the High
Commissioner of OMVS, headquartered in Dakar, followed by operational bodies
like SOGEM and SOGED. The main difference between SOGEM and SOGED is
that the former has hired an operational agent for the need of running Manantali
energy, while the latter has done nothing of the sort. OMVS has declared that the
Senegal River is international and belongs to all 4 member states; so do all dams
and equipment built on the river. Several conventions were signed by participating
governments and ratified by parliaments to organize the legal settings of OMVS. The
High Commissioner has to oversee all activities that are performed in OMVS and to
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make sure they are consistent with the overall general objectives laid out by member
governments. These objectives include providing electricity and developing irrigation,
but also address issues related to health, environment, and community development.
An important program that is being developed by OMVS is the GEEP (Gestion de l’eau
et de l’environnement sur la basin du fleuve Sénégal). The High Commissioner is also
developing micro projects at the community level and is now working on building a
road connecting Diama and Rosso.
3.3 Institutional linkages between OMVS, SOGEM and ESKOM
Before 1997, all OMVS activities were managed from Dakar, including water
management at Diama and hydroelectricity production at Manantali. This was highly
inefficient and entailed huge transaction costs, since clearance was needed from
Dakar for every routinely administrative decision. This is why donors, notably the
World Bank, pushed for the creation of autonomous bodies in charge of managing
the two dams. The OMVS Council of Ministers still plays a central role in the day to
day operation of SOGEM. For example SOGEM may not set the price of electricity
on its own without submitting it to the Council Minister (CM) for approval. The
chairmanships of the Conference of the Heads of States (CHS) and of the CM are
shared by the member countries on a rotating basis.
Resources generated by the Manantali project can meet costs incurred; however,
this is not the case for the Diama project. SOGED can only collect revenue from water
use by farmers irrigating their crops. Water use costs are subsidized below their real
value, but still, few of the beneficiaries are settling their bills. The biggest clients, such
as national water distribution companies and big farmers, do pay, but most users,
mainly small producers, do not. This has forced member states to subsidize SOGED.
To cover this subsidy, OMVS governments recently asked SOGEM to refund them the
advance payments made to this entity when it was getting started. In this manner,
roughly CFA 2 billion have been transferred from SOGEM to SOGED, although some
of this reimbursement is in the form of advances. Furthermore, member states have
asked SOGEM to assist SOGED as much as possible primarily by providing resources
to meet maintenance needs in SOGED areas.
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Figure 9: Institutional schema of Energy Project
SOGEM (Société de Gestion de l’Energie de Manantali) was created in 1997,
and implemented in 1998. SOGEM’s mandate is limited to deal with managing
hydroelectricity production in Manantali following the construction of the dam.
From 1988 to the implementation of SOGED in 1997, Manantali was managed by a
provisional entity (Société Provisoire de Gestion du Barrage – SPGB). SOGEM was
created in pair with SOGED, which is in charge of the management of the Diama
dam. Manantali has an installed capacity of 200 MWh, which is distributed to member
countries using a system of quotas. Before the implementation of the central, the
objective of Manantali was only limited to irrigation
SOGEM is piloted by a general director based in Bamako, the capital of Mali. in
the position was originally meant to be based in Manantali (a village located 325
km from Bamako), but OMVS eventually decided that these companies needed to be
headquartered in the capital cities to be closer to national administrations as well as
to donors’ headquarters. Hence, the general director and the three sectoral directors
(the director of finance, the director of administrative affairs, and the technical
director) of SOGEM are based in Bamako while the field engineers are based in
Manantali. The role of these field engineers is to monitor the functioning of the dam
and the central, as well as to supervise the work done by the operating agent that was
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appointed by SOGEM (ESKOM).
ESKOM stands for Electricity Supply Commission. It is a public company that is
100% by the Government of South Africa even though it is autonomously managed.
It has owned other privatized companies in neighboring countries, such as in Zambia,
Mozambique, Uganda, Zimbabwe, and so forth. ESKOM Enterprises is the parent
company and was established in 1923. It was heavily restructured in 1999 and is now
a multinational that entirely covers the demand for electricity in South African as
well as in some neighboring countries. ESKOM SA is a company created according to
Malian law in which ESKOM international has 100% of total shares.
Donors accepted the arrangement of headquartering SOGEM in Bamako, instead
of Manantali as previously planned, in exchange of OMVS willingness to entrust the
operation of the dam to a private company. ESKOM was chosen after winning an
international bidding process. ESKOM submits on a yearly basis a comprehensive
program detailing the logistics of hydraulics, electricity, irrigation and food production
to SOGEM. It first discusses the plan with SOGEM representatives in the field, who
in turn, defend it before SOGEM headquarters. Once approved, adherence to the plan
becomes mandatory for both sides.
ESKOM’s primary task is to distributing electricity produced at Manantali
between Senegal, Mali, and Mauritania. A proposed distribution plan is presented
annually by ESKOM to SOGEM for approval as part of the comprehensive program
discussed above. The plan is drawn up with the cooperation of ESKOM’s three clients:
SENELEC (Senegal), EDM (Mali), and SOMELEC (Mauritania). In October, these
three companies predict their electricity and water demand for the coming year.
Weighing these predictions against predicted electricity output, SOGEM decides the
distribution of water and electricity among the three member countries. In practice,
things are not that simple, since national companies can ask for more or less than
what was initially predicted due to fluctuations in daily demand. This creates
serious management problem for SOGEM. To mitigate the effects of such demand
reversals, SOGEM meets with national companies every Friday to decide about output
distribution for the following week, on a take-it-or-pay-it basis. Normally, energy
distribution between national companies should not pose many problems since peaks
in demand vary from one country to another. Demand peaks between October and
November for Senegal, March and April for Mali and July and August for Mauritania.
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Fig
ure
10: O
rgan
igra
mm
of S
OG
EM
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It is also ESKOM’s responsibility to ensure the maintenance of all equipments
including parts replacement. There is currently a dispute between ESKOM
and SOGEM, about the implementation of the terms of the contracts. ESKOM
representatives think that the company is underpaid for this maintenance considering
the current hydrological and operational conditions of the central, leaving them in
a poor position to undertake the maintenance activities as initially planned. This is
confirmed by SOGEM. The two entities are now under deep discussions to settle the
issue. It should be noted that the lump sum payment SOGEM is giving to ESKOM was
determined through a series of negotiations between the two institutions, and, as was
earlier mentioned, ESKOM was selected through an international bidding process.
This process was conducted under the supervision of the consultant AFD (which was
appointed by the other donors as leader for Manantali energy) hired by SOGEM. This
consultant actively participated in the tendering process which eventually resulted in
the selection of ESKOM as the contract winner.
3.4 The RHDP: a further description
The Regional Hydropower Development Project is located at the bottom of the
Manantali dam, 78 meters away from the dam axis. The dam is located in the south-
western part of Mali, on Bafing tributary. The civil work for RHDP has started in
1997, 9 years after the dam was built. The components of the core work are described
as follows:
- The central part of the work, including Lot 3 (civil work), plus Lot 4 (turbines
and mechanical equipments) and Lot 5 (alternators and electric equipments).
- The Eastern system for power transmission
- The Western system of power transmission.
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Figure 11: Manantali dam: an aerial view
Source: SOGEM (2007), présentation du réseau interconnecté de Manantali, Séminaire
d’Information sur le projet d’Achat de Crédits de Réduction d’Emission de Gaz à effet de Serre,
03-05 Octobre 2007
The most complicated part was Lot 3, whose donors included IDA, BOAD, and IDB.
Engineering surveillance and control were performed by COFITEC (a consortium
including Coyne & Bélier, Fichtner, and Tecsult) and were financed by CIDA, KFW,
and AFD. Lot 3 encompassed the following:
- Realizing building in concrete, and assembling necessary equipment for central
operation,
- Restoring the hydraulic damper ,
- Re-injecting part of the dam and the central,
- Providing general services to other working partners on the field, notably those
intervening in Lot 4, Lot 5, SOGEM, COFITEC, and other on site operators.
The RHDP was designed to build a power system from the dam to distribute
power to urban cities; notably, the capital cities in Senegal, Mali and Mauritania.
The reservoir of the dam is 11,300 m3. The total capacity of the equipment for power
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generation is 200MW, produced by 5 generators of 40 MW each. This makes up an
average production of 807 GWh, under the assumption of 300m3 per second of water
flow in the river. The project has 3 major components:
1. An investment component that includes the construction of the central, the
civil work that is intended to host the equipment, and a system for dispatching
high voltage power to the three capital cities. Power produced in Manantali is
dispatched to the west towards Dakar and Nouakchott and to the East towards
Bamako.
2. A capacity building component for SOGEM and OMVS to assist them in hiring
a private operator, setting appropriate rates for energy sales, ensuring financial
sustainability of operation, taking account of environmental aspects, and
transfering technology.
3. An environmental component, through PASIE (see below for further details).
The main objectives of the project, as laid out in the World Bank Implementation
completion report involve:
a) a reduction in long term costs of electricity supply in the three countries,
b) a contribution to service the debts that were contracted to fund the building of
the dam, at the beginning of the 80s,
c) an increase in the efficiency and the reliability of the power system in the three
countries,
d) the promotion of competitive private sector participation in project operation,
and in future generation project in the river basin,
e) providing support to agriculture downstream the river, and
f) rational management of the Manantali reservoir.
Table 6: The costs of the project’s components are broken down as follows
Component Cost ($)- Power house and dam reinforcement- Western transmission line- Supervision- Institutional strengthening- Eastern transmission line- Dispatching centre
55,400,000137,700,00015,600,00037,800,00041,800,00017,200,000
3.5 RHDP: institutional spillovers
3.5.1 Technology transfer and capacity building
The construction of the dam and the central buildings made use of advanced
technologies. Optical fiber technology is used to coordinate the monitoring of power
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distribution between the three countries.
Capacity building was a very critical criterion in the process of selecting the
international operator (ESKOM). SOGEM insisted that ESKOM works with local
expertise as much as possible. Among ESKOM’s experts, only the General Manager
is an expatriate (South African); the rest are from local countries. Ninety percent of
the personnel come from the national companies (SENELEC, EDM, and SOMELEC).
Most of them had worked with private foreign firms during the project construction
phase. They benefited from huge technological transfer from expatriates and have
become highly efficient within the scope of the project. As a result, the personel are
able to manage the maintenance operations autonomously, without any assistance
from abroad.
ESKOM relies on local manpower from the Manatali locality for unskilled labor.
Most of these personnel benefited from training programs and some of them have
specialized and become topographers or electricians. During the implementation
phase of the project, local workers were initiated to central building and operation.
Some were sent abroad for additional training lasting up to 3 years. While the project
is benefiting from technical assistance from expatriates (mostly from South Africa),
more than 95% of the core business employees are from local countries.
Figure 12: OMVS member countries quotas in total Manantali energy production
The project also encompassed population relocation. Villagers displaced by the
creation of the dam were compensated and received new houses in a neighboring
settlement for free. The new houses are built of the same material as the originals,
banco, but are designed to last longer. While villagers used to have needed to rebuild
their houses every year, they have not done so since 1983. Other components of
the projects involve treating the river to avoid exposing the local population to
blindness and other diseases. SOGEM has also built a well-equipped hospital and two
elementary schools, for his own personnel and also for local population. ESKOM is also
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organizing vaccination campaigns for the inhabitants of Manantali to fight endemic
diseases. Populations are also encouraged to establish community businesses in order
to perform certain tasks for ESKOM under contract, such as weeding and cleaning the
site. Four such businesses have been established so far, and their combined income
from ESKOM is reaching CFA 60 million per annum. Furthermore, local taxes are
paid to local administration, for an amount of about CFA 6 million per year.
3.5.2 Financial and economic sustainability
Various evaluations have been performed on the economic and institutional
sustainability of the Manantali energy project. All of them concluded on a very strong
economic although some weaknesses observed on the institutional sides could be fatal
to the project’s continuation if not properly addressed on time.
Electricity production of the dam varies between 450 and 900 GWH, depending on
level of rainfall. The project was designed under the assumption of 807 MWH, and the
average level of river flow has allowed for this level of production. Clearly, variations
of river flow are a major determinant of returns on investment. To address the risk of
decreased river flow, donors insisted on establishing the hydrological risk fund, which
should be used to compensate during du drier years. During the 80s, a feasibility
study was performed by Tractable comparing two situations: a) implementing the
Manantali energy component to satisfy energy needs for the three countries, and b)
implementing instead a thermal central for the same purpose. The study concluded
that the Manantali energy project would yield a rate of return of 22% for the regional
interconnected network, against a rate of 17% for a network limited to Mali, given a
level of river flow amounting to 804 GWH of electricity generation. In case such flow
decreases generation to 540 GWH, these rates of return would decrease to 17% and
14.5%, respectively. It is worth mentioning that these estimates were done under the
assumption that the price of oil would cost $20 per barrel, while the cost is now close
to $100. In case of an observed deficit in rainfall, we will note a competition between
energy production and agriculture.
The total cost of the energy components of the Manantali projects is E 345 million,
while the construction of the dam costs E 590 million. The costs of the energy
component can be further broken down into the costs of equipment for electricity
production and civil work (40%), and the costs of building a huge network designed
to convey electricity to the capital cities (Dakar, Bamako, and Nouakchott), which
make up 60% of the costs of energy component. Technologies used in thermal centrals
are different from the ones used in hydroelectric centrals. The former entails cheaper
investments but higher operational costs that the latter.
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Manantali is also servicing the outstanding balance of the loans that served to fund
the dam construction; the interest rate on the loans is 43.8%. The rates SOGEM is
charging to national electricity companies are calculated in such way that all charges
must be covered under the assumption of a production of 804 GWH, including debt
services; if average production drops to 546 GWH, at the very least, first order charges
must be covered by average sales. The rate we came up with at 1996 prices was CFA
24 per KWh for an average production of 804 GWh and CFA 29 for a production level
of 546 GWH. The most pessimistic assumption sets the level of production at 430
GWh, which corresponds to the average level of rainfall observed during the period
1978-1994, and the corresponding rate is CFA 32. Under this assumption, breakdown
point would be achieved in 25 years.
In practice, energy sold by SOGEM was delivered to national electricity companies
at a rate of CFA 30 in 2002 and 2003, and CFA 32 in the following years. The recent
increase in oil price has made Manantali energy profitability even greater. SENELEC
estimated the costs of a KWh of electricity at CFA 68. In 2002, the company saved
an estimated CFA 6.5 billion by purchasing 161 GWh of electricity from Manantali.
Manantali was at least 38% percent cheaper for Senegal in 2003. Again, with the
recent rise in oil prices, this percentage should have grown. The benefit for Mali is
greater given the inefficiency of the country’s thermal central. EDM of Mali produces
energy from thermal sources at a cost of CFA 105 per KWh. Therefore, Manantali
energy was 70% cheaper than energy produced from other sources for Mali in 2003;
and savings made by EDM only on oil importing by substituting Manantali energy to
thermal energy are CFA 12 billions, while consumption increased at the same time by
20%.
3.5.3 The World Bank assessment of design and implementation of the RHDP
The World Bank prepared two evaluation reports on the RHDP: an implementation
completion report in January 2005 and a project performance assessment report in
December 2006. The latter was prepared by the Independent Evaluation Group of the
World Bank (IEGWB), which annually assesses 25% of the Bank’s lending operations.
The group gives preference to projects that are innovative, large, complex, and likely to
generate important lessons. The choice of RHDP by IEGWB highlights the importance
of the policy lessons to drawn from the project. The scale and rating system of IEG are
quite identical to those we use in this exercise as can be seen in the following box.
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Box: the rating system of IEGWB
The time-tested evaluation methods used by IEBWB are suited to the broad range of the World Bank’s work. The methods offer both rigor and a necessary level of flexibility to adapt to lending instrument, project design, or sectoral approach. IEGWB evaluators all apply the same basic method to arrive at their project ratings. Following is the definition and rating scale used for each evaluation criterion.
Relevance of Objectives: the extent to which the project’s objectives are consistent with the country’s current development priorities and with current Bank country and sectoral assistance strategies and corporate goals (expressed in Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers, country Assistance Strategies, Sector Strategy Papers, and Operational Policies). Possible ratings: High, Substantial, Modest, Negligible.
Efficacy: the extent to which the project’s objectives were achieved, or is expected to be achieved, taking into account their relative importance. High, Substantial, Modest, Negligible. Efficiency: The extent to which project achieved, or is expected to achieve, a return
higher than the opportunity cost of capital and benefits at least cost compared to alternatives. Possible ratings: High, Substantial, Modest, Negligible. This rating is not generally applied to adjustement operations.
Sustainability: the resilience to risk of net benefits flows aver time. Possible ratings: Highly Likely, Likely, Unlikely, Highly Unlikely, not Evaluable.
Institutional Development Impact: the extent to which a project improves the ability of a country or region to make efficient, equitable and sustainable use of its human, financial, and natural resources through: (a) better definition, stability, transparency, enforceability, and predictability of institutional arrangement and/or (b) better alignment of the mission and capacity of an organization with its mandate, which derives from these institutional arrangement, institutional development impact includes both intended and unintended effects of a project. Possible rating: High, substantial, Modest, Negligible.
Outcome: The extent to which the project’s major relevant objectives were achieved, or are expected to be achieved, efficiently. Possible ratings: Highly Satisfactory, Satisfactory, Moderately Satisfactory, Unsatisfactory, Highly Unsatisfactory.
Bank performance: The extent to which services provided by the World Bank ensured quality at entry and supported implementation through appropriate supervision (including ensuring adequate transiti