Agricultural Wastes
description
Transcript of Agricultural Wastes
1439 Water Environment Research, Volume 83, Number 10—Copyright © 2011 Water Environment Federation
Agricultural Wastes
Jiaming Liang1, Qingye Lu1,2, Robert Lerner1, Xiaohui Sun1, Hongbo Zeng2, Yang Liu1*
ABSTRACT: Literature related to agricultural wastes
and published in 2010 was summarized in this review.
The review is divided into the following sections: reuse
and recycle, waste treatment, waste characterization,
waste management and pollution minimization.
KEYWORDS: reuse, recycle, waste treatment, waste
management, characterization
doi: 10.2175/106143011X13075599869614
Reuse and recycle as sorbents
Dye adsorption. Bello-Huitle et al. (2010)
investigated the adsorption capacity of methylene blue
(MB) and phenol by granulated activated carbon made
from castile and pecan nutshells. They found that a
phosphoric acid activation ratio of 2 maximized the
adsorption capacity of granulated activated carbon.
———————— 1Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering,
Markin/CNRL Natural Resources Engineering Facility,
University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2W2, Canada; *Corresponding author phone: 780-492-5515; Fax.
780-492-0249; E-mail: 2Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering,
University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2V4, Canada.
Nasuha et al. (2010) studied the adsorption of MB from
aqueous solutions using a low-cost adsorbent, rejected
tea, by the batch adsorption technique. The equilibrium
adsorption was best described by the Langmuir isotherm
model with maximum monolayer adsorption capacities
that were found to be 147, 154 and 156 mg/g at 30, 40
and 50°C, respectively.The adsorption of copper ions
and MB onto the citric acid modified wheat straw (MWS)
was studied by batch techniques. It was observed that the
maximal adsorbed quantity of Cu2+ and MB on MWS at
293 K was 39.17 and 396.9 mg/g, respectively (Han et
al., 2010). The removal of tartrazine by coconut husks
was examined by Gupta, Jain, et al. (2010). Their results
indicated that the use of coconut husks for tartrazine
removal was effective and can be used as a viable
alternative to the activated carbon.
Sharma (2010) reported that activated carbon
can be prepared by pyrolyzing all agro-waste, rice husks,
in the presence of ZnCl2. The activated carbon displayed
both a microporous and mesoporous nature with a
significant surface area of 180.50 m2/g. The adsorption
of MB from its aqueous solutions by this activated
carbon was found to increase with the adsorbent dose
and temperature. Franca, Oliveira and Nunes (2010)
evaluated the removal efficiency of malachite green (MG)
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from aqueous solutions by the adsorbent obtained
through the microwave activation of defective coffee
press cake. The results showed that the produced
adsorbent presents potential as an inexpensive and easily
available alternative for the removal of cationic dyes in
wastewater treatments. Franca, Oliveira, Saldanha et al.
(2010) studied the removal of MG using mango seed
husks. The results showed that mango seed husk is a
suitable candidate for use as a biosorbent in the removal
of cationic dyes.
Iqbal et al. (2010) compared the Congo red dye
removal abilities of melon, water melon and musk melon
seeds in batch reactors. A pH of 2, a temperature of
20-30°C and a 100-200 rpm stirring speed were found to
be the optimal removal conditions for all three
substances, with best to worst adsorption reported for
melon seed (23.10 mg/g), musk melon seed (21.23 mg/g),
and finally water melon seed (3.08 mg/g). The sorption
of Congo red dye onto cashew nut shells (CNS) was
studied by Kumar et al. (2010). Their results indicated
that CNS could be employed as a low cost alternative
compared to other commercial adsorbents in the removal
of dyes from wastewater. Kumar (2010) developed a
carbon adsorbent from neem sawdust that was effective
for Congo red removal, with the removal efficiency
decreasing with increased pH. Adsorption was found to
be optimal at pH values of less than 3, and the kinetics
were suitably described by a pseudo-second order model.
Mittal, Jain et al. (2010) investigated the
potential use of coconut husk, for the removal of
Quinoline Yellow dye from wastewater and its efficiency
in dye sorption was compared with activated carbon. It
proved that coconut husk was an excellent low-cost
adsorbent. Also, they (Mittal, Mittal et al., 2010) tested
the adsorption ability of two wastes to remove light
yellow SF (Yellowish) dye from wastewaters, one was
an agricultural industry waste, deoiled soya, and the
other was a waste of thermal power plants, bottom ash.
The deoiled soya was found to have the percentage
adsorption of 89.65% with a percentage recovery of
99.08%, while the bottom ash was 88.74% and 99.82%
respectively.
Biosorption of Reactive Red 195 from
solutions using cone biomass of Pinus sylvestris Linneo
was shown to be effective (Aksakal and Ucun, 2010). An
alternative methodology for the removal of dyestuff,
Rhodamine 6G (R6G), from aqueous solutions by using
a new biosorbent, almond shell (Prunus dulcis) was
presented (Senturk et al., 2010). The monolayer
biosorption capacity of almond shell was found to be
32.6 mg/g by using Langmuir model equations.
Thermodynamic parameters indicated that the
biosorption of R6G onto almond shell was feasible,
spontaneous and endothermic in the temperature range of
0-40°C.
Ibrahim, Fatimah et al. (2010) prepared barley
straw to be an adsorbent of the anionic dyes acid blue 40
and reactive blue 4 through modification with NaOH and
cationic surfactant hexadecylpyridinium chloride
monohydrate (CPC) under varying conditions. The
results indicated that increasing the contact time
increased dye removal, and adsorption was higher at an
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acidic pH. The maximum adsorption capacity
determined from the Langmuir isotherm at 25°C was
51.95 and 31.5 mg/g for acid blue 40 and reactive blue 4,
respectively.
Srinivas et al. (2010) used guava leaf powder
as an adsorbent to remove the neutral violet dye stuff. It
was observed that 91.3% neutral violet dye was removed
using the adsorbant guava leaf powder. Investigations
were done on the removal of methyl violet (MV) using
dead leaves by Cengiz and Cavas (2010). The maximum
adsorption capacity of the biomass was found to be
119.05 mg/g at 45°C. The results implied that dead
leaves were identified to be a significant and low-cost
adsorbent to remove MV, which is especially beneficial
to the Mediterranean Sea areas.
The removal of basic yellow 21 dye using flax
shives was investigated by Hassanein and Koumanova
(2010). An adsorption capacity of 76.92 mg/g was
observed, and it was found that the second-order kinetic
model best described the reaction kinetics. Ozdes et al.
(2010) evaluated the potential usage of almond shell (P.
dulcis) in the removal of malachite green from aqueous
solutions. They reported that almond shell could be
employed as a low cost and easily available adsorbent
for the removal of malachite green in wastewater
treatment processes. The monolayer adsorption capacity
of almond shell was found to be 29.0 mg/g.
Ong et al. (2010) reported their studies using a
biodegradable and low cost sorbent for various basic
dyes in both single and binary dye solutions. The
agricultural by-product has shown its potential to remove
Basic Blue 3 (BB3), MB and Basic Yellow 11 (BY11) in
both systems. Maximum sorption capacities were 23.64
mg/g, 28.25 mg/g and 67.11 mg/g for BB3, MB and
BY11, respectively, in the single dye system. However, a
decrease in the maximum sorption capacity was
observed in the binary systems and this might result from
competition between the same binding sites.
Chemical (other than dye) adsorption.
Activated bamboo charcoal was used as a novel low-cost
adsorbent to remove 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP) from
aqueous solutions (Ma, Wang et al., 2010). It was found
that about 90% 2,4-DCP was removed from the solution
within the first 5 minutes. Shaarani and Hameed (2010)
investigated the potential feasibility of activated carbon
derived from oil palm empty fruit bunch for the removal
of 2,4-DCP from an aqueous solution. The activated
carbon was prepared via chemical activation with
phosphoric acid and it was shown to be a promising
material for adsorption of 2,4-DCP from aqueous
solutions, with a maximum monolayer adsorption
capacity of 232.56 mg/g at 30°C.
Batch adsorption of phenol from real
wastewater and a synthetically prepared solution was
tested using date-pit activated carbon (El-Naas et al.,
2010). Besides, they found that using ethanol to
regenerate the saturated activated carbon was possible,,
with an 86% efficiency after four cycles. The adsorption
of phenol on highly porous novel corn grain-based
activated carbons (CG-ACs) (>2000 m2/g) was assessed
in a batch mode (Park et al., 2010). It was found that the
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influences of physical properties and energetic
heterogeneity nature of CG-ACs on phenol adsorption
efficiency were significant. Specifically, the increase in
the phenol adsorption capacity was observed when
increasing the fraction of microporosity, which was
likely due to the micropore filling.
The adsorption of 4-nitrophenol by acid
activated jute stick char in the batch mode was
investigated by Ahmaruzzaman and Gayatri (2010) at
three different temperatures. The authors found that
increasing temperature decreased the adsorption
efficiency. Activated carbon was prepared by apricot
stones for the removal of phenol and p-nitrophenol
(Petrova et al., 2010). It was found that the adsorption
capacity of the produced activated carbon was 152 mg/g
for phenol and 179 mg/g for nitrophenol.
Coir pith, a waste biomass from coconut coir
industry, was used to prepare activated carbon with
ZnCl2 for the removal of 2-chlorophenol from aqueous
solutions (Subha and Namasivayam, 2010). The
Langmuir adsorption capacity was found to be 149.3
mg/g, which indicated that zinc chloride-activated coir
pith carbon is economically more effective compared to
commercial activated carbon.
The use of sugarcane bagasse was found to be
very efficient for the removal of gasoline and n-heptane
from 5% aqueous solutions (Brandao et al., 2010). Using
CPC modified barley straw, Ibrahim, Wang et al. (2010)
investigated the removal of emulsified canola oil from
wastewater. The study showed that the maximum
adsorption capacity was at a neutral pH and the
temperature did not impact the adsorption efficiency.
Activated carbons, produced by physical steam
activation of olive kernel, corn cobs, rapeseed stalks, and
soya stalks were tested for bromopropylate removal from
water. It was found that corn cobs had the best
adsorption capacity, and that biomass derived activated
carbons could achieve equal bromopropylate removals
when compared to commercial activated carbons
(Ioannidou et al., 2010). Mahramanlioglu et al. (2010)
studied the adsorption of pyridine on acid treated spent
bleaching earth. The Lagergren first order rate equation
was used to describe the adsorption rate of pyridine and
maximum adsorption was found to occur at pH 6.5.
Activated carbons were produced from
agricultural waste corncobs using a variety of different
activation strategies and activators for hydrogen
adsorption (Sun and Webley, 2010). The microporous
carbon with the largest BET specific surface area
showed H2 adsorption capacities up to 2.0 wt% at 77K
under 1 atm pressure and 0.44 wt% at 298 K at 5 MPa.
The removal of ammonium from aqueous solutions using
zeolite NaY prepared from rice husk ash waste was
investigated (Yusof et al., 2010). The cation exchange
capacities of the zeolites were measured as 3.15, 1.46
and 1.34 meq/g for zeolite Y, powdered mordenite and
granular mordenite, respectively. The monolayer
adsorption capacity for zeolite Y (42.37 mg/g) was found
to be higher than that of powdered mordenite (15.13
mg/g) and granular mordenite (14.56 mg/g).
Metal ion adsorption. Activated guava seed
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carbon (AGSC) and modified guava seed (MGS) were
used to adsorb Ni (II). The results suggested that the
maximum adsorption capacities of AGSC and MGS
were 18.05 and 32.05 mg/g at the pH of 6 respectively
(Zewail and El-Garf, 2010). Coconut oilcake activated
carbon showed more adsorption efficiency than neem
oilcake activated carbon (thermally activated at 800°C)
for the removal of nickel (II) from wastewater (Hema
and Srinivasan, 2010). Adsorption of both activated
carbons was best described by pseudo-second order
kinetics and Tempkin isotherms.
Gupta, Nadeem et al. (2010) measured the
removal of Pb (II) using rice bran adsorption, as a
function of pH, temperature, contact time and the initial
metal concentration. Results indicated that a pH range of
3.5-4.5 was effective, the optimal temperature was 25°C
and the removal was best fit by Langmuir isotherms. The
ability of modified soda lignin, extracted from oil palm
empty fruit bunches, to remove Pb(II) under varying
conditions was investigated by Ibrahim, Ngah et al.
(2010). Modified soda lignin was found to be an
effective adsorbent with a monolayer adsorption capacity
of 46.72 mg/g at 47°C.
Pb(II) ions were tested for removal by rubber
leaf powder, treated with potassium permanganate and
sodium carbonate (Kamal et al., 2010). The results
indicated that the maximum adsorption capacity of lead
was 95.3 mg/g. Li, Zheng et al. (2010) studied the
removal of Pb2+ in modified areca waste from aqueous
solutions with the Fenton reagent. The monolayer
adsorption capacity was found to be 3.37 mg/g at pH 6.6
and 323 K.
A new kind of orange peel (OP) biosorbent
containing the extractant Cyanex 272 was developed to
remove Pb(II) from aqueous solutions (Lu et al., 2010).
The maximum adsorption capacity was improved, with
the order of the adsorption capacities being 272SCO
(1.30 mol/kg) > SCO (1.26 mol/kg) > 272CO (1.20
mol/kg) > 27200 (1.02 mol/kg) > CO (0.62 mol/kg).
Mohammadi et al. (2010) prepared activated carbon
from Sea-buckthorn stones to remove Pb(II) ions from
aqueous solutions. It was proposed that the produced
activated carbons from the Amygdalus scoparia shell
were an alternative low-cost adsorbent for the adsorption
of Pb(II). Cao and Harris (2010) produced biochar by
heating dairy manures at temperatures below 500°C.
They found that the biochar was capable of adsorbing Pb
(up to 100%) and atrazine (up to 77%).
Ofomaja et al. (2010a) studied the sorption of
lead(II) onto pine cone powder (PCP). The effect of
NaOH treatment on the kinetics of lead(II) uptake was
also evaluated. Their results revealed that NaOH
treatment changed the pattern of the biosorption kinetics.
Activated carbon prepared from Bombax ceiba sawdust
(SDC) was applied to remove of Pb(II) ions from
aqueous solutions (Sakthi et al., 2010). The maximum
adsorption of Pb(II) occurred at pH 5 and the maximum
sorption capacity was 209 mg/g. Thermodynamic
parameters and the Tempkin constant showed that the
sorption process of Pb(II) onto SDC was feasible,
spontaneous and endothermic under the studied
conditions.
1444 Water Environment Research, Volume 83, Number 10—Copyright © 2011 Water Environment Federation
Optimization of operating conditions for Cr(IV)
adsorption onto sulfuric acid treated sunflower head and
stem waste was explored by Jain et al. (2010). Under
the optimized condition, 75.7% and 85.4% removals
were obtained for the head and the stem waste,
respectively. Karaoglu et al. (2010) explored the
application of vineyard pruning wastes on the adsorption
of Cr(III). The results indicated that the at the optimized
pH (4.2) and temperature (303K) conditions, an uptake
capacity of 12.453 mg/g can be achieved.
Two studies about pistachio hull waste were
carried out by Moussavi and Barikbin, (2010) as well as
Moussavi and Khosravi, (2010). In the first work,
pistachio hull powder (PHP) was tested for the removal
of Cr(VI) from wastewater. The maximum Langmuir
adsorption capacity was found to be 116.3 mg/g. In the
second work, the pistachio hull waste was introduced as
an efficient and low-cost adsorbent for the removal of
different concentrations of cyanide from water and
wastewater. They achieved a maximum adsorption
capacity of 156.2 mg/g.
Rice bran carbon (RBC), prepared from rice
bran (an agricultural waste), was successfully utilized for
the removal of Cr(VI) from an aqueous solution (Ranjan
and Hasan, 2010). The maximum uptake of the total
chromium obtained by applying the Langmuir isotherm
model was 138.88 mg/g for RBC, which was comparable
to that obtained by utilizing commercial activated carbon
(116.28 mg/g) at 40°C. Rao and Rehman (2010) used the
fruits of Ficus glomerata as an adsorbent for the
adsorption of Cr(VI). The thermodynamic parameters
indicated the spontaneous, endothermic and increased
randomness nature of the Cr(VI) adsorption.
Shen et al. (2010) investigated the removal
mechanism of Cr(VI) from water by coconut coir. The
results showed that, upon reaction with coconut coir at
pH 3, Cr(VI) was reduced to Cr(III), which was either
bound to the coconut coir or released back into the
solution.
The removal of cadmium using melon peel
agricultural wastes as a sorbent was investigated
(Hamdaoui et al., 2010). Results showed that cadmium
removal by melon peels was very effective, with a
maximum monolayer sorption capacity of 81.97 mg/g.
Rao et al. (2010a) and Rao et al. (2010b) used two kinds
of abundantly available waste biosorbents, Tectona
grandis L.f. leaf powder and Psidium guvajava L leaf
powder for the removal of cadmium(II) from aqueous
solutions. The maximum adsorption of the two leaf
powders was 29.94 mg/g and 31.15 mg/g respectively.
Wang, Wang et al. (2010) studied the adsorption of Cd(II)
ions from aqueous solutions by bamboo charcoal. The
results showed that a higher pH was favourable for Cd(II)
ion removal, and that a higher initial Cd concentration
lead to lower removal percentages but higher adsorption
capacity. The equilibrium adsorption time was 6 h with a
maximum adsorption capacity of 12.08 mg/g.
Pereira et al. (2010) prepared chemically
modified wood sawdust (ES) and sugarcane bagasse (EB)
to remove Zn2+ from aqueous solutions and
electroplating wastewater. The adsorption capacities
were 80 mg/g and 105 mg/g in aqueous single metal
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solutions, and 47 mg/g and 45 mg/g in the real
electroplating waste water, for ES and EB respectively.
The decreased adsorption efficiency in the wastewater
was due to the competition between other cations and/or
interference of other ions.
Ma, Chen et al. (2010) prepared an aminated
bagasse (AB) with a high-adsorption capacity for
mercury ions by grafting a copolymerization of
acrylonitrile onto sugarcane bagasse, followed by
aminating with the chelating molecule
diethylenetriamine. The results showed that AB was
effective for the removal of mercury over a wide range
of pH > 5, with a maximum adsorption capacity of 917.4
mg/g.
Seven kinds of agriculture wastes were studied
as a biosorbent to copper by Hansen et al. (2010).
Biosorption capacity and kinetics were investigated
which indicated that peach stones and pine sawdust were
good biosorbent with high sorption capacity (around
10-15 mg/g) at acidic pH. Ofomaja et al. (2010b)
investigated the NaOH solution modified PCP for the
removal of copper(II) from aqueous solutions. A higher
copper(II) adsorption capacity was obtained in the PCP
treated with a higher concentration of NaOH.
Ozcimen and Ersoy-Mericboyu (2010) studied
the activated carbons prepared from hazelnut shells and
apricot stones as adsorbents for the removal of copper(II)
ions from an aqueous solution. Increased temperature
and pH were found to lead to an increase in the
adsorption capacity of both adsorbents. Sulaiman et al.
(2010) used oil palm leaf powders as new,
non-conventional and low-cost adsorbents for the
removal of copper (II) ions from aqueous solutions. The
monolayer sorption capacity of OPLP for copper (II)
ions was found to be 11.22 mg/g at 30°C.
Rice straw ash, created after co-firing with
0.15 to 0.3 liters of methanol per kg of straw, was shown
to be suitable for uranium immobilization due to its
porous texture, especially in the presence of phosphorus
or vanadium (Bishay, 2010).
The chemically activated carbon, prepared
from Syzygium jambolanum nut, was successfully used
to remove mercury(II) and chromium(VI) in batch
studies by the adsorption process (Muthukumaran and
Beulan, 2010). Reddy et al. (2010) studied the
biosorption of Pb2+ from aqueous solutions by biomass
prepared from Moringa oleifera bark. The adsorption
capacity calculated from the Langmuir isotherm was
34.6 mg/g at an initial pH of 5.0. This biosorbent was
effective in removing lead in the presence of common
metal ions like Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ present in water.
Rice husk activated carbon was evaluated for
its adsorptive capacity (Awwad et al., 2010). Their
results indicated that the rice husk activated carbon was
efficient in the removal of La(III) and Er(III) ions from
aqueous solutions, with the monolayer capacity at 175.4
mg/g for La(III) and 250 mg/g for Er(III). Agricultural
waste products of rice straw and wheat straw, when
combined with a Salvinia biomass, were shown by Dhir
and Kumar (2010) to be effective for heavy metal (Cr, Ni,
and Cd) removal from wastewaters.
Guo et al. (2010) found that poultry
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litter-based activated carbon can be effectively used for
heavy metal (Cu2+, Pb2+, Zn2+, and Cd2+) removal from
wastewaters. Hu et al. (2010) examined the effects of
reacting saponified pineapple peel fiber and succinic
anhydride in refluxed pyridine and dimethyl sulfoxide at
different pH values and temperatures for the purpose of
creating novel ionic metal adsorbents. The results
showed that modified pineapple peel fiber has a high
adsorption capacity. Onwu and Ogah (2010) carried out
a study to investigate the potential of applying the
African white star apple in scavenging heavy metal ions
from aqueous solutions. The adsorption process was
found to be highly pH-dependent and the results
indicated that the optimum pH for the sorption of Cd(II)
and Ni(II) was 6.0 while Pb(II) was 7.0.
van Lienden et al. (2010) examined the
adsorption of zinc and copper on 12 granular activated
carbons, of which six were obtained commercially and
six were produced through the thermal activation of
agricultural byproducts in the laboratory. The granular
activated carbon produced from nutshells was less
effective than that produced from rice materials (straw
and hulls). Vassileva and Detcheva (2010) studied the
adsorption of transition metal ions from aqueous
solutions via a novel porous material obtained from
Bulgarian lignite (Chukurovo deposit) and its oxidized
modifications. It was found that the adsorption process
was affected significantly by the pH value of the aqueous
solution.
Solids. Rizwan et al. (2010) used wastes of the
Saccharum officinarum, Moringa oleifera, Triticum
aestivcum and Oryza saliva in their raw forms as well
as after converting them into ash and activated carbon
as biosorbents for the treatment of brackish water. A
significant improvement has been observed in the
quality control parameters of the water after treatment.
A substantial decrease in conductivity, TDS, TH,
concentrations of cations and anions was observed in
the samples of brackish water after treatment with
different biosorbents.
Characterization. Sharma et al. (2010)
investigated the characteristics of activated carbon
prepared from coconut coir. The BET surface area of the
synthesized activated carbon was found to be 205.27
m2/g. After activation, both micropores and a small
volume of mesopores were formed in the product.
Reuse and recycle (excluding sorbents)
Enzyme Production. The ability of various
bacteria isolated from Nigerian agricultural wastes to
produce beta-amylase and amyloglucosidase was
examined by Adeniran et al. (2010). Results showed that
Aspergillus. niger produced the greatest amount of
beta-amylase (33.2 EU) using plantain peels as the
medium via the static cultivation method and produced
the greatest amount of amyloglucosidase (29.8 EU)
using yam peels as the substrate under the solid-state
cultivation regimen. Chapla et al. (2010) investigated the
production of xylanase using Aspergillus foetidus MTCC
4898, wheat bran and anaerobically treated distillery
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spent wash under solid state fermentation. Xylanase
activity of 8450 U/g was measured and subsequently
used for enzymatic saccharification of agro residues such
as wheat straw, rice straw and corncobs. It was found
that NaOH and ammonia pretreatments enhanced the
enzymatic hydrolysis of all three compounds.
The use of various ratios of coba husk and corn
steep liquor to produce low molecular weight xylanase
was statistically modeled (Fang et al., 2010). It was
found that by applying optimal compositions a 227%
increase in xylanase activity compared with the original
design can be achieved. Using DeMeo’s fractional
factorial design, Geetha and Gunasekaran (2010) studied
the optimization of a nutrient solution containing
agricultural wastes for xylanase production by Bacillus
pumilus B20. A 3.4-fold increase in xylanase production
(313.3 U/mL) was achieved. Honorato and Rodrigues
(2010) tested the stability of dextransucrase produced by
fermentation using cashew apple juice as the substrate
and found that the crude enzyme was stable at 30°C for
30 h with a pH range of 4.5 to 5.5, and the partially
purified enzyme was also stable in non-fermented
cashew apple juice at a pH 5.0 for 96 h at 30°C,
indicating that enzyme purification was not necessary.
Biofertilizers, Cultivation Materials and Soil
Amendments. Chang et al. (2010) showed that the
exclusive use of pea and rice hull compost based
fertilizers could meet the nutrient requirements of
Anthurium andreanum. However cow cattle dung with
tea leaf residue compost based fertilizer could not meet
the requirements, likely due to the decreased supply of
nitrogen and presence of manganese toxicity. Hazelnut
husk, maize straw and poultry manure agricultural
wastes, in combination with other materials, were
checked for their suitability as growing media for the
ornamental plants ligustrum (Ligustrum lucidum) and
cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa) (Dede et al., 2010).
Results showed that these waste mixtures could
successfully replace peat and soil. The most suitable
one for ligustrum was the mixture containing poultry
manure, whereas for cypress was bio-solid, regardless of
the main components.
To reduce the pollution from agricultural waste,
such as sago waste (SW) and unbalanced and excessive
use of chemical fertilizers, organic fertilizers, K- and
ammonium-based humic substances, were produced
from composted SW (Petrus et al., 2010). The results
show that mixing soil with humin produced from
composted SW before the application of the fertilizers
significantly increased maize dry matter production and
the efficient use of nutrience. The value of a mixture of
dried vegetable waste powder and oil cake mixture as an
agricultural feed was enhanced through solid-state
fermentation using Aspergillus niger S(1)4 and NCIM
616 (Rajesh et al., 2010). Significant increase in crude
protein and amino acids, significant reduction in the
crude fat and crude fibre content were obtained. Van
Zwieten et al. (2010) studied agricultural soil
remediation using biochars. Their results indicated that
the performance of remediation was dependent on
different types of biochars and soil types.
1448 Water Environment Research, Volume 83, Number 10—Copyright © 2011 Water Environment Federation
General Biogass Production. A
methane-production unit was set up in the department of
Loiret by farmers, Messrs Beets, working in co-operation
to create renewable energy which may be applicable to
farms (Lejars, 2010). It has a capacity of 150 kW-hour
and the electricity generated could be resold at 0.136
euros per kW-hour. The main source of raw materials
was farm effluents (farmyard manure, slurry),
complemented by agricultural products and waste.
Hydrogen produced from the mixture of cow
manure and food wastes was measured (Yokoyama et al.,
2010). It was found that the production of hydrogen was
dependent on the concentration of carbohydrate other
than protein or fat. A model was developed to illustrate
the process of hydrogen production from agricultural
wastes (Parker et al., 2010). It was illustrated that the
cost of hydrogen production from agricultural wastes
was similar to that of producing from natural gas.
Ethanol Production. The potential for the
production of bioethanol from waste rice straw was
discussed by Dominguez-Escriba and Porcar (2010) in
terms of both energy production and agricultural waste
disposal. Advances in research with regards to the
conversion of lignocelluloses into the fermentable sugars
that are needed for bioethanol production were also
discussed, with a focus on straw pre-treatment,
hydrolysis and fermentation. Ko et al. (2010) explored
kinetic model parameters for rice straw feedstock used
for cellulose saccharification using real experimental
data, and showed that this model could be combined
with a high ethanol and glucose concentration
fermentation model to form a simultaneous
saccharification and fermentation model. Tran et al.
(2010) studied the potential use of a high amylase
producing Bacillus subtilis in a co-culture with
Clostridium butylicum TISTR 1032 to enhance
acetone-butanol-ethanol production from starch. The
mixed culture increased amylase activity and ABE
production, compared to those of produced from
Clostridium pure culture.
Energy Production. Gomez et al. (2010)
assessed the potential of using wastes from olive-oil
mills, rice mills, wineries, dairy plants, breweries and
wood, meat and nut processing plants to produce energy
via grate firing followed by steam turbine, co-firing in
coal power plants and anaerobic digestion plus internal
combustion engine. A reduction by 50% of the
investment costs of grate firing could increase profitable
power to 1102 MWe (and production to 7.70 TWh).
High quality biodiesel production, using waste soybean
oil, was investigated by Hossain and Mazen (2010).
Results showed that the highest biodiesel yield (68.5%)
was obtained with process conditions of 3: 1
oil-to-methanol molar ratio, 0.5% NaOH catalyst, a
temperature of 55°C and a 250 rpm stirring speed.
Munir et al. (2010a) investigated the
coutilization of agricultural residues in existing coal fired
power plants which can help in producing clean energy,
disposing of waste, and increasing the income of the
1449 Water Environment Research, Volume 83, Number 10—Copyright © 2011 Water Environment Federation
rural population It was concluded that the agricultural
residues can be used as a potential substitute fuel which
can help to control the emission of NOx and SO2. Shea
meal and cotton stalk were selected and co-fired with
coal to produce energy (Munir et al., 2010b). The results
indicated that the addition of biomass coupled with air
and fuel-staging techniques not only reduced-NOx and
SO2 simultaneously but also improved the char burnout
efficiency. Poschl et al. (2010) evaluated the energy
efficiency of different biogas systems, including single
and co-digestion of multiple feedstock, different biogas
utilization pathways, and waste-stream management
strategies. Results showed that the energy balance
evaluated as Primary Energy Input to Output (PEIO)
ratio, was dependent on biogas yield, the utilization
efficiency, and energy value of intended fossil fuel
substitution.
Production/Recovery of Other Materials.
The actions of two different endoxylanase were
examined on the autohydrolysis liquors of wheat straw
and sunflower stalk for the production of
xylooligosaccharides and the resulting antioxidant
activity (Akpinar et al., 2010). The results suggested that
autohydrolysis-treated wheat straw and sunflower stalk
can be used as prebiotics and antioxidants.
Amiri et al. (2010) investigated single and
biphasic systems using a dilute acid hydrolysis process
to convert rice straw into furans, and found that the use
of solvents improved the production of
5-Hydroxymethylfurfural and tetrahydrofuran.
Ashori and Nourbakhsh (2010) studied the use
of various agricultural waste residues as an alternative to
wood fibers as a thermoplastic support. They found
that samples treated with coupling agents exhibited
improved tensile, flexural and impact properties as
compared to untreated samples, and that the use of the
G-3216 coupling agent gave superior results when
compared with G-3003.
Ionic liquids 1-allyl-3-methylimidazolium
chloride (AmimCl) and 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium
acetate (Emi-mAc) were used to regenerate corn husk
cellulose into densely structured cellulose (II) (Cao et al.,
2010). The solvents were found to be recyclable and the
mechanical properties of the regenerated cellulose were
superior for those made from the AmimCl solvent. The
cellulose extracted from agricultural wastes was studied
and were characterized (Ibrahim, Agblevor et al., 2010).
It was found that the isolation of cellulose was affected
by treatment conditions and thermal stabilities of the
cellulose samples varied corresponding agricultural
waste types.
Leao et al. (2010) studied the utilization of
agro-based biocomposites, pineapple (Ananas comosus)
and banana (Musa indica) for industrial applications.
This residual waste was found to be one of the single
largest sources of cellulose fibers available at almost no
cost. Mandels et al. (2010) studied the enzymatic
hydrolysis of waste cellulose by enzyme, Trichoderma
viride, which can be produced with submerged
fermentation using newspaper as a growth substrate. The
saccharification of 5% slurries after 48 hrs ranged from
1450 Water Environment Research, Volume 83, Number 10—Copyright © 2011 Water Environment Federation
2-92%. The rate and extent of the hydrolysis was
controlled by the degree of crystallinity, particle size,
and the presence of impurities.
Rice husk ash, modified with maleic anhydride,
was shown to be a suitable filler for the use with
polyvinylchloride, with an optimal strength and
tribological properties occurring with ash concentrations
of 10% by weight (Chand et al., 2010).
Espindola-Gonzalez et al. (2010) synthesized silica oxide
nanoparticles using rice husk, sugar cane bagasse and
coffee husk through vermicompost with annelids
(Eisenia foetida). It was demonstrated to be a novel
synthesis method.
The recovery and antioxidant capacity of
phenol from olive mill wastewater was investigated for
the effects of pretreatment with temperature and an
ethanol addition (Galanakis et al., 2010). Results showed
that the extraction time was not a governing factor, while
pretreatment with 20% ethanol decreased the recovery of
phenol. Preheating at either 50-60°C or 80°C decreased
both the recovery and antioxidant strength of phenol.
Gontero et al. (2010) developed a procedure
for producing crystallized fruit from watermelon rind by
removing the outer peel, slicing it into 7mm cubes,
blanching for 5 minutes, treating it with a 10% sodium
chloride solution, treating it with sucrose solutions, and
then drying it at 60°C.
Ja'afaru and Onilude (2010) compared the
hydrolysis of alkali-treated agricultural wastes with
xylanase isolated from Trichoderma viride Fd18 and
Aspergillus ustus Fd12. The results showed that
alkali-treated wheat bran, using both xylanases, showed
the highest hydrolysis, and reached optimal performance
under the conditions of pH 4.0-4.5 and a temperature of
35°C.
Khan and Perveen (2010) introduced
hardwood sawdust, softwood sawdust, banana stems and
banana peels to cells of Trichoderma viride to determine
their transformability into fermentable sugar for ethanol
production. Results showed that banana stems were the
best substrate.
Mutlu (2010) produced furfural from hazelnut
shells using two steps reactions with o-nitrotolene
extraction method. Optimum conditions for the
maximum furfural production rates (0.3079 g furfural /
h-g xylose) were found to be 177.7°C and at 4.00 %
(g/100 mL) sulphuric acid concentration. The maximum
furfural conversion yield of hazelnut pentosans was
60%.
Sodium carboxymethylcellulose was produced
from date palm rachis (Khiari et al., 2010). It was found
that the synthesized sodium carboxymethylcellulose
exhibited 10% greater performance than a commercial
anionic flocculent (A(100)PWG: polyacrylamide).
Succinic acid was successfully produced from
the waste orange peel and the wheat straw by a one-step
consolidated bioprocessing which combines cellulose
hydrolysis and sugar fermentation by a cellulolytic
bacterium, Fibrobacter succinogenes S85 (Li, Siles et al.,
2010). The greatest succinate titres were found to be 1.9
and 2.0 g/L for pre-treated orange peel and wheat straw,
respectively.
1451 Water Environment Research, Volume 83, Number 10—Copyright © 2011 Water Environment Federation
Manso et al. (2010) reported a method that
uses carob pulp aqueous extracts as the carbon source for
the production of the biocontrol agent Pantoea
agglomerans PBC-1. Optimal sugar extraction was
achieved at a solid/liquid ratio of 1:10 (w/v), at 25°C, for
1 h. The initial sugar concentration of 5 g/L allowed the
rapid growth (0.16/h) and the high biomass productivity
(0.28 g/l•h).
The first fully biomass-based poly(butylene
succinate) (PBS) was synthesized from furfural derived
from inedible agricultural cellulosic waste by Tachibana
et al. (2010). Results showed that biomass-based PBS
monomers 1,4-butanediol, succinic acid, and dimethyl
succinate were synthesized from furfural in polymer
grade purity and polymerized to PBS with arbitrary
biomass carbon ratios.
Orthogonal experimental design (Wang, Zou et
al., 2010) was adopted to investigate the optimum
conditions for cellulase production from corn straws.
Cellulase was further used to produce lactic acid through
the simultaneous saccharification and fermentation
process. Their result indicated that the utilization of corn
straws as substrate to produce cellulase and lactic acid
was applicable and could reduce pollution.
An alternative culture medium, based on
agricultural waste products (e. g., apple pomace) was
optimized to replace the current SYY medium for the
production of antimicrobial metabolites by strain
Hhs.015(T) (Wang, Huang et al., 2010). The alternative
medium contained 15 g apple pomace, 4 g rapeseed meal,
0.1 g KH2PO4, and 0.6 g MgSO4·7H2O in 1 L distilled
water, which reduced the material costs by 91.5%
compared to the SSY medium.
Yang et al. (2010) investigated the suitability
of using Acanthopanax koreanum fruit waste (AFW), as
a source of anti-inflammatory agents. AFW extracts
inhibited lipopolysaccharide-induced production of nitric
oxide and prostaglandin E-2 in RAW 264.7 macrophages
by 79.6% and 39.7%, respectively and can be considered
as a potential anti-inflammatory candidate.
Cattle manure wastes can be converted to
biooil by using hydrothermal conversion technology. Yin
et al. (2010) indicated that the conversion efficiency was
mainly affected by the operational temperature and the
process gases used, whereas, the pressure, retention time
and mass ratios were not beneficial to the conversion of
cattle manure wastes. The mean high heating value of
biooil from hydrothermal conversion of cattle manure
was 37.0 MJ/kg.
Others. The effects of the addition of pig
slurry and green waste composts on the heavy metal
exchange capacity of different soils were investigated by
Doelsch et al. (2010). Results showed that the addition
did not increase heavy metal exchange capacity, and in
fact decreased the Cu exchange capacity.
Lee and Lee (2010) carried out a study to
assess the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of both
the individual and combined phenolics in olive leaf
extract. Both the individual and combined phenolics
exhibited good radical scavenging abilities. It was
revealed that the superoxide dismutase (SOD)-like
1452 Water Environment Research, Volume 83, Number 10—Copyright © 2011 Water Environment Federation
activity and the antimicrobial effect were significantly
higher for combined phenolics compared to the
individual ones.
Studies on the application of common reed to
improve the quality of surface water and to produce
energy were conducted in Netherlands (Meerburg et al.,
2010). They found that reed was capable to reduce the
total amount of nitrogen in the water with average
efficiencies from 32 to 47% and the total amount of
phosphorous with 27-45%. The results showed that reed
in the wetland had the capacity to sanitize the surface
water and could also be used as a green energy source.
Treatment
Anaerobic Treatment. A case study on the
effect of temperature and hydraulic retention time (HRT)
on anaerobic treatment of cattle manure and agricultural
wastes were studied (Alkaya et al., 2010). The results
showed that higher temperature could lead to more
biogas production while the HRT had no significant
effects on the production of biogas. The methane
production yield and dry matter reduction efficiencies
were comparable to the studies performed on anaerobic
digestion of cattle manure. Corn silage, beet pulp silage
and carrot residues were used as materials of the
anaerobic digestion process to demonstrate the efficiency
of the process (Kacprzak et al., 2010). It was found that
the highest efficiency could be obtained when using
these three materials together.
Thermal Treatment. A laboratory-scale
research on thermal treatment of olive solid wastes
(OSW) and residue char based on gaseous emissions was
conducted by Chouchene, Jeguirim, Khiari, Trouve et al.
(2010). They suggested that the setup of staged oxidation
or catalytic treatment may be a promising issue for
setting an environmentally friendly process. The effect
of particle sizes of OSW and O2 concentrations on
thermal treatment of olive solid waste was studied by
Chouchene, Jeguirim, Khiari, Zagrouba et al. (2010). The
results showed that small particle size was beneficial to
the thermal degradation. O2 concentrations affected the
activation energy but not the reaction order.
The effects of reaction conditions on rice husk
pyrolyzate were investigated by Heo et al. (2010). They
found that temperature was the most important factor
affecting the production rate. A new gasification method
to convert biomass to energy was developed using coffee
husks under high temperatures (Wilson et al., 2010). It
was found that higher temperature with the presence of
O2 was beneficial to the conversion reaction, which
followed zero order model and the activation energy was
estimated to be 161 kJ/mol. A fixed-bed fire-tube heating
reactor was applied in the pyrolyzate of sugarcane
bagasse and the effect of different factors was measured
(Islam et al., 2010). The results indicated that it was a
good way to use the fixed-bed fire-tube heating reactor
to mitigate agricultural wastes and produce bio-oils.
Adsorption Treatment. The removal of
pesticides through adding pesticide-primed materials to
1453 Water Environment Research, Volume 83, Number 10—Copyright © 2011 Water Environment Federation
an on-farm biopurification system (BPS) was
investigated (De Wilde et al., 2010). The results
presented that the addition of pesticide-primed materials
could improve the efficiency of BPS. Endosulfan
metabolities was used to be an adsorbent to remove
pesticides from water (El Bakouri et al., 2010). Results
showed that the thermo chemical treatment was
beneficial to the adsorption efficiency. Biochar was used
as a sorbent to remove pesticides (Zheng et al., 2010).
The results showed that the sorption of the biochar for
both pesticides was favored at low pH conditions.
Composting. An in-vessel aerobic composting
technique was employed to recycle urban primary sludge
(Rihani et al., 2010). The results showed that pathogens
could be removed dramatically while the heavy metal
removal was low. Studies on the agricultural waste
composting to determine the effects of inoculation time
on the enzyme activities were conducted by Zeng et al.
(2010). The results showed that the inoculation was able
to improve the efficiency of the second fermentation
phase more than that of the first phase.
Bioreactor. A methanogenic bioreactor with
carbon fiber textiles (CFT) was first applied to treat
agricultural wastes by Sasaki et al. (2010). The results
presented that the use of CFT increased the degradation
efficiency of agricultural wastes. A study on nitrogen
removal from agricultural runoff in bioretention systems
was developed and various conditions were applied to
demonstrate the nitrogen removal efficiency (Ergas et al.,
2010). The results indicated that more than 88% nitrogen
removal was reached in this pilot-scale study. An
agricultural wastes treatment method was developed
using pilot-scale photobioreactors (Kastanek et al., 2010).
The results indicated that the treatment could achieve the
criteria in EU and that flue gases could be applied to
photobioreactors.
Wetland Treatment. The treatment
performance of agricultural wastes in a constructed
wetland system was investigated in seven years (Son et
al., 2010). The study tested the contaminants removal
and kinetics and found that low rate constant would not
affect the BOD removal. The removal of organic matter
and NH4+-N from agricultural wastewater was studied
through a modified wetland in China (Du et al., 2010).
The results revealed that the treatment efficiency was
higher than the conventional wetland in regards to the
BOD and NH4+-N removal.
Other Technologies. In order to avoid biogas
discharging into the atmosphere, a cover was adopted to
an anaerobic piggery pond in New Zealand (Heubeck
and Craggs, 2010). The results revealed that the cover
was beneficial to capture biogas and reduce odour
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Fu et al. (2010)
demonstrated that agricultural and forestry waste
products could be converted to small molecule chiral
ligands through acid depolymerization. The produced
chiral ligands could be used for sustainable asymmetric
catalysis.
1454 Water Environment Research, Volume 83, Number 10—Copyright © 2011 Water Environment Federation
An aerobic thermophilic treatment method was
applied to treat wastewater from potato production
(Lasik et al., 2010). It was found that the repeated-batch
operation could achieve the highest COD and TOC
removal rate. Immobilized titania nanophotocatalysis
was applied to treat agricultural organic wastes
(Mahmoodi and Arami, 2010). The results demonstrated
that immobilized titania nanophotocatalysis was an
environmental friendly way to treat agricultural wastes.
A full-scale treatment process was conducted to treat
dairy farming wastes in France (Merlin and Gaillot,
2010). The process was later improved with an aeration
process which improved in the contaminant removal
rate.
The anodic Fenton treatment was adopted to
treat sulfonamide which was an agricultural antibiotic
(Neafsey et al., 2010). It was found that the bacteriostatic
properties of sulfamethazine and sulfadiazine were
removed during degradation. The treatment of water
polluted with agricultural pesticide was studied by the
electrochemical process (Samet et al., 2010). The results
obtained revealed that increasing the apparent current
density and temperature and decreasing the initial
pollutant concentrations improved the COD removal
rates.
Waste Characterization
Nutrients. The bioavailability of phosphorus
(P) in biosolids and poultry litter was examined by
sequential fractionation coupled with enzymatic
hydrolysis (He et al., 2010). The results showed that the
litter/biosolids mixing granulated products could serve
well as a slow-release fertilizer. The amount of N and P
discharged produced from agriculture fields in the
Mekong Delta, South Vietnam was determined by De
Silva et al. (2010). The results indicated that N
discharged was in the similar level to feeds and that P
discharged levels were much lower than feed levels.
A case study on phosphorus discharge was
conducted in Hefei city, China by using the substance
flow analysis (SFA) method (Li, Yuan et al., 2010).
Their results presented that agricultural activities were
the main source of phosphorus discharge. Approximately
33% of the total phosphorus input left the area, and
nearly 20% of that amount was discharged to surface
water. A research on nitrate discharge from pig effluent
wastes was conducted using the isotope analysis method
to evaluate the effects of agricultural waste on drinking
water (Payet et al., 2010). The results presented that the
nitrate pollution was mainly contributed by the
agricultural effluent.
Gaseous Emission. Ozone produced from the
wastes and emissions of four kinds of agricultural
animals (beef cattle, dairy cattle, swine and poultry)
were measured (Howard et al., 2010). The results
presented that the ozone formation potential from poultry
wastes was twice of that from light duty gasoline
vehicles while other three kinds of animal wastes
produced less ozone than light duty gasoline vehicles.
Air pollution caused by combustion of agricultural
wastes was tested and analyzed (Musialik-Piotrowska et
1455 Water Environment Research, Volume 83, Number 10—Copyright © 2011 Water Environment Federation
al., 2010). It was found that the wooden pellet produced
less CO, nevertheless, it produced the most toxic
formaldehyde and benzene. In addition, wheat straw
pellets generated the most CO and VOCs. Direct and
indirect GHG emissions from a vertical flow constructed
wetland (CW) planted with forage rice were monitored
(Riya et al., 2010). Their results suggested that the
percentage of indirect N2O-N emissions (86.7%) was
much greater than that of CH4-C emissions (2.9%).
Therefore, it was necessary to address the issues of
indirect N2O-N emissions.
Microorganisms. A study on protozoan
infections due to agricultural animal wastes in the U.S.
elderly was conducted to assess the relationship between
the cattle density and the human infection risk (Jagai et
al., 2010). The results showed that higher cattle density
could lead to higher risk of protozoan infections and that
the risk presented a seasonal pattern. Molecular biology
techniques were performed to analyze microbial
communities in bovine slurry (Murayama et al., 2010).
The results showed that there were different kinds of
microorganisms present in bovine slurry and that most of
these microorganisms had no potential to affect human
health. Hormones fraction in the swine manure were
determined using the solid-phase extraction and gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry techniques
(Combalbert et al., 2010). The results showed that the
ways used to store samples affected hormone
concentrations. It was also found that estrone and
alpha-estradiol were the main constituents in the
samples.
Particles. Ram et al. (2010) studied
carbonaceous aerosols. They found that the fractional
mass of carbonaceous aerosols contributed to PM10 mass
varied in different seasons and that the agricultural
wastes burning was the main source of carbonaceous
aerosols.
Environmental Impact. The impacts of
pesticides presented in the Llobregat river basin on
benthic biological communities were examined (Ricart et
al., 2010). They revealed a potential relationship
between triazine-type herbicides and the distribution of
the diatom community. Effects of organophosphates and
phenylureas in both structural and functional aspects of
the biofilm community were also observed. The
agricultural impact on fish species and amounts in three
rivers in Nepal was studied by Jha et al. (2010). It was
found that agricultural wastes and misuse of agricultural
products mainly contaminated the downstream of the
rivers. Agricultural pollution was studied through a case
study in Eskipazar (Karabuk, Turkey) (Keskin, 2010). It
was found that the main nitrate and heavy metal
pollution in this area was caused by agricultural
activities.
Waste management and pollution minimization
General Management. Rashid et al. (2010)
discussed the benefit of applying food processing and
serving industry cooking oil waste (OFW) to recycle soil
1456 Water Environment Research, Volume 83, Number 10—Copyright © 2011 Water Environment Federation
nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N). They demonstrated that the
amount of N fertilizer application and the emissions of
GHG could be largely reduced. An Integrated Swine
Manure Management (ISMM) program was developed
for animal waste management (Karmakar et al., 2010).
The results indicated the program was feasible.
An assessment of agricultural wastes was
conducted based on situations in Almeria, Spain
(Callejon et al., 2010). It was found that it was more
beneficial to reuse the agricultural wastes directly. The
situation of straw wastes utilization in Vojvodina, Serbia
was discussed (Dodic et al., 2010). It was indicated that
the utilization efficiency was very low. It was suggested
that farms should apply basic principles of the cleaner
manufacturing for the sustainable development.
Gaseous Emission Control. The GHG
emissions and energy consuming in agricultural biogas
plants were calculated by Bachmaier et al. (2010). It was
found that agricultural biogas plants were able to save
more energy and produce less GHG compared to other
fossil resources. Decision making models for agricultural
practices based on Atanassov's Intuitionistic Fuzzy Sets
were studied (Hernandez and Uddameri, 2010). Its
application in agricultural practices was also presented
through a case study in South Texas. It concluded that
this approach was particularly suitable for prioritizing
and ranking agricultural best management practices.
GHG emissions from the land used for
agricultural was measured in Zimbabwe, Africa
(Mapanda et al., 2010). It was found that deforestation
and cultivation would increase the GHG emissions while
plantations would decrease GHG emissions. The
generation of superoxide in water was studied (Furman
et al., 2010). It was found that superoxide could be
applied to the removal of highly halogenated organic
compounds generated in the production of pesticides and
herbicides.
Others. The potential of applying constructed
and restored wetlands to reduce the contamination from
agricultural wastes was studied (O'Geen et al., 2010). It
was found that wetlands had high potential of reducing
the contamination of pollutants from agricultural runoff.
The adverse effect of wetlands was also discussed and
proper measurements to reduce the adverse effects were
proposed.
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1459 Water Environment Research, Volume 83, Number 10—Copyright © 2011 Water Environment Federation
Franca, A. S.; Oliveira, L. S.; Saldanha, S. A.; Santos, P. I. A.;
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1460 Water Environment Research, Volume 83, Number 10—Copyright © 2011 Water Environment Federation
Heo, H. S.; Park, H. J.; Dong, J. I.; Park, S. H.; Kim, S.; Suh, D.
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Jha, B. R.; Waidbacher, H.; Sharma, S.; Straif, M. (2010) Study
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1464 Water Environment Research, Volume 83, Number 10—Copyright © 2011 Water Environment Federation
Parker, N.; Fan, Y. Y.; Ogden, J. (2010) From Waste to
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