Agricultural Production Industry Sector Notebook Project · 2016. 2. 20. · Ariel Rios Building...

Agricultural Production Industry Sector Notebook Project

EPA/310-R-00-001

EPA Office of Compliance Sector Notebook Project

Profile of the Agricultural Crop Production Industry

September 2000

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Ariel Rios Building

1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW

Washington, DC 20460

Agricultural Crop Production Industry General Information

GENERAL INFORMATION

This report is one in a series of volumes published by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to provide information of general interest regarding environmental issues associated with specific industrial sectors. The documents were developed under contract by GeoLogics Corporation (Alexandria, VA), Abt Associates (Cambridge, MA), Science Applications International Corporation (McLean, VA), and Booz-Allen & Hamilton, Inc. (McLean, VA). A listing of available Sector Notebooks is included on the following page.

Obtaining copies:

Electronic versions of all sector notebooks are available via Internet on the Enviro$en$e World Wide Web at www.epa.gov/oeca/sector. Enviro$en$e is a free, public, environmental exchange system operated by EPA's Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance and Office of Research and Development. The Network allows regulators, the regulated community, technical experts, and the general public to share information regarding: pollution prevention and innovative technologies; environmental enforcement and compliance assistance; laws, executive orders, regulations, and policies; points of contact for services and equipment; and other related topics. The Network welcomes receipt of environmental messages, information, and data from any public or private person or organization. Direct technical questions to the “Feedback” button on the bottom of the web page.

Purchase printed bound copies from the Government Printing Office (GPO) by consulting the order form at the back of this document or order via the Internet by visiting the on-line GPO Sales Product Catalog at http://orders.access.gpo.gov/su_docs/sale/prf/prf.html. Search using the exact title of the document “Profile of the XXXX Industry” or simply “Sector Notebook.” When ordering, use the GPO document number found on the order form at the back of this document.

Complimentary volumes are available to certain groups or subscribers, including public and academic libraries; federal, state, tribal, and local governments; and the media from EPA’s National Service Center for Environmental Publications at (800) 490-9198. When ordering, use the EPA publication number found on the following page.

The Sector Notebooks were developed by the EPA’s Office of Compliance. Direct general questions about the Sector Notebook Project to:

Seth Heminway, Coordinator, Sector Notebook Project

US EPA Office of Compliance

Ariel Rios Building

1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW

Washington, DC 20460

(202) 564-7017

For further information, and for answers to questions pertaining to these documents, please refer to the contact names listed on the following page.

Sector Notebook Project i September 2000

Agricultural Crop Production Industry Table of Contents

SECTOR NOTEBOOK CONTACTS

Questions and comments regarding the individual documents should be directed to the specialists listed below. See the Notebook web page at: www.epa.gov/oeca/sector for the most recent titles and staff contacts.

EPA Publication Number Industry

EPA/310-R-95-001. Profile of the Dry Cleaning Industry EPA/310-R-95-002. Profile of the Electronics and Computer Industry* EPA/310-R-95-003. Profile of the Wood Furniture and Fixtures Industry EPA/310-R-95-004. Profile of the Inorganic Chemical Industry* EPA/310-R-95-005. Profile of the Iron and Steel Industry EPA/310-R-95-006. Profile of the Lumber and Wood Products Industry EPA/310-R-95-007. Profile of the Fabricated Metal Products Industry* EPA/310-R-95-008. Profile of the Metal Mining Industry EPA/310-R-95-009. Profile of the Motor Vehicle Assembly Industry EPA/310-R-95-010. Profile of the Nonferrous Metals Industry EPA/310-R-95-011. Profile of the Non-Fuel, Non-Metal Mining Industry EPA/310-R-95-012. Profile of the Organic Chemical Industry * EPA/310-R-95-013. Profile of the Petroleum Refining Industry EPA/310-R-95-014. Profile of the Printing Industry EPA/310-R-95-015. Profile of the Pulp and Paper Industry EPA/310-R-95-016. Profile of the Rubber and Plastic Industry EPA/310-R-95-017. Profile of the Stone, Clay, Glass, and Concrete Ind. EPA/310-R-95-018. Profile of the Transportation Equipment Cleaning Ind. EPA/310-R-97-001. Profile of the Air Transportation Industry EPA/310-R-97-002. Profile of the Ground Transportation Industry EPA/310-R-97-003. Profile of the Water Transportation Industry EPA/310-R-97-004. Profile of the Metal Casting Industry EPA/310-R-97-005. Profile of the Pharmaceuticals Industry EPA/310-R-97-006. Profile of the Plastic Resin and Man-made Fiber Ind. EPA/310-R-97-007. Profile of the Fossil Fuel Electric Power Generation

Industry EPA/310-R-97-008. Profile of the Shipbuilding and Repair Industry EPA/310-R-97-009. Profile of the Textile Industry EPA/310-R-97-010. Sector Notebook Data Refresh-1997 ** EPA/310-R-98-001. Profile of the Aerospace Industry EPA/310-R-99-006. Profile of the Oil and Gas Extraction Industry EPA/310-R-00-001. Profile of the Agricultural Crop Production Industry EPA/310-R-00-002. Profile of the Agricultural Livestock Production

Industry EPA/310-R-00-003. Profile of the Agricultural Chemical, Pesticide and

Fertilizer Industry

Government Series EPA/310-R-99-001. Profile of Local Government Operations

* Spanish translations available.

Contact Phone Joyce Chandler 202-564-7073 Steve Hoover 202-564-7007 Bob Marshall 202-564-7021 Walter DeRieux 202-564-7067 Maria Malave 202-564-7027 Seth Heminway 202-564-7017 Scott Throwe 202-564-7013 Maria Malave 202-564-5027 Anthony Raia 202-564-6045 Debbie Thomas 202-564-5041 Rob Lischinsky 202-564-2628 Walter DeRieux 202-564-7067 Tom Ripp 202-564-7003 Ginger Gotliffe 202-564-7072 Seth Heminway 202-564-7017

202-564-2310 Scott Throwe 202-564-7013 Virginia Lathrop 202-564-7057 Virginia Lathrop 202-564-7057 Virginia Lathrop 202-564-7057 Virginia Lathrop 202-564-7057 Steve Hoover 202-564-7007 Emily Chow 202-564-7071 Sally Sasnett 202-564-7074

Rafael Sanchez 202-564-7028 Anthony Raia 202-564-6045

202-564-2310 Seth Heminway 202-564-7017 Anthony Raia 202-564-6045 Dan Chadwick 202-564-7054 Ginah Mortensen 913-551-5211

Ginah Mortensen 913-551-5211

Michelle Yaras 202-564-4153

202-564-2310

** This document revises compliance, enforcement, and toxic release inventory data for all profiles published in 1995.

Sector Notebook Project ii September 2000


Table of Contents

LIST OF EXHIBITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

LIST OF ACRONYMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

I. INTRODUCTION TO THE SECTOR NOTEBOOK PROJECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

I.A. Summary of the Sector Notebook Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

I.B. Additional Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

II. INTRODUCTION TO THE AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION INDUSTRIES: CROPS,

GREENHOUSES/NURSERIES, AND FORESTRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

II.A. General Overview of Agricultural Establishments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

II.B. Characterization of the Crop Production Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

II.B.1. Oilseed and Grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

II.B.2. Vegetables and Melons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

II.B.3. Fruit and Tree Nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

II.B.4. Other Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

II.C. Characterization of the Greenhouse, Nursery, and Floriculture

Production Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

II.D. Characterization of the Forestry Production Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

II.D.1. Definition of Forest Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

II.D.2. Consumption and Regeneration of Forest Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

II.E. Geographic Distribution and Economic Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

III. SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS, IMPACTS, AND POLLUTION PREVENTION

OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION INDUSTRIES: CROPS,

GREENHOUSES/NURSERIES, AND FORESTRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

III.A. Crop Production: Operations, Impacts, and Pollution Prevention Opportunities 25

III.A.1. Preparing the Site/Soil for Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

III.A.2. Planting/Tending Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

III.A.3. Applying Nutrients to Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

III.A.4. Applying Pesticides and Pest Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

III.A.5. Irrigating Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

III.A.6. Harvesting Crops and Post-Harvesting Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

III.A.7. Maintaining and Repairing Agricultural Machinery

and Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

III.A.8. Fuel Use and Fueling Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

III.A.9. Maintaining the Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

III.B. Greenhouses and Nurseries: Operations, Impacts, and Pollution Prevention

Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

III.B.1. Preparing the Soil/Growing Media for Horticulture Crops . . . . . . . 58

III.B.2. Planting Horticulture Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

III.B.3. Applying Nutrients to Horticulture Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

III.B.4. Applying Pesticides and Pest Control for Horticulture Crops . . . . . 62

III.B.5. Irrigating Horticulture Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

III.B.6. Tending and Harvesting Horticulture Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Sector Notebook Project iii September 2000


III.B.7. Constructing and Maintaining Greenhouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

III.B.8. Packaging, Loading, and Transporting Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

III.B.9. Maintaining and Repairing Machinery and Vehicles at

Greenhouses/Nurseries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

III.B.10. Fuel Use and Fueling Activities at Greenhouses/Nurseries . . . . . . . 68

III.C. Forestry Production Industry: Operations, Impacts, and Pollution Prevention

Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

III.C.1. Road Construction and Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

III.C.2. Timber Harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

III.C.3. Site Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

III.C.4. Forest Regeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

III.C.5. Prescribed Burning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

III.C.6. Application of Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

IV. SUMMARY OF APPLICABLE FEDERAL STATUTES AND REGULATIONS . . . . . 89

IV.A. General Description of Major Statutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

IV.B. Industry-Specific Requirements for the Agricultural Production Industries:

Crops, Greenhouses/Nurseries, and Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

IV.C. Proposed and Pending Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

V. COMPLIANCE AND ENFORCEMENT HISTORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

V.A. Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

V.B. Compliance and Enforcement Profile Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

V.C. Compliance History for the Agricultural Production Industries: Crops,

Greenhouses/Nurseries, and Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

VI. REVIEW OF MAJOR LEGAL ACTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

VII. COMPLIANCE ASSURANCE ACTIVITIES AND INITIATIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

VII.A. Sector-Related Environmental Programs and Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

VII.B. EPA Programs and Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

VII.C. USDA Programs and Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

VII.D. Other Voluntary Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

VII.E. Summary of Trade Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

VIII. CONTACTS/RESOURCE MATERIALS/BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Sector Notebook Project iv September 2000


LIST OF EXHIBITS

1. Agricultural Land Use in the U.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2. Types of Cropland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3. Acreage of Agricultural Establishments in the U.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

4. Agricultural Establishments by Value of Sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

5. Ownership Status of Agricultural Establishments in the U.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

6. 1997 NAICS Descriptions for Crop Production (NAICS 111) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

7. Number of Farms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

8. Land in Acres vs. Acres of Harvested Cropland (in millions of acres) . . . . . . . . . . 9

9. Percent of Sales by Type of Establishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

10. Types of Grain Farms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

11. Noncitrus Fruit and Tree Nut Farms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

12. Total Acres vs. Acres Harvested of Other Crops (in thousands of acres) . . . . . . . . 12

13. Value of Greenhouse, Nursery, and Floriculture Production Compared to Total Crop

Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

14. Values of Greenhouse, Nursery, and Floriculture Production Sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

15. Distribution of U.S. Forested Land Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

16. Federal vs. Nonfederal Forest Lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

17. Timberland Ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

18. NFS Timber Sales, FY 1993-1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

19. Acres Seeded and Acres of Tree Planting (FY 1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

20. Crop Production Activities, Raw Material Inputs, and Pollution Outputs . . . . . . . . 26

21. Greenhouse and Nursery Production Activities, Raw Material Inputs, and Pollution

Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

22. Forestry Production Activities, Raw Material Inputs, and Pollution Outputs . . . . . . 71

23. Five-Year Enforcement and Compliance Summary for the Agricultural Crop

Production Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

24. Five-Year Enforcement and Compliance Summary for the Forestry

Production Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

25. Five-Year Enforcement and Compliance Summary for Selected Industries . . . . . . 149

26. One-Year Enforcement and Compliance Summary for Selected Industries . . . . . . 150

27. Five-Year Inspection and Enforcement Summary by Statute for

Selected Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

28. One-Year Inspection and Enforcement Summary by Statute for

Selected Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

Sector Notebook Project v September 2000

Agricultural Crop Production Industry List of Acronyms

LIST OF ACRONYMS

ACM Asbestos-Containing Materials

AFO Animal Feeding Operations

AFPA American Forest Paper Association

AFS AIRS Facility Subsystem (CAA database)

ANSI American National Standards Institute

BIF Boiler and Industrial Furnace

BLM Bureau of Land Management

BMP Best Management Practices

BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Bt Bacillus thuringiensis

CAA Clean Air Act

CAAA Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990

CCAP Climate Change Action Plan

CDA Controlled Droplet Application

CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act

CERCLIS CERCLA Information System (CERCLA database)

CESQG Conditionally Exempt Small Quantity Generator

CFC Chlorofluorocarbon

CFO Conservation Farm Option

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

CNMP Comprehensive Nutrient Management Plan

CPA Conservation Priority Area

CREP Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program

CRP Conservation Reserve Program

CWA Clean Water Act

CWAP Clean Water Action Plan

CZARA Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization Amendments

DOT United States Department of Transportation

DOJ United States Department of Justice

DUN Dun and Bradstreet

EMS Environmental Management Systems

EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency

EPCRA Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act

EQIP Environmental Quality Incentives Program

ESPP Endangered Species Protection Program

FDA United States Food and Drug Administration

FFDCA Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act

FIFRA Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act

FINDS Facility Indexing System

FQPA Food Quality Protection Act

FR Federal Register

Sector Notebook Project vi September 2000


LIST OF ACRONYMS (CONTINUED)

FS Forest Service

FSA Farm Service Agency

FWS Fish and Wildlife Service

FY Fiscal Year

GPS Global Positioning System

HAP Hazardous Air Pollutant (CAA)

HSWA Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments

HUD United States Department of Housing and Urban Development

IDEA Integrated Data for Enforcement Analysis

IPM Integrated Pest Management

ISO International Organization for Standardization

LDR Land Disposal Restrictions (RCRA)

LEPC Local Emergency Planning Committee

LQG Large Quantity Generator

MACT Maximum Achievable Control Technology (CAA)

MCL Maximum Contaminant Level

MCLG Maximum Contaminant Level Goal

MSDS Material Safety Data Sheet

NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards (CAA)

NAICS North American Industrial Classification System

NASS National Agricultural Statistics Service

NCBD National Compliance Database, Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic

Substances NCP National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan NICE3 National Industrial Competitiveness Through Energy, Environment, and

Economics NOA Notice of Arrival NPS Nonpoint Source Management Program NESHAP National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants NFS National Forest System NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (CWA) NPL National Priorities List NRC National Response Center NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service NSPS New Source Performance Standards (CAA) OECA Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance OMB Office of Management and Budget OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration PCB Polychlorinated Biphenyl PCS Permit Compliance System

Sector Notebook Project vii September 2000


LIST OF ACRONYMS (CONTINUED)

PESP Pesticide Environmental Stewardship Program

PMN Premanufacture Notice

POTW Publicly Owned Treatment Works

PWS Public Water Systems

RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

RCRIS RCRA Information System (RCRA database)

RMP Risk Management Plan

RQ Reportable Quantities

RUP Restricted Use Pesticides

SARA Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act

SDWA Safe Drinking Water Act

SEP Supplemental Environmental Project

SERC State Emergency Response Commission

SIC Standard Industrial Classification

SIP State Implementation Plan

SPCC Spill Prevention, Control, and Countermeasure

SQG Small Quantity Generator

TMDL Total Maximum Daily Load

TRI Toxic Release Inventory

TRIS Toxics Release Inventory System

TSCA Toxic Substances Control Act

TSS Total Suspended Solids

UIC Underground Injection Control (SDWA)

USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture

UST Underground Storage Tank (RCRA)

WHIP Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program

WPS Worker Protection Standard Requirements for Users

WRP Wetlands Reserve Program

Sector Notebook Project viii September 2000

Agricultural Crop Production Industry Introduction

I. INTRODUCTION TO THE SECTOR NOTEBOOK PROJECT

I.A. Summary of the Sector Notebook Project

Environmental policies based upon comprehensive analysis of air, water and land pollution (such as economic sector, and community-based approaches) are becoming an important supplement to traditional single-media approaches to environmental protection. Environmental regulatory agencies are beginning to embrace comprehensive, multi-statute solutions to facility permitting, compliance assurance, education/outreach, research, and regulatory development issues. The central concepts driving the new policy direction are that pollutant releases to each environmental medium (air, water and land) affect each other, and that environmental strategies must actively identify and address these interrelationships by designing policies for the "whole" facility. One way to achieve a whole facility focus is to design environmental policies addressing all media for similar industrial facilities. By doing so, environmental concerns that are common to the manufacturing of similar products can be addressed in a comprehensive manner. Recognition of the need to develop the industrial ?sector-based” approach by the EPA Office of Compliance led to the creation of this document.

The Sector Notebook Project was initiated by the Office of Compliance within the Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance (OECA) to provide its staff and managers with summary information for eighteen specific industrial sectors. As other EPA offices, states, the regulated community, environmental groups, and the public became interested in this project, the scope of the original project was expanded. The ability to design comprehensive, common sense environmental protection measures for specific industries is dependent on knowledge of several interrelated topics. For the purposes of this project, the key elements chosen for inclusion are: general industry information (economic and geographic); a description of industrial processes; pollution outputs; pollution prevention opportunities; federal statutory and regulatory framework; compliance history; and a description of partnerships that have been formed between regulatory agencies, the regulated community and the public.

For any given industry, each topic listed above alone could be the subject of a lengthy volume. However, to produce a manageable document, this project focuses on providing summary information for each topic. This format provides the reader with a synopsis of each issue, and references where more in-depth information is available. Text within each profile was researched from a variety of sources, and was usually condensed from more detailed sources pertaining to specific topics. This approach allows for a wide coverage of activities that can be explored further based upon the references listed at the end of this profile. As a check on the information included, each notebook went through an external document review process. The Office of

Sector Notebook Project 1 September 2000

Agricultural Crop Production Industry Introduction & Background

Compliance appreciates the efforts of all those that participated in this process and enabled us to develop more complete, accurate and up-to-date summaries.

I.B. Additional Information

Providing Comments

OECA’s Office of Compliance plans to periodically review and update notebooks and will make these updates available both in hard copy and electronically. If you have any comments on the existing notebook, or if you would like to provide additional information, please send a hard copy and computer disk to the EPA Office of Compliance, Sector Notebook Project, 401 M St., SW (2223-A), Washington, DC 20460. Comments can also be sent via the web page.

Adapting Notebooks to Particular Needs

The scope of the industry sector described in this notebook approximates the relative national occurrence of facility types within the sector. In many instances, industries within specific geographic regions or states may have unique characteristics that are not fully captured in these profiles. For this reason, the Office of Compliance encourages state and local environmental agencies and other groups to supplement or repackage the information included in this notebook to include more specific industrial and regulatory information that may be available. Additionally, interested states may want to supplement the "Summary of Applicable Federal Statutes and Regulations" section with state and local requirements. Compliance or technical assistance providers also may want to develop the "Pollution Prevention" section in more detail. Please contact the appropriate specialist listed on the opening page of this notebook if your office is interested in assisting us in the further development of the information or policies addressed within this volume. If you are interested in assisting in the development of new notebooks, please contact the Office of Compliance at 202-564-2310.



II. INTRODUCTION TO THE AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION INDUSTRIES: CROPS, GREENHOUSES/NURSERIES, AND FORESTRY

This section provides background information on three types of agricultural production industries:

C Establishments that produce crops, including oilseed and grains, vegetables and melons, fruit and tree nuts, and other crops

C Greenhouses and nurseries

C Establishments engaged in forestry and logging.

This section defines these industries in terms of their North American Industrial Classification System (NAICS) codes. According to NAICS, establishments that produce crops and greenhouses/nurseries are classified in NAICS code 111 (Crop Production). Because greenhouses/nurseries comprise a large number of the entities in NAICS 111 and are somewhat different in actual practices, this notebook presents data and

The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) has replaced the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) system, which was used to track the flow of goods and services within the economy, with the NAICS. The NAICS, which is based on similar production processes to the SIC system, is being implemented by OMB.

information on them separately from crop production. Greenhouse, nursery, and floriculture production is classified as NAICS code 1114. Establishments engaged in forestry are classified in NAICS code 113 (Forestry and Logging). The forestry production industry has practices that differ significantly from those used for crops and greenhouses/nurseries.

Establishments primarily engaged in crop production and forestry are classified in subgroup(s), up to six digits long, based on the total value of sales of agricultural products. An establishment would be placed in the group that represents 50 percent or more of its total sales. For example, if 51 percent of the total sales of an establishment is wheat, then it would be classified under NAICS codes 1111 (Oilseed and Grain Farming) and 11114 (Wheat Farming).

Data for the notebook, specifically in this chapter, were obtained from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the 1997 Agriculture Census (Ag Census). All data are the most recent publicly available data for the source cited.

II.A. General Overview of Agricultural Establishments

This section presents a general overview of agricultural establishments to provide background information regarding the number of such establishments



and production data. The USDA’s National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) defines an agricultural establishment (i.e., farm) based on production. It defines a farm as a place which produced or sold, or normally would have produced or sold, $1,000 or more of agricultural products during the year. Agricultural products include all products grown by establishments described in this profile, which are classified under NAICS codes 111, 113, and 1114, as well as those in NAICS code 112 - Animal Production, which are covered in the Profile of the Agricultural Livestock Production Industry.

According to the 1997 Ag Census, there were more than 1.9 million farms (i.e., agricultural establishments) in the United States. Of these, approximately 47 percent (902,372 farms) were classified as NAICS code 111 - Crop Production. The other 53 percent (1,009,487 farms) were classified as NAICS code 112 - Animal Production. These 1.9 million agricultural establishments represent nearly 932 million acres of land, with the average agricultural establishment consisting of 487 acres. (Note: 1 acre is approximately the size of a football field.) Both of these numbers--932 million acres and 487 acres-are smaller than those for 1992, which were 946 million acres and 491 acres, respectively.

As shown in Exhibit 1, of the 932 million acres of agricultural land, the overwhelming majority (89%) consists of cropland and pastureland/rangeland.



As presented in Exhibit 2, the 1997 Ag Census describes cropland as:

• Harvested cropland --Includes all acreage from which crops are harvested, such as: (1) corn, wheat, barley, oats, sorghum, soybeans, cotton, and tobacco; (2) wild or tame harvested hay, silage, and green chop; and (3) vegetables. It also includes land in orchards and vineyards; all acres in greenhouses, nurseries, Christmas trees, and sod; and any other acreage from which a crop is harvested even if the crop is considered a partial failure and the yield is very low.

• Cropland used only for pasture or grazing -- Includes land pastured or grazed which could be used for crops without any additional improvement, and land in planted crops that is pastured or grazed before reaching maturity.

• Cropland used for cover crops -- Includes land used only to grow cover crops for controlling erosion or to be plowed under for improving the soil.

• Cropland on which all crops failed -- Includes: (1) all land from which a crop failed (except fruit or nuts in an orchard, grove, or vineyard being maintained for production) and no other crop is harvested and which is not pastured or grazed, and (2) acreage not harvested due to low prices or labor shortages.

• Cultivated summer fallow -- Includes cropland left unseeded for harvest, and cultivated or treated with herbicides to control weeds and conserve moisture.

• Idle cropland -- Includes any other acreage which could be used for crops without any additional improvement and which is not included in one of the above categories of cropland.



The 1997 Ag Census describes pastureland and rangeland as land, other than

cropland or woodland pasture, that is normally used for pasture or grazing.

This land, sometimes called "meadow" or "prairie," may be composed of

bunchgrass, shortgrass, buffalo grass, bluestem, bluegrass, switchgrass, desert

shrubs, sagebrush,

mesquite,

greasewood,

mountain browse,

salt brush, cactus,

juniper, and pinion.

It also can be

predominantly

covered with brush

or browse.

As shown in

Exhibit 3,

approximately 82

percent of

agricultural

establishments in

1997 consisted of

fewer than 500

acres; only 4

percent consisted

of 2,000 or more

acres.

According to the 1997 Ag Census, all agricultural establishments combined to produce approximately $197 billion worth of agricultural products.

The market value of the agricultural products sold was split almost evenly between crop production, including nursery and greenhouse crops (49.6%) and livestock production (50.4%).

As shown in Exhibit 4, approximately 73 percent of all agricultural establishments produced less than $50,000 worth of agricultural products.



In addition to tracking the number of agricultural establishments and the value of products sold, the Ag Census tracks and identifies other characteristics of agricultural establishments, such as ownership and organization. Exhibit 5 presents a breakdown of the ownership status of agricultural establishments in the U.S. The Ag Census basically identifies the ownership status of agricultural establishments by one of three categories:

• Full ownership, in which full owners operate only the land they own.

• Partial ownership, in which partial owners operate land they own and also land they rent from others.

• Tenant/rental arrangement, in which tenants operate only land they rent from others or work on shares for others.

The Census further classifies agricultural establishment ownership by the person or entity who owns the establishment. There are four distinct types of organization: (1) individual or family (sole proprietorship); (2) partnership, including family partnership; (3) corporation, including family corporation, and (4) other, including cooperatives, estate or trust, and institutional. Approximately 86 percent of all establishments are owned and operated by individuals or families. Partnerships account for another 9 percent of the establishments and corporations own just more than 4 percent of the establishments. Fewer than 1 percent of all farms are owned by other organizations (1997 Ag Census).



II.B. Characterization of the Crop Production Industry

This section provides data and information on the crop production industry. For the purposes of this profile, crop production includes the four categories of commodities presented in Exhibit 6. This notebook follows the structure provided by the 1997 Ag Census, which classifies all of these commodity production operations within NAICS code 111. Because the notebook is addressing greenhouse, nursery, and floriculture products separately in the next section, they are not included within this discussion.

Exhibit 6. 1997 NAICS Descriptions for Crop Production (NAICS 111)

Type of Establishment

NAICS Code

SIC Code Description

Oilseed and Grain 1111 0116, 0119 Establishments primarily engaged in: 1) growing oilseed and/or grain crops and/or 2) producing oilseed and grain seeds. These crops have an annual growth cycle and are typically grown in open fields.

Vegetables and Melons

1112 0134, 0139, 0161

Establishments primarily engaged in growing root and tuber crops (except sugar beets and peanuts) or edible plants and/or producing root and tuber or edible plant seeds. The crops included in this group have an annual growth cycle and are grown in open fields.

Fruits and Tree Nuts

1113 0171, 0172, 0173, 0174, 0175, 0179

Establishments primarily engaged in growing fruit and/or tree nut crops. The crops included in this industry group are generally not grown from seeds and have a perennial life cycle.

Other Crops 1119 0131, 0132, 0133, 0139, 0191, 0831,

2099

Establishments primarily engaged in: 1) growing crops (other than those listed previously), such as tobacco, cotton, sugarcane, hay, sugar beets, peanuts, agave, herbs and spices, and hay and grass seeds, or 2) growing a combination of these crops.



In 1997, there were

845,180 establishments

producing the four

categories of

commodities referenced

above. All these

establishments combined

covered nearly 400

million acres, of which

more than half (236

million acres) was

harvested cropland. The

average crop producing

establishment in 1997

was approximately 473

acres in size and

averaged approximately

279 acres of harvested

cropland. Of the

845,180 crop producing

establishments, more than

50 percent (462,877) were classified as oilseed and grain farming (see Exhibit

7). Also, as shown in Exhibit 8, oilseed and grain farming accounted for the

majority of the land in acres as well as harvested cropland.

Exhibit 8. Land in Acres vs. Acres of Harvested Cropland (in millions of acres) (1997 Agriculture Census)



The four types of crop-producing establishments defined above accounted for approximately $87 billion worth of products sold in 1997. Exhibit 9 presents the distribution of those sales among the four types of establishments.

II.B.1. Oilseed and Grain

Oilseed and grain accounted for the majority of agricultural sales in the U.S. in 1997. For the purposes of the 1997 Ag Census, oilseed includes primarily soybeans, but also dry peas and beans, canola, flaxseeds, mustard seeds, oilseeds, rapeseeds, safflower, sesame seeds, and sunflowers. Grain includes wheat, corn, rice, and other grains such as barley, broomcorn, buckwheat, milo, oats, rye, sorghum, and wild rice. These grains are considered both food and feed grains, meaning they may be used either in food production or as feed for livestock.

In 1997, there were 462,877 oilseed and grain establishments in the U.S.; 94,481 were oilseed establishments and 368,396 were grain establishments. As shown in Exhibit 10, corn-producing establishments comprise the majority of the grain establishments in the U.S. On average, each grain-producing establishment is approximately 671 acres. Of those, approximately 407 acres are harvested cropland.



II.B.2. Vegetables and Melons

Vegetable and melon farming accounts for 31,030 establishments, or just less than 4 percent of the total crop-producing establishments in the U.S. An average vegetable and melon establishment consists of approximately 330 acres, of which approximately 170 acres are harvested cropland. Potato farming is the largest subgroup within vegetable and melon farming. It comprises nearly 12 percent of all vegetable and melon farms. The average potato-producing establishment has approximately 981 acres; approximately 730 of these acres are harvested cropland.

II.B.3. Fruit and Tree Nuts

Fruit and tree nut farming comprised the third largest group of crop-producing establishments combining for 81,956 establishments. This category is basically broken into two categories: 1) citrus fruits, and 2) noncitrus fruits and tree nuts. Citrus-producing establishments (i.e., groves) accounted for 12,275 establishments, or approximately 15 percent of all fruit and tree nut establishments. Noncitrus fruits and tree nuts, which include apples, grapes, strawberries, other berries, tree nuts, and other noncitrus fruits, comprised the remainder of the establishments (69,681) in 1997. (Tree nuts include almonds, hazelnuts, walnuts, macadamia nuts, pecans, and pistachios.) The percentages of noncitrus fruit and tree nut establishments are presented in Exhibit 11.

In 1997, the average fruit and tree nut establishment was 127 acres, with approximately half of those acres being harvested. Orange groves accounted for more than 75 percent of all citrus fruit establishments. Florida dominates citrus fruit production, except for lemons. Noncitrus fruits are grown across the country. Tree nuts are grown primarily in California and Hawaii.



II.B.4. Other Crops

The category of Other Crops comprised the second largest group of crop-producing establishments in the U.S. in 1997. A total of 269,317 farms were classified as NAICS code 1119 - Other Crops Farming. These other crops include tobacco, cotton, sugarcane, and hay, as well as other specialty crops such as honey and sugarbeets. Of the 269,317 other crop farms, 52 percent were classified as hay farms. Tobacco farms accounted for 24 percent of these establishments and cotton-producing establishments represented 7 percent. Sugarcane farms accounted for less than 1 percent of all establishments in this category. The remaining 17 percent were classified in the All Other Crops category.

These establishments combined for a total land area of approximately 94 million acres, or approximately 349 acres per establishment. The average number of acres harvested was 164 acres. Exhibit 12 provides a comparison of total acres to acres harvested for other crops.

Exhibit 12. Total Acres vs. Acres Harvested of Other Crops (in thousands of acres) (1997 Ag Census)



II.C. Characterization of the Greenhouse, Nursery, and Floriculture Production Industry

Although the greenhouse, nursery, and floriculture industry is classified under NAICS code 111, this profile separates it into its own section because its practices and environmental impacts are different from those associated with the crops discussed in Section II.B.

In 1997, according to the Ag Census, there were 57,192 farms classified as NAICS code 1114, which is Greenhouse, Nursery, and Floriculture Production. This industry group consists of establishments that primarily grow crops of any kind under cover and/or grow nursery stock and flowers. “Under cover” is generally defined as in greenhouses, cold frames, cloth houses, and lath houses. The crops grown are removed at various stages of maturity and have annual and perennial life cycles. The nursery stock includes short rotation woody crops that have growth cycles of 10 years or less.

Of the 57,192 establishments classified as NAICS 1114, 97 percent were nursery and floriculture production (NAICS code 11142). The remaining 3 percent were classified as NAICS code 11141 - food crops grown under cover. Within the nursery and floriculture classification, there are two distinct categories:

• Nursery and tree production, which consists of establishments primarily engaged in growing nursery products, nursery stock, shrubbery, bulbs, fruit stock, and sod, and those engaged in growing short rotation woody trees with a growth and harvest cycle of 10 years or less for pulp or tree stock, such as Christmas trees, under cover or in open fields.

• Floriculture production, which consists of establishments primarily engaged in growing and/or producing floriculture products, such as cut flowers, cut cultivated greens (e.g., leatherleaf ferns, chamaedorea, etc.), potted flowering and foliage plants, and flower seeds, under cover or in open fields.

In 1997, there were 33,935 nursery and tree production establishments and 21,824 floriculture establishments. These establishments combined for total sales of nearly $10 billion, or approximately 10 percent of the total value of all crops sold in 1997. The average size of nursery and tree production establishments is nearly 92 acres, with an average of approximately 35 acres being harvested cropland. Floriculture production establishments average 35 acres in size with approximately one-third of that acreage being harvested cropland. California and Florida account for the majority of the establishments, as well as sales, in the floriculture industry.



Exhibits 13 and 14 show the value of greenhouse, nursery, and floriculture production compared to total crop production, and the value of greenhouse, nursery, and floriculture production sales, respectively.



II.D. Characterization of the Forestry Production Industry

This section pertains to the forestry industry as classified within NAICS code 113 - Forestry and Logging. As defined by NAICS, industries in this sector grow and harvest timber on a long production cycle (i.e., 10 years or more). Long production cycles use different production processes than short production cycles, which require more horticultural interventions prior to harvest, resulting in processes more similar to those found in the previous sections of this profile. The three subsectors included within NAICS code 113 are:

• Timber tract operations (NAICS code 1131), which consist of establishments engaged in operating timber tracts for the purpose of selling standing timber.

• Forest nurseries and gathering of forest products (NAICS code 1132), which primarily engage in growing trees for reforestation and gather forest products, such as gums, barks, balsam needles, rhizomes, fibers, Spanish moss, ginseng, and truffles.

• Logging (NAICS code 1133), which consists of establishments primarily engaged in cutting timber, cutting and transporting timber, and producing wood chips in the field.

Industries usually specialize in different stages of the production cycle, as indicated by the three NAICS codes. Reforestation requires production of seedlings in specialized nurseries. Timber production requires natural forest or suitable areas of land that are available for a long duration. The harvesting of timber (except when done on an extremely small scale) requires specialized machinery unique to the industry. Establishments gathering forest products, such as gums, barks, balsam needles, rhizomes, fibers, Spanish moss, and ginseng and truffles, are also included in this industry.

II.D.1. Definition of Forest Land

The U.S. Forest Service defines a forested area as “forest land” if it is at least one acre in size and at least 10 percent occupied by forest trees of any size or formerly having had such tree cover and not currently developed for non-forest use. (Examples of non-forest uses include areas for crops, improved pasture, residential areas, and other similar areas.) Forest land includes transition zones, such as areas between heavily forested and nonforested lands that are at least 10 percent stocked with forest trees and forest areas adjacent to urban and built-up lands (36 CFR 219).



In the United States, there are approximately 736.7 million acres of forest land. The distribution of this forest land among geographic regions is presented in Exhibit 15.

Exhibit 15. Distribution of U.S. Forested Land Area

Geographic Region

Total Land Area (in thousands of acres)

Forested Acres (in thousands)

Percent Forested

Northeast 126,816 85,380 67

North Central 286,764 83,108 29

Pacific Northwest 469,093 177,611 38

Pacific Southwest 103,934 39,011 38

Great Plains 194,299 4,232 2

Southeast 147,419 88,078 60

South Central 387,104 123,760 32

Rocky Mountains 547,918 135,499 25

Total 2,263,347 736,679

Source: American Forest and Paper Association (AFPA), 1995

Federal Versus Nonfederal Forest Lands Of the 736.7 million acres, approximately 249.1 million acres (or 33.8 percent) are owned by the federal government. The remaining 487.6 million acres are owned by nonfederal entities, such as state or local governments, private citizens, or companies (see Exhibit 16).



Approximately 57 percent of all productive forest land in the U.S. is owned by 9.3 million non-industrial private landowners. These 353 million acres of land produce more than half of the nation's wood supply (AFPA, 1995).

The majority of federal forest land is managed as the national forest system (NFS). The NFS includes:

• National forest lands reserved from the U.S. public domain.

• National forest lands acquired through purchase, exchange, donation, or other means.

• National grasslands.

• Other lands, waters, or interests administered by the U.S. Forest Service (FS) or designated for administration through the FS as part of the system.

The NFS contains 191 million acres, or 77 percent, of federal forest lands. (The remaining federal forest lands are managed by the Bureau of Land Management, the National Park Service, and other federal agencies.) The NFS is contained in 43 states and creates about 500,000 private sector jobs. Of the remaining nonfederal forests, privately held commercial forest lands make up the largest portion accounting for 347 million acres (71 percent).

Timberlands. Two-thirds of U.S. forest lands, or almost 490 million acres, are classified as timberlands. Timberlands are defined as forest lands used for the production of commercial wood products. Commercial timberland can be used for repeated growing and harvesting of trees. Seventy percent of timberlands are located in the East (AFPA, 1995). Exhibit 17 presents additional information about timberland ownership. Of the 490 million acres of timberland, federal, state, and local governments own 131 million acres (27 percent) and non-industrial private entities own 288 million acres (59 percent).



Private timberlands are mostly on small tracts of forest land. Only 600,000 landowners have holdings larger than 100 acres (AFPA, 1995). The forest products industry owns about 70 million acres (14 percent) of commercial timberland. One-third of the nation’s annual timber harvest is from these forests (AFPA, 1995).

II.D.2. Consumption and Regeneration of Forest Products

The United States is the world’s leading producer and consumer of forest products (e.g., paper products) and accounts for approximately one-fourth of the world’s production and consumption (AFPA, 1995). The United States is also the world’s largest producer of softwood and hardwood lumber. Specifically for timber, in 1996, total annual sales for commercial (i.e., nonfederal) timber and nontimber forest products were approximately $3.8 billion. Timber alone accounted for approximately 69 percent of those sales.

In fiscal year 1998, the NFS sold approximately174 million cubic feet (or 870 million board feet) of timber valued at approximately $80 million. NFS timber sales from the past 6 years are presented in Exhibit 18. Also in fiscal year 1998, BLM sold 43.7 million cubic feet (or 261 million board feet) of timber. (A value was not provided for the BLM timber sales.)

Exhibit 18. NFS Timber Sales, FY 1993-1998 (from U.S. Forest Service)

Fiscal Year Approx. Volume

(million cubic feet) Value

1993 250 $192,942,739

1994 177 $125,340,385

1995 240 $140,460,250

1996 212 $125,226,853

1997 195 $123,681,846

1998 174 $80,195,720



Exhibit 19 provides a breakout of where regeneration efforts occurred. To replenish the forests, more than 2.4 million acres in the U.S. were either seeded or planted with trees in government fiscal year 1996 (October 1995 -September 1996). The overwhelming majority of the regeneration efforts occurred on private lands where nearly 2.1 million acres were seeded or planted.

II.E. Geographic Distribution and Economic Trends

According to the 1997 National Resource Inventory (NRI), some changes have

occurred in land use. Since 1982, federal land increased by 4.6 million acres,

nonfederal rural land decreased by 36.7 million acres, and developed land

increased by nearly 30 million acres. Cropland acreage, classified as irrigated,

non-irrigated, cultivated, or non-cultivated acreage, nationally decreased by

45.9 million acres between 1982 and 1997. Rangeland decreased by 12.4

million acres and pastureland decreased by almost 14 million acres.

Generally, a shift has occurred in irrigated agriculture from west to east across

the country.

The distribution of prime farmland by land cover/use has also changed in the

past 15 years. There were 330.6 million acres of prime farmland in 1997,

which was down 11.7 million acres from 1982. Most (64 percent) of the prime

farmland is in cropland, but large amounts are in pastureland (35.5 million

acres) and forest land (47.7 million acres).



For more information from the 1997 NRI, please visit the website http://www.nhq.nrcs.usda.gov/NRI/1997. Additional information on the geographic distribution of the crop production industries and their economic trends is very extensive and available through many sources. National and state-specific information can be accessed through the Internet from the 1997 Agriculture Census at http://www.nass.usda.gov/census/ and the National Agriculture Statistics Service at http://www.usda.gov/nass/.


Agricultural Crop Production Industry Summary of Operations, Impacts, & Pollution Prevention Opportunities

III. SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS, IMPACTS, AND POLLUTION PREVENTION OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION INDUSTRIES: CROPS, GREENHOUSES/NURSERIES, AND FORESTRY

This section provides an overview of commonly employed operations and maintenance activities in the agricultural production industries of crops, greenhouses/nurseries, and forestry. This discussion is not exhaustive; the operations and maintenance activities discussed are intended to represent the material inputs, major pollution outputs, and associated environmental impacts from these agricultural production practices. General pollution prevention and waste minimization opportunities are also discussed in the context of each of the operations and maintenance activities.

The choice of practices or operations influences the material used and the resulting pollution outputs and environmental impacts. Keep in mind that environmental impacts are relative, as some kinds of pollution outputs have far greater impacts than others.

Impact of Agriculture on the Environment

According to the EPA/USDA Unified National Strategy for Animal Feeding Operations (March 9, 1999), despite progress in improving water quality, 40 percent of the Nation’s waterways assessed by States do not meet goals for fishing, swimming, or both. While pollution from factories and sewage treatment plants has

The Clean Water Act Plan of 1998 called for the development of the EPA/USDA Unified National Strategy for AFOs to minimize the water quality and public health impacts of AFOs.

been dramatically reduced, the runoff from city streets, agricultural activities, including AFOs, and other sources continues to degrade the environment and puts environmental resources (i.e., surface water, drinking water) at risk. According to EPA’s 1996 305(b) water quality report, the top two pollutants from agriculture were identified as sediment and nutrients, respectively. Additional agricultural pollutants, such as animal wastes, salts, and pesticides, were identified by EPA1. The following presents a brief discussion of the environmental impacts or effects of agricultural pollutants.

(1) Nutrients. Excess nutrients in water (i.e., phosphorus and nitrogen) can result in or contribute to low levels of dissolved oxygen (anoxia), eutrophication, and toxic algal blooms. These conditions may be

1 Guidance Specifying Management Measures for Sources of Nonpoint Pollution in Coastal Waters, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, January 1993.



harmful to human health and ecosystems; may adversely affect the suitability of the water for other uses; and, in combination with other circumstances, have been associated with outbreaks of microbes such as Pfiesteria piscicida.

S Phosphorus. Phosphorus determines the amount of algae growth and aging that occurs in freshwater bodies. Runoff and erosion can carry some of the applied phosphorus to nearby water bodies.

S Nitrogen. In addition to eutrophication, excessive nitrogen causes other water quality problems. Dissolved ammonia at concentrations above 0.2 mg/L may be toxic to fish. Biologically important inorganic forms of nitrogen are ammonium, nitrate, and nitrite. Ammonium becomes adsorbed to the soil and is lost primarily with eroding sediment. Even if nitrogen is not in a readily available form as it leaves the field, it can be converted to an available form either during transport or after delivery to water bodies. Nitrogen in the form of nitrate, can contaminate drinking water supplies drawn from groundwater. Nitrates above 10 ppm in drinking water are potentially dangerous, especially to newborn infants.

(2) Sediment. Sediment affects the use of water in many ways. Suspended solids reduce the amount of sunlight available to aquatic plants, cover fish spawning areas and food supplies, clog the filtering capacity of filter feeders, and clog and harm the gills of fish. Turbidity interferes with the feeding habits of fish. These effects combine to reduce fish and plant populations and decrease the overall productivity of waters. In addition, recreation is limited because of the decreased fish population and the water's unappealing, turbid appearance. Turbidity also reduces visibility, making swimming less safe.

(3) Animal Wastes. Animal waste includes the fecal and urinary wastes of livestock and poultry; process water (such as from a milking parlor); and the feed, bedding, litter, and soil with which fecal and urinary matter and process water become intermixed. Manure and wastewater from animal feeding operations have the potential to contribute pollutants such as nutrients (e.g., nitrogen and phosphorus), organic matter, sediments, pathogens, heavy metals, hormones, antibiotics, and ammonia to the environment. Decomposing organic matter (i.e., animal waste) can reduce oxygen levels and cause fish kills. Solids deposited in waterbodies can accelerate eutrophication through the release of nutrients over extended periods of time.



Contamination of groundwater can be a problem if runoff results from the misapplication or over application of manure to land or if storage structures are not built to minimize seepage. Because animal feed sometimes contains heavy metals (e.g., arsenic, copper, zinc), the possibility for harmful accumulations of metals on land where manure is improperly or over applied is possible.

(4) Salts. Salts are a product of the natural weathering process of soil and geologic material. In soils that have poor subsurface drainage, high salt concentrations are created within the root zone where most water extraction occurs. The accumulation of soluble and exchangeable salts (i.e., metal compounds in the soil that can chemically change) leads to soil dispersion (i.e., movement of soil in air and water), structure breakdown, decreased infiltration, and possible toxicity; thus, salts often become a serious problem on irrigated land, both for continued agricultural production and for water quality considerations. High salt concentrations in streams can harm freshwater aquatic plants just as excess soil salinity damages agricultural crops.

(5) Pesticides. The primary pollutants from pesticides are the active and inert ingredients, diluents, and any persistent degradation products. Pesticides and their degradation products may enter groundwater and surface water in solution, in emulsion, or bound to soils. Pesticides may, in some instances, cause impairments to the uses of surface waters and groundwater. Both the degradation and sorption characteristics of pesticides are highly variable. Some types of pesticides are resistant to degradation and may persist and/or accumulate in aquatic ecosystems. Pesticides may harm the environment by eliminating or reducing populations of desirable organisms, including endangered species.

At a crop production establishment, pesticides may be applied directly to crops or to structures (e.g., barns, housing units) to control pests, including parasites, vectors (i.e., an organism, such as a mosquito or tick, that carries disease-causing microorganisms from one host to another), and predators. Potential contamination from pesticides is generally greatest when rainfall is intense and occurs shortly after pesticide application, a condition during which water runoff and soil losses are also greatest. Pesticides can be transported to receiving waters either in dissolved form or attached to soil. Dissolved pesticides may be leached into groundwater supplies.

People, wildlife, and the environment can also be exposed to pesticide residues in the form of spray drift. Spray drift is the physical



movement of a pesticide through air at the time of application or soon thereafter, to any site other than that intended for application. A number of factors influence spray drift including weather conditions, topography, the crop or area being sprayed, and application equipment and methods.

Pesticides are both suspected and known for causing immediate and delayed-onset health hazards for humans. If exposed to pesticides, humans may experience adverse effects, such as nausea, respiratory distress, or more severe symptoms up to and including death. Animals and birds impacted by pesticides can experience similar illnesses or develop other types of physical distress.

Pollution Prevention/Waste Minimization Opportunities in Crop Production, Greenhouses/Nurseries, and Forestry

The best way to reduce pollution is to prevent it in the first place. Industries have creatively implemented pollution prevention techniques that improve operations and increase profits while minimizing environmental impacts. This can be done in many ways such as reducing material inputs, reusing byproducts, improving management practices, and employing substitute toxic chemicals.

To encourage these approaches, this section provides general descriptions of some pollution prevention advances that have been implemented within the agricultural production industries for crops, greenhouses/nurseries, and forestry. While the list is not exhaustive, it does provide core information that can be used as the starting point for establishments interested in beginning their own pollution prevention projects. This section provides information from real activities that may be or are being implemented by this sector. When possible, information is provided that gives the context in which the technique can be effectively used. Please note that the activities described in this section do not necessarily apply to all facilities that fall within this sector. Facility-specific conditions must be carefully considered when pollution prevention options are evaluated, and the full impacts of the change must examine how each option affects air, land, and water pollutant releases.

The use of pollution prevention technologies and environmental controls can substantially reduce the volume and concentration of the contaminants released/discharged into the surrounding environment. In some cases, these pollution prevention approaches may be economically beneficial to the agricultural production industries because they decrease the amount of chemicals needed, and therefore the cost of maintaining operations.



Waste minimization generally encompasses any source reduction or recycling that results in either the reduction of total volume or the toxicity of hazardous waste. Source reduction is a reduction of waste generation at the source, usually within a process. Source reduction can include process modifications, feedstock (raw material) substitution, housekeeping and management processes, and increases in efficiency of machinery and equipment. Source reduction includes any activity that reduces the amount of waste that exits a process. Recycling refers to the use or reuse of a waste as an effective substitute for a commercial product or as an ingredient or feedstock in an industrial process.

It should be noted that as individual practices, these pollution prevention and waste minimization practices can significantly reduce the environmental impacts of agricultural operations. However, to get the full effect of the practices and maximize pollution prevention potential, an agricultural operation must consider its individual practices in the context of a system. The practices, ranging from preparing the soil for planting to harvest and post-harvest activities, combine to form an integrated system in which each practice interacts with the others and is affected by the others. That is, outputs from one practice may be inputs into one of the other practices, in effect creating a closed-loop system that both maximizes profits and minimizes environmental impacts. By considering their establishments as systems, operators will be better able to evaluate and implement pollution prevention or waste minimization opportunities.

III.A. Crop Production: Operations, Impacts, and Pollution Prevention Opportunities

The production of crops generally includes the following activities:

• Preparing the site/soil for crops • Planting/tending crops • Applying and storing nutrients • Pest control • Irrigating crops • Harvesting crops and post-harvesting activities • Crop field residue destruction • Maintaining equipment and vehicles • Fuel use and fueling activities • Maintaining the site.

The additional activities of planning and management are required for all of the above processes to occur. Exhibit 20 presents the raw material inputs and pollution outputs from each of these processes.



Exhibit 20. Crop Production Activities, Raw Material Inputs, and Potential Pollution Outputs

Activity Raw Material Input Potential Pollution Output

Preparing the site/soil, including tilling, drainage and erosion control structures, and adjusting soil pH

S Mulch, seeds, and water S Alkaline material S Water

S Air emissions (e.g., smoke and dust)

S Sediment, nutrient and pesticide runoff from soil erosion

S Spilled material or excessively applied material

Planting/tending S Seed, seedlings S Air emissions (e.g., dust, emissions from planting equipment)

S Sediment, nutrient, pesticide runoff from soil erosion

S Plants, branches, leaves, etc.

Applying and storing nutrients (e.g., fertilizers, manure, biosolids)

S Organic nutrients S Chemicals S Water

S Runoff and leaching of unused or misapplied nutrients

S Chemical air emissions S Odor

Applying pesticides and pest control

S Pesticides (including insecticides, rodenticides, fungicides, and herbicides)

S Runoff and leaching of unused or misapplied pesticides

S Chemical air emissions

Irrigating (not including nutrient application)

S Water S Chemicals

S Air emissions S Potential runoff and leaching of

materials (e.g., manure, chemicals, pesticides) from saturated areas

Harvesting/post-harvesting activities, including harvesting; washing, processing, packaging, loading, and transporting products; and destroying crop residue

S Water S Corrugated cardboard S Paper S Plastic and fabric packaging

materials

S Unusable or spilled products S Worker exposure to pesticides S Organic- and pesticide-

contaminated wastewater S Discarded packaging materials



Exhibit 20. Crop Production Activities, Raw Material Inputs, and Potential Pollution Outputs

Activity Raw Material Input Potential Pollution Output

Maintaining and repairing agricultural machinery and vehicles

S Oil S Lubricating fluid S Fuel S Coolants S Solvents S Tires S Batteries S Equipment parts

S Used oil S Spent fluids S Spent batteries S Metal machining wastes S Spent organic solvents S Tires S Air, surface water, and soil

pollution resulting from spills and/or releases of fluids

S Groundwater pollution resulting from spills or releases of fluids and discharges to Class V wells

Fuel use and fueling activities

S Fuel S Air emissions from machinery S Air, water, soil, and

groundwater pollution resulting from spills

Maintaining the site:

(1) Providing water, including drinking water and water used for personal hygiene

(2) Managing PCBs (i.e., PCBs in generators and equipment)

(3) Renovation/demolition

S Water

S PCB-containing oils and equipment

S Asbestos S Lead

S Contaminated water supply

S Spills or releases of PCBs

S Airborne asbestos fibers S Lead-based paint, dust, and

chips S Soil contamination

III.A.1. Preparing the Site/Soil for Crops

Prior to planting crops, the site/soil must be prepared. Site/soil preparation can involve tilling the soil or chemical cultivation, building drainage and erosion control structures, and adjusting soil pH.

Preparing the Soil by Tilling or Chemical Cultivation

Tilling aerates the soil, allows seeds/seedlings to be placed in the soil, and helps roots take hold of the soil. It also improves drainage and allows for



better assimilation of nutrients and pesticides into the soil. Tillage methods generally consist of intensive/conventional, reduced tillage, and conservation tillage. The difference in the tillage methods is the amount of soil disturbed and the amount of crop residue allowed to remain during the current planting.

• Intensive/conventional tillage is sometimes conducted in two phases – primary tillage with a moldboard plow followed by secondary tillage with a power tiller or disc harrow. Intensive/conventional tillage can range from complete tillage of the entire field to tillage that allows 15 percent of the crop residue to remain.

• Reduced tillage consists of disturbing from 15 to 30 percent of the soil and crop residue.

• Conservation tillage methods are designed to reduce the loss of soil erosion caused by wind and water. Conservation tillage methods allow 30 percent or more of the soil and crop residue to remain undisturbed and thus reduce soil erosion by water and/or maintain at least 1,000 pounds per acre of flat, small grain residue to reduce soil erosion by wind. Common conservation tillage methods are no-till, strip-till, ridge-till, and mulch till.

S No-till has minimal soil disturbance since the seed is planted with essentially no tillage of the soil and no disturbance of the crop residue.

S Strip-till involves tillage of a narrow strip of soil and planting of the seed or seedling in that tilled area.

S Ridge-till methods disturb a narrow strip of soil that was created during previous cultivation. The crop is planted on the ridge and the crop residue remains between each ridge.

S Mulch-till involves disturbing the entire soil surface and then applying a crop protection product and/or cultivation2.

In addition to tilling, soil may be prepared for planting by chemical cultivation. Chemical cultivation includes the application of a systematic herbicide to kill weeds and grasses.

2 1998 Crop Residual Management Survey Executive Summary, Top 10 Conservation Tillage Benefits, Conservation Tillage Information Center.



Potential Pollution Outputs and Environmental Impacts The primary pollution output from preparing soil for planting is soil erosion. Erosion can reduce the productivity of the soil and increase the need for additional fertilizer and other inputs. Sediments and other pollutants (e.g., nutrients, pesticides) that are transported offsite may eventually enter surface waters, settle out, and cause degradation of the water quality. When it settles, the sediments fill interstitial spaces in lake bottoms or streambeds. They can eliminate essential habitat, cover food sources and spawning sites, smother bottom-dwelling organisms, and be detrimental to many species of fish. Sediment deposition also reduces the capacity of stream channels to carry water and of reservoirs to hold water. This decreased flow and storage capacity can lead to increased flooding and decreased water supplies.

Sediments can also be suspended in surface waters which causes increased water turbidity. Water turbidity limits the depth to which light can penetrate and adversely affecting aquatic vegetation photosynthesis. Suspended sediments can also damage the gills of some fish species, causing them to suffocate. Turbid waters tend to have higher temperatures and lower dissolved oxygen concentrations. Decreased dissolved oxygen levels can kill aquatic vegetation, fish, and benthic invertebrates.

Pollution Prevention/Waste Minimization Opportunities The primary pollution prevention opportunities arise from the use of reduced or conservation tillage methods, which reduce soil erosion and maintain the existing soil structure (the way the soil particles clump together into larger, almost crystalline, units). Advantages of conservation tillage include:

T Greater water retention/reduced water usage and energy used for pumping (by increasing the water retention capacity of irrigated soils, there may be opportunities to lengthen periods between irrigation events, thereby saving energy that would otherwise have been used for pumping irrigation water).

T Reduced erosion of sediment and runoff of nutrients.

T Reduced fuel use due to reduced equipment use.

T Reduced wind erosion resulting in less dust.



T Shading which reduces weed growth and subsequent herbicide use. The effectiveness of shading is dependent on the type of crop and distance between plants.

T Prevention of the growth of some molds that have a much lower overwinter survival if not incorporated into the soil.

T Crop residues left undisturbed provide habitats for many beneficial insects and spiders that help control crop predators (e.g., cereal leaf beetle), thereby reducing the need for insecticides. In addition, crop residues help speed the decomposition process and aid plant nutrient cycling.

One possible disadvantage of conservation tillage methods is the carryover of pests (e.g., weeds, diseases, and some insects) in the crop residue. This may result in a subsequent increased use of pesticides and increased level of pesticides in runoff.

Building Drainage and Erosion Control Structures

Erosion control practices are necessary for agricultural operations to control runoff and reduce the amount of soil erosion caused by that runoff. In areas with good drainage, crops are better able to use nutrients and chemicals and will benefit from these optimum growing conditions. When building erosion control structures, newly-graded soil surfaces may be stabilized with mulch prior to the establishment of a vegetative cover.

To establish good drainage, one or a combination of drainage and erosion control structures can be built and used depending on the site characteristics (e.g., slope, crop type, or climate). These structures include:

• Diversions. Diversions are vegetated channels across the slope that intercept surface runoff and redirect it along a gradient to a controlled outlet. Diversions can reduce the amount of soil/sediment and related pollutants delivered to surface waters.

• Grassed waterways. Grassed waterways, which are shaped or graded to specified dimensions, are used for the stable conveyance of runoff. Grassed waterways can reduce soil erosion in areas, such as gullies or ephemeral gullies, with concentrated flows.

• Water and sediment control basins. Water and sediment control basins are constructed to collect and store debris or sediment. They detain



runoff, allowing the sediment to settle out in the basin before the water is discharged to a waterway.

• Filter strips. Filter strips are vegetated areas that are used to trap sediment, organic matter, and other pollutants that are carried in runoff. While filter strips require frequent maintenance and have relatively short service lives, they are generally effective in removing pollutants when a shallow sheet flow is passed through the vegetated areas.

• Riparian buffers. Herbaceous or forest riparian buffers are areas of grasses, shrubs, or trees placed upgrade from waterways and water bodies. These buffers prevent or minimize damage to surface waters by containing eroded sediment, chemicals, nutrients, and organics. In addition, buffers reduce the amount of these pollutants that leach into shallow groundwater.

• Terracing and contouring. Terracing and contouring are practices that both use sloped surfaces to reduce or control soil erosion. Terracing involves shaping an area so that it is sloped, and contouring involves moving soil in an area so that it is sloped.

• Drainage tiles. Surface and subsurface drainage tiles are often used to remove standing water from fields and direct them to more structured erosion control measures.

Potential Pollution Outputs and Environmental Impacts As described above for tilling, soil erosion and its impact to surface waters is a significant environmental concern and the primary pollution from building drainage structures. Wetlands, the interface between terrestrial and aquatic systems, are particularly susceptible to impacts from runoff and soil erosion. Such impacts include damage to watershed hydrology and water quality, and the habitat for many animal and plant species.

Pollution Prevention/Waste Minimization Opportunities The primary pollution prevention opportunities of drainage and erosion control structures are the minimization of soil erosion and the reduction of runoff which transports nutrients, sediments, and pesticides to the environment.



Drainage and erosion controls can reduce the amount of sediment that is transported offsite in runoff. Any of the drainage and erosion control structures described above can be used to reduce soil erosion and transport. Additional examples of erosion control

Preventing or controlling erosion is based on two main concepts: (1) disturb the smallest area of land possible for the shortest period of time, and (2) stabilize the disturbed soils to prevent erosion from occurring.

structures or activities include: field borders; grade stabilization structures; sediment retention ponds; reestablished wetlands; immediate seeding, mulch/mats, and sodding to stabilize exposed soil surfaces; wind erosion controls; and scheduled grading and shaping (e.g., construction of diversions) during dry weather.

Adjusting the Soil pH

Adjusting the soil pH helps ensure the soil contains the proper characteristics to maximize crop production. Many crop producers add materials to soil to achieve a soil pH that maximizes crop production. Typically, alkaline materials, such as lime, lime sulfur, caustic soda, caustic potash, soda ash, magnesia, and dolomitic lime, are added to increase the pH in acidic soils.

Potential Pollution Outputs and Environmental Impacts The adjustment of soil pH typically results in little to no pollution outputs and generally has little to no environmental impacts. However, impacts to surface waters could occur if spilled or misapplied alkaline materials are carried in runoff.

Pollution Prevention/Waste Minimization Opportunities The primary pollution prevention opportunities for this activity include properly storing the materials used to adjust pH to minimize spills, and applying these materials in a manner that minimizes runoff.

III.A.2. Planting/Tending Crops

Planting involves the placement of seeds or seedlings into the soil. This activity can be conducted either by hand (in small operations) or mechanically. Tending the product involves any post-planting activities designed to maximize crop production at harvest. Tending may involve hand labor (e.g., hoeing or pruning) or machine labor.



Potential Pollution Outputs and Environmental Impacts Pollution outputs from planting crops include air emissions, particularly dust, and wastes such as seed bags. The planting process is often combined with other operations, such as tilling or fertilizer/pesticide application, which can pollute surface waters and groundwater from runoff and leaching, respectively. Tending activities that disturb the soil may result in soil erosion, the impacts of which are similar to those previously discussed under tilling. Tending may also produce wastes (e.g., plant branches or other parts).

Pollution Prevention/Waste Minimization Opportunities Air emissions from planting activities can be minimized by properly maintaining farm machinery. Sections III.A.7 details how to operate and maintain farm vehicles and machinery in an environmentally responsible manner.

By buying seeds in greater bulk, farms can reduce the volume of seed bags that must be disposed of. Also, certain innovative methods of collecting and dispersing seeds are now available that eliminate the need for bags.

III.A.3. Applying Nutrients to Crops

During various phases of crop production, nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and other nutrients are applied to crops to enhance crop growth. Nutrient use has been encouraged by the adoption of high-yielding seeds that are more responsive to nutrient application. Therefore, nearly all acres planted with crops are treated with one or more sources of nutrients, such as fertilizers, manure, and/or biosolids.

Nutrients are applied directly to plants or the soil surface, incorporated or injected into the soil, or applied with irrigation water. Nutrient application met

Agricultural Production Industry Sector Notebook Project · 2016. 2. 20. · Ariel Rios Building...

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