Extending grazingand reducingstored feed needs

Don BallEd BallardMark KennedyGarry LacefieldDan Undersander

COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE • UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, LEXINGTON, KY, 40546

AGR-199

EXTENS ION

Agriculture and Natural Resources • Family and Consumer Sciences • 4-H Youth Development • Community and Economic Development

CONTENTSWHY EXTEND THE GRAZING SEASON?. . . . . . . 1

EXPLOIT FORAGE GROWTHDISTRIBUTION DIFFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . 1

Grow warm-season and cool-seasonperennial grasses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Use legume companion species . . . . . . . . . 2

Plant annuals to complement perennials . . . . . 2

Timely planting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Variety selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

STOCKPILE FORAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Tall fescue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Other forage crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Use stockpiled forage efficiently . . . . . . . . . 6

TAKE ADVANTAGE OF UNIQUEGRAZING OPPORTUNITIES . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Graze crop residues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Graze dormant alfalfa . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Graze hayfields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Use other plant growth . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

FORAGE OR LIVESTOCKMANAGEMENT APPROACHES . . . . . . . . . . 8

Grazing management . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Fertilization and liming . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

OTHER USEFUL CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Match forage quality and nutrient intake toanimal needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Change the stocking rate . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Use winter annuals in crop rotations or tosupplement perennial forages . . . . . . . . . 12

Overseed winter annuals on summer grass sods . . 14

Provide supplemental feed during warm weather . 15

Minimize hay losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

POSSIBLE PASTURE COMBINATIONS BY REGION . . 16

Why extend thegrazing season?

For most livestock producers,extending the grazing season fortheir animals, or otherwise filling

gaps in pasture forage availability toreduce stored feed needs, should be ahigh priority objective.There areseveral reasons why this is beneficial:

■ Better for the environment.Feeding hay or other stored mate-rials in a barn or other enclosedarea concentrates animals, and themanure that accumulates requiresexpense to remove. Feeding live-stock in pastures often results inhoof damage to the land.

■ Weather is less of a concern.Weather is a major concern withhay production, but animals cangraze almost without regard toweather.

■ Higher-quality forage leads tobetter animal performance. Theforage quality of young, vegetativepasture growth and even leafyautumn residue is usually consid-erably higher than that of hay,which is produced by cuttingolder,more fibrous forage.Consequently, performance is typi-cally better when animals grazeproperly managed pasture.

■ Requires less labor. Less labor isrequired to have animals grazerather than to provide them withstored feed. In particular, incontrast to feeding stored feed inan enclosed facility, the labor asso-ciated with manure removal isavoided.

■ Lowers expenses. Stored feed isalmost always two to three timesmore expensive per animal or perday than pasture. In livestockbudgets, stored feed typicallyaccounts for 25% or more of thecost of production, and producerrecords often reveal it to be higher.The quantity of stored feedrequired is one of the best indica-tors of profitability for a livestockoperation. In general, the less hayneeded, the more cost-efficient theoperation.

Clearly, extending the grazing seasonand reducing the need for stored feedis highly desirable.Though the besttechniques to accomplish this vary withgeographic region, type of farmingoperation, and other factors, this pub-lication outlines strategies that can beused in some or many areas to extendgrazing and reduce stored feed needs,thus increasing profit.

Exploit foragegrowth distributiondifferencesGrow warm-season andcool-season perennialgrassesMost grazing programs are basedaround perennial forage species,mainly grasses. In the northern UnitedStates,most perennial forages arecool-season species that make most oftheir growth in spring and autumn. Inthe South, warm-season perennialsthat make most of their growth duringwarm weather are most common.Even among species within these cat-egories, the specific dates duringwhich pasture forage will be availablefor grazing, as well as the total grazingdays per year, can vary considerably.

When making planting decisionsregarding forage crops, it is alwaysimportant to take soils, sites, andclimatic conditions into considerationand to only plant species that areknown to be adapted. For example,warm-season perennial options arelimited in the most northerly states,and cool-season perennial

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options are limited in the Deep South.However, in many areas of the nationthere is an opportunity to have atleast some pasture acreage of warm-season perennials and cool-seasonperennials.

For example, in the area between theupper Midwest/Northeast and theDeep South, tall fescue, orchardgrass,and white clover are some of the morewidely grown cool-season perennialforages. However, several warm-season perennials can be grown aswell, including some varieties ofbermudagrass, various native grasses,and (especially in the western portionof this area) weeping lovegrass.

Usually it is best to plant warm-seasonand cool-season perennials in differ-ent fields, but in some areas they mayvolunteer as mixed stands, or cansometimes be successfully plantedand maintained together. However,mixed stands of cool-season andwarm-season species require morecareful management; otherwise, thestand of the less-favored species maydecline over time.Where mixtures canbe grown, the result is a longergrazing season, a more constantsupply of forage through the season,and usually greater total dry matterproduction than either would producealone.

In some instances or locations, growthdistribution can differ significantlybetween species within the warm-season and cool-season perennial cat-egories. For example, within warm-season perennial grasses, switchgrass,dallisgrass, and bahiagrass begingrowth earlier in spring thanbermudagrass.Within cool-seasonperennial grasses, tall fescue makesmore autumn growth than orchard-grass in the southern portion of itsarea of adaptation within the USA,though not in the Upper Midwest.Therefore, as the number of differentforage grasses grown on a farmincreases, the length of the grazingseason also often increases.

Use legumecompanion speciesSome producers regularly face aforage deficit in summer,mostcommonly because they live in areasin which cool-season perennialgrasses dominate pastures. Growing acool-season perennial legume as acompanion species to these grassescan help even out forage production.Red clover is a good example, as itoften makes an impressive amount ofgrowth during warm weather. Alfalfa,with its deep taproot, has an evenlonger growing season, and in many

areas is a dependable producer ofhigh-quality forage even during dryweather. Before seeding legumes, thepasture needs to be fertilized andlimed according to soil test recom-mendations, and grasses must begrazed closely or otherwise sup-pressed just before planting.

Plant annuals tocomplement perennialsThe cost per unit of dry matterproduced is usually higher withannual forages than with perennialforages. However, annuals mayproduce higher quality forage andoften complement perennials by pro-ducing forage when the perennialsare dormant or growing slowly.

Warm-season annual grasses such assudangrass, sorghum-sudangrasshybrids, and pearl millet can comple-ment cool-season perennial foragesand offer the advantage of producinga lot of forage quickly, but grazingmanagement of these species can bechallenging.These upright-growingforages should be planted separatefrom cool-season perennials toprevent excessive shading.Theyperform best when planted on aprepared seedbed, although establish-ment costs are higher and the poten-tial for soil erosion is also greaterwhen using this approach.

Crabgrass is another warm-seasonannual that is vigorous and widelyadapted, but it is sometimes over-looked as a forage crop.Yield of crab-grass is usually less than that of thesummer annual grasses mentioned inthe previous paragraph, but foragequality (and therefore animal perform-ance) is quite good by comparison.Where some tillage can be providedsometime between autumn andspring, it is usually not difficult to getcrabgrass to reseed and to provide rel-atively inexpensive volunteer standsyear after year.

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E X T E N D I N G G R A Z I N G & R E D U C I N G S T O R E D F E E D N E E D S

Growing perennial legumes withperennial grasses offers numerousbenefits including often extendingthe grazing period.

Striate lespedeza and Korean les-pedeza are warm-season annuallegumes that work well in some situa-tions in the Upper South. Both speciestypically produce relatively low yields,but are adapted on dry, acid, uplandsites where clovers do not persist well.Furthermore, they produce good-quality forage during summer whenthe quality and quantity of forageprovided by cool-season perennialssuch as tall fescue is low.Thus, annuallespedeza can greatly enhance a tallfescue pasture, especially if the fescueis highly infected with toxic endophyte.

Numerous winter annual forage cropscan be used to complement thegrazing seasons of warm-seasonperennial forages and, depending onwhich one (or what mixture) isplanted, the period during which theymake forage growth may be quite dif-ferent. Annual ryegrass, which makesmost of its growth in early- to mid-spring, is a particularly productivewinter annual in areas where it isadapted. By contrast, small grains suchas rye, wheat, and oats are more pro-ductive in autumn. In the extremenorthern areas of the country, spring-planted winter cereals such as springbarley, oats, or triticale may be used toprovide forage growth in late spring,summer, and into the autumn.

Annual legumes, which are widelyused in the Deep South, vary frommaking most of their growth in earlyspring (e.g., crimson clover) to beingmost productive in late spring andeven early summer (e.g., arrowleafclover and hairy vetch).

Winter annuals can be grown on aprepared seedbed, seeded into awarm-season perennial pasture, orinto crabgrass stubble. In any of thesesituations, total yield and calendardays of grazing will be increased ascompared to having only warm-season pasture. Planting winterannuals on a prepared seedbed, or no-

till planting them into crabgrassstubble can usually be accomplishedearlier than overseeding them onbermudagrass or bahiagrass, allowingearlier grazing.

Timely plantingWeather often dictates planting dates,but it pays to be ready to plant asearly as possible within the recom-mended planting period for a particu-lar crop.This applies more to annualsthan to perennials, but the earlier youcan safely plant, the earlier you canbegin grazing. It is important to avoidgrazing too early, however, or standdamage may occur.

Variety selectionGrowth distribution differences existamong many varieties within species.For example, some varieties of annualryegrass complete growth in mid-spring, while others can make a sub-stantial amount of growth in latespring. Some tall fescue varieties(summer dormant types) producemore winter growth than others.Some alfalfa varieties are highly winterdormant and quickly cease growthunder cool temperatures, while less-dormant varieties may make a consid-erable amount of growth under iden-tical conditions.

A review of variety test data, especiallyif multiple years of testing have beensummarized, allows identification ofsuch growth differences. Forage distri-bution should not be the only varietyselection criterion, but it deserves con-sideration, especially if one is decidingbetween two or more varieties thatare similar with regard to other char-acteristics such as dry matter yield,forage quality, and disease resistance.

Stockpile forage

Stockpiling (also referred to asdeferred grazing) can be definedas the managed accumulation of

vegetative growth to be used at alater time. In the context of this publi-cation, stockpiling refers to accumu-lating standing forage for grazing bylivestock.Most stockpiling is done toextend grazing into autumn andwinter, but in some situations it canalso be useful in keeping animalsgrazing when dry periods during thegrowing season slow forage growth.

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The growing seasons of various annuallegumes vary, even for varieties withinspecies.

Stockpiling tall fescueNearly any type of forage can bestockpiled, but tall fescue is thespecies most widely used for thispurpose.Tall fescue typically makes agood amount of growth in autumn, ithas a waxy layer on its leaves thatmakes them resistant to frost damageand weathering, and grazing to a lowwinter residual height has little effecton its spring regrowth or standdensity. In addition, tall fescue forageaccumulates a high concentration ofsoluble carbohydrates in the fall. Theresult is that stockpiled tall fescue notonly has good forage quality, it main-tains this quality extremely wellthrough the winter. In fact, the totaldigestible nutrient (TDN) and crudeprotein (CP) content of stockpiled tallfescue is typically significantly higherthan the average hay fed to beefcattle (figure 1).

Stockpiling may also help reduce thetoxicity of endophyte-infected tallfescue. A 2001 study showed thatlevels of the toxin ergovaline found inendophyte-infected fescue droppedduring the winter grazing period(figure 2). In light of the slow declinein protein content and digestibility ofstockpiled fescue forage, this makes astrong case for delaying the use ofstockpiled toxic endophyte fescue aslong as possible into the wintermonths.This can be done by grazingwinter annuals or stockpiled summerforage first.

Stockpiling otherforage cropsOther cool-season perennial grassessuch as orchardgrass and smoothbromegrass can be stockpiled for latefall grazing, but are less desirable thanfescue.The quality of stockpiledforage of these grasses declines morerapidly, plus these species have lesspersistence under heavy grazingduring the winter, and stands may thin

in subsequent growing seasons.Stockpiled forage of these speciesshould be grazed within a few weeksafter a hard freeze.

Legumes, such as red clover, and cool-season annual grasses, such as annualryegrass and small grains (includingwheat, rye, and triticale),may also bestockpiled, but the stockpiled foragedeteriorates rather quickly.Theseforages usually work best when usedfor autumn and late winter/springgrazing.When used in this manner,they provide high-quality grazingbefore and after the use of stockpiledfescue, and bridge the gap betweenstockpiled fescue and spring growthof cool-season perennials. Near theGulf Coast, cool-season annuals mayprovide at least some forage growthfor grazing essentially throughout thewinter.

Warm-season perennial grasses suchas bermudagrass, bahiagrass, oldworld bluestems, big bluestem, indian-grass, and eastern gamagrass, as wellas warm-season annual grasses suchas crabgrass and sweet sorghum have

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E X T E N D I N G G R A Z I N G & R E D U C I N G S T O R E D F E E D N E E D S

Figure 2.Concentration levels ofthe toxin ergovaline in stockpiled,endophyte-infected tall fescue.

Source: Rob Kallenbach,University ofMissouri, 1999–2001.

Figure 1.Comparison of stockpiled tall fescue qualityto average hay quality.

Source:Mark Kennedy,Missouri, 1997–2003, andJohn Jennings, Arkansas, 1998–2002.

Total digestible nutrients

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also been successfully used for stock-piling forage. It was once thought thatprotein and energy levels of stock-piled warm-season perennial grassesdrop too low to be of much value aslivestock feed, but in studies inOklahoma with bermudagrass, proteinlevels stayed above 10% and energydid not drop significantly, especially ifharvested by the end of December.

On-farm data collected in Missouri hasshown that crude protein levels ofstockpiled old world bluestems andnative warm-season grasses droppedto 7 to 9%, but TDN (total digestiblenutrient) levels generally stayedbetween 58 and 60%. Livestockacceptance of stockpiled switchgrasshas been poor in some climates, sostockpiling monoculture stands ofswitchgrass should generally beavoided. Grazing eastern gamagrassduring winter has resulted in somecrown damage and subsequent standthinning.

With these types of grasses, a proteinsupplement would be needed formost classes of livestock. However, anapproach that has worked successfullyin Oklahoma and Missouri is to limitgraze cool-season annuals or stock-piled tall fescue for the purpose ofusing the grass as a protein supple-ment on dormant warm-seasongrasses.Work at the Noble Foundationin Ardmore, Oklahoma has shown thatas little as 30 minutes of grazing of acool-season annual pasture per daycan meet livestock protein needs.

Corn is generally considered asummer row crop or silage crop, but itcan also be grazed during latesummer or autumn or be allowed tomature and then be grazed asstanding corn. Corn seems to havemuch potential for stockpiling in viewof its high energy value and its highyield potential. However, to preventexcessive waste, daily strip grazing isadvisable.

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Figure 3. Tall fescue stockpile yields at variousnitrogen rates and application dates.a

aGeographical location will affect the suitability ofvarious dates of application.

Source: Jim Gerrish, University of Missouri, 1997.

TECHNIQUE FORSTOCKPILING TALL FESCUE

The following steps have proven success-ful for stockpiling tall fescue forage:

1. At 60 to 90 days before the end ofthe fall growing season, graze or clippastures leaving 3 to 5 inches offorage growth.

2. Immediately after grazing or clipping,apply 40 to 80 pounds of nitrogenper acre. Both the rate and timing ofnitrogen fertilizer have an importantimpact on yield (see figure 3).Applying fertilizer earlier than90 days before the end of thegrowing season will not significantlyincrease the yield, but quality will besignificantly lower. Delaying initiationof stockpiling will result in higherquality forage, but lower yields.

3. Defer grazing stockpiled tall fescueforage until late fall or winter. Be sureto properly use forage growth inother pastures before beginning touse stockpiled forage. However, late-season growth of warm-seasonspecies may be of low quality andthus may require supplementation.

4. If possible, stockpile 1 acre per cow.Under normal conditions this willgive a 75- to 90-day feed supply ifgrazed properly. (A 1,000-pound coweating 2.6% of her body weight perday in dry matter consumes26 pounds of forage per day. An acreof fescue stockpiled for 90 days typi-cally produces 3,000 pounds offorage. Assuming 70% efficiencyduring strip grazing, this translates to2,100 pounds of usable forage, orabout 80 days worth of food.)

5. Although low quality, highly perish-able material such as crop residues orstockpiled warm-season forageshould be used first, once the use ofstockpiled fescue has begun, startwith the highest quality stockpiledfescue forage, because weatheringcauses more value loss in high-quality material than in low-qualitymaterial.

Accumulation of high-quality forage should

begin about 60 to 90 days before the end of

the growing season.

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Regardless of the species stockpiled,accumulation of high-quality forageshould begin about 60 to 90 daysbefore the end of the growing season.Allowing pasture to grow for longerperiods will result in low-qualityforage (due to excess dead residue),which in turn will translate to pooranimal performance.The same holdstrue for forage that has been allowedto accumulate in waterways or alongfield borders. Unreasonable expecta-tions regarding the forage quality ofsuch material is a common reason forproducer disappointment with stock-piling.

Use stockpiledforage efficientlyOnce forage has been stockpiled,using it efficiently is important indeveloping a low-cost winter feedingsystem.The most economical way is tostrip graze the pastures. By allocatingforage in strips calculated to be usedwithin 3 days, animals consume 70%or more of the forage; by comparison,when given access to a 2-week feedsupply, animals will consume 40% orless of the forage.That differenceallows a significantly longer grazingperiod of quality forage for livestock.Many producers like to allocate a new

strip every other day, which workswell. If stockpiled grass is available,hay will only need to be fed if there isa deep cover of snow (6 inches ormore). However, as little as 1⁄4-inch ofice alone or as a crust on snow mayprevent grazing of stockpiled forage.

Take advantage ofunique grazingopportunitiesGraze crop residuesIn mixed crop and livestock opera-tions, residue in corn and grainsorghum fields can be used to providea substantial number of days ofgrazing.When grassed waterways,terraces, and field borders are presentand are properly managed and used,this option becomes even moreattractive. Iowa State University BeefCattle Center data indicates that foreach acre of corn stalks grazed,approximately 1⁄2 ton of hay will besaved.

Crop residues are normally the leastexpensive feed source, because mostexpenses are charged against the rowcrop enterprise.The cost of grazing

corn crop residue is about 5 cents perday according to Iowa State Universitybeef cow business records. In a 4-yearsummary of experiments, cowsgrazing corn crop residue at 2.5 acres/cow per season for 112 to 174 daysrequired about 1 ton less hay per cowto maintain adequate body conditionthan cows maintained in a dry lot. In a5-year study conducted by Dr. JimRussell at Iowa State University, 113grazing days were obtained whencornfields were grazed after cornharvest with a stocking rate of 1.9acres per cow.

An entirely different situation mayexist in some areas where wheat orother cool-season annual crops aregrown in autumn and/or spring andharvested in late spring or earlysummer. In such cases, after harvestthere may be a combination of strawor other plant material as well as vol-unteer weeds and grasses that canprovide summer grazing.

Crop residues usually represent abouthalf of the pre-harvest plant drymatter. For example, a field producing120 bushels of corn grain (about 7,200pounds) will contain 3 to 4 tons ofroughage dry matter per acre.Depending on stocking rate andgrazing method, cows grazing corn-stalks or grain sorghum stubble willconsume 25 to 30% of the availableresidue in 30 to 100 days, still leavingenough material to prevent soilerosion.

In the Midwest, corn crop residue willfeed animals for an average of 65 to111 days.The optimal grazingallowance on corn crop residue fieldswill depend on the weight gains nec-essary to obtain a desired body condi-tion. With low supplementation, cowscan maintain body weight with aslittle as 1⁄2 acre of corn crop residuesper cow per month, but may need asmuch as 2 acres per cow per month ifweight gain is desired.

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Table 1. Relative amounts and values of corn residue plant parts.

—————Plant parts—————Item Husk Leaf Stema Cob

Residue (% of total dry matter) 12 27 49 12

Crude protein (% by plant part) 3.6 7.8 4.5 2.2

In vitro dry matter disappearance (%)b 67 47 45 35

Palatability high high low lowa Includes leaf sheath.b A measure of dry matter digestibility determined by a laboratory analysis.

Source:Wilson, C.B., G.E. Erickson,T..J. Klopfenstein, R..J. Rasby,D.C. Adams, andI.G. Rush. 2004.A Review of Corn Stalks Grazing on Animal Performance andCrop Yield.University of Nebraska 2004 Beef Research Report.

E X T E N D I N G G R A Z I N G & R E D U C I N G S T O R E D F E E D N E E D S

Livestock select the portions of cropresidues with the highest digestibilityand protein concentration first(table 1), so supplement needsbeyond trace mineral salt andvitamin A are likely to be minimal forthe first month of grazing. Providingsimultaneous access to stockpiledgrass or late summer growth oflegume forages may supply proteinand energy, and thereby reduce needsfor supplementation. As winter pro-gresses and crop residue qualitydecreases because of grazing selec-tion and weathering, supplementationof protein and phosphorus maybecome necessary.

As with stockpiled forage, stripgrazing crop residues allows more effi-cient use, resulting in more grazingdays, and helps ensure a high-qualitydiet over a longer period of time byreducing selective grazing. A cautionassociated with grazing corn cropresidue: Livestock may overload onexcessive amounts of grain left in thefield, putting them at risk of founder(or acidosis), a serious digestiveproblem. Strip grazing reduces thelikelihood of this disorder.

Graze dormant alfalfaIn the northern portion of the UnitedStates it is recommended to allowalfalfa growth to accumulate for about6 weeks before the first killing frost isanticipated.This allows alfalfa plantsto replenish root carbohydratereserves before winter. However, onceplants are dormant, the accumulatedgrowth can be grazed by livestock.This should be done promptly, beforethe frozen leaves drop off. An addedbenefit of grazing the frosted forage isthat it tends to reduce alfalfa weevilpopulations the following spring insouthern areas. In northern areas,leave roughly 3 to 4 inches of stubbleto catch and hold snow to reducewinter damage and minimize temper-ature fluctuations that may result inplant heaving.

Graze hayfieldsThe need for stored feed is mostcommonly associated with cold tem-peratures that limit forage growthduring winter, but other climatic con-ditions such as drought or an unex-pected need to pasture more animalsthan planned may also make supple-

mental feeding necessary. In such asituation, it can be advantageous tograze a hayfield provided species-appropriate residual stubble heightsand a suitable rest period areprovided. (although for a few foragespecies late summer grazing orgrazing closer than a certain minimumstubble height may hurt wintersurvival and/or spring growth).

It usually isn’t possible to accuratelypredict how much hay will be needed.Thus, it may turn out that a producerwill have enough hay whether or not ahayfield is grazed. Regardless, grazinga hayfield may “buy time” that makesit possible to carefully evaluate the sit-uation and implement other strategiesto reduce stored feed needs such asculling of animals, planting of winterannuals, or locating a relatively inex-pensive source of hay or an alternatesupplemental feed (grain or a by-product of crop processing, forexample).Meanwhile, the expense ofharvesting the forage as hay has beenavoided, and the cost of purchasinghay or other stored feed at a latertime may be little more (or even less)than making hay from the foragegrowth that would otherwise haveaccumulated.

■ Before grazing crop residue fieldsit is important to check the labelsof any pesticides used on thecrop to see if they are cleared forgrazing crop residues. Labelrestrictions should be strictlyobserved.

■ It is advisable to make certain nopoisonous plants are present infencerows or other areas adjacentto fields in which crop residuesare to be grazed. Forageproduced in fencerows andwaterways within row crop fieldsis of most value if mowed, fertil-ized, and managed as stockpiledforage, as discussed earlier.

■ Research conducted at severalMidwestern universities shows nodifference in the performance ofcattle that grazed Bt corn cropresidue and those that grazednon-Bt corn crop residues.

■ Research has been conducted inseveral Midwestern states todetermine if winter grazing of rowcrops had any impact on cropyields the following year. Cornand soybean have shown similaryields for grazed and ungrazedfields, particularly if grazed whensoils are frozen.

■ Soybean stubble is low in qualityand cannot provide adequatenutrition for beef cows orstockers. It should not be used asa feed source unless supple-mented substantially.

GRAZING CROP RESIDUES: ADDITIONAL POINTS

Crop residues can be an inexpensive sourceof nutrition.

Use other plant growthGrazing animals, especially ruminants,have the unique ability to digest plantmaterial and convert it into meat,milk,and fiber. Innovative livestock produc-ers around the world who see forageas a resource are always on thelookout for low-cost or free sources ofnutrition for their animals. In somenations it is common practice to grazeanimals in public areas such as roadrights-of-way. In addition, in somecountries shrubs, in addition tograsses and forbs, are cultivatedspecifically for the purpose of provid-ing nutrition for cattle, sheep, andespecially goats. Here in the UnitedStates it is not unusual for producersin some areas to graze volunteergrowth in old crop fields, swampyareas, or woodlots. It is important tomeet animal nutritional needs, and toavoid exposing grazing animals topoisonous plants or other dangeroussituations, but staying alert to uniquegrazing opportunities makes senseand can help reduce costs.

Forage or livestockmanagementapproachesGrazing managementGood grazing management yieldsnumerous benefits, including severalthat deserve mention here. First, whenpastures are grazed appropriately forthe forage species they contain, theplants will be healthier and more pro-ductive over a longer period of time,thus reducing the need for otherstrategies. Grazing plants too closelywill slow regrowth, resulting in loweryields, and will also weaken plants dueto depletion of food reserves. Foragecrops such as upright-growing bunch-grasses that store much of their foodreserves in stem bases are particularlysensitive to this type of damage.Healthy plants with good root systemsare impacted less by drought andother stresses than are plants thathave been weakened by overgrazing.

Good grazing management alsoreduces forage waste. If pastures areundergrazed at certain times (whichoften occurs with poorly managedcontinuously stocked areas), lossesdue to trampling and fouling of foragecan be substantial. A number ofgrazing practices can reduce foragelosses by 20 to 30%,which can in turnlengthen the grazing period.Thesetechniques include limit grazing(giving animals access to a pasture foronly a few hours at a time), stripgrazing (allocating only a strip ofpasture forage to animals at any giventime), forward grazing (giving animalshaving higher nutritional require-ments first access to a pasture), androtational stocking (rotating animalsamong pastures or paddocks).

With rotational stocking, it may bepossible to begin grazing earlier in thegrowing season while staying withinthe realm of good grazing manage-ment. This is because removinganimals from an early-grazed pastureallows the grass to rest before beinggrazed again. Since the first pasturesgrazed are likely to be slower torecover, this approach may also helpavoid some of the excess growthproblems that often occur during thespring flush. Shortening rotation inter-vals tends to result in forage growthbeing better distributed over thegrowing season as long as pasturesare not grazed more closely than rec-ommended for the species theycontain.

Grazing management can also helpensure animal nutritional needs aremet. For example, creep grazing allowsyoung animals to obtain a more nutri-tious diet than their mothers; forwardgrazing allows groups of animalsgrazed in sequence to consumeforage of differing quality levels; andlimit grazing a high-quality pasture(perhaps 2 or 3 hours every other day)can provide excellent dietary supple-mentation.

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E X T E N D I N G G R A Z I N G & R E D U C I N G S T O R E D F E E D N E E D S

Finally, as grazing management isintensified, there is usually more evendistribution of dung, urine, and there-fore of recycled nutrients.This tendsto ultimately reduce fertilizer needs,increase the efficiency of fertilizerapplications, and keep pasturesgrowing for longer periods of time.However, under wet soil conditions aconcentration of animals may createextremely muddy conditions andresult in much pasture stand damage.A “sacrifice”paddock that can bereseeded later may therefore be justi-fiable.

Workers in Georgia compared contin-uous and rotational stocking.Rotational stocking resulted indramatic increases in stocking rateand calf gain per acre (table 2). It alsoresulted in a 32% reduction in amountof hay required per cow by extendingthe grazing season.

In Missouri, researchers comparedstrip-grazing intervals of cattle grazingstockpiled tall fescue.When foragewas allocated in a 3-day supplycompared to a 14-day supply, cow-days per acre were increased by 32days, with a 56% increase in carryingcapacity.The extra days on pasturetranslates to a corresponding reduc-tion in the amount of hay required,reducing the cost of wintering animals(table 3).

IrrigationPastures often become unproductiveor go dormant in mid- to late summerdue to lack of water. Irrigation mayrelieve the situation, but before pro-ceeding with this alternative,landowners should thoroughlyconsider all the issues that contributeto irrigation system cost:

■ Is there an inexpensive source ofwater available? Water sourcesvary greatly in cost, so this shouldbe carefully checked. During hotweather, some plants requireapproximately 0.25 to 0.30 inchesper day. Check with a knowledge-able irrigation specialist for waterrequirements in your area. Oneinch on one acre is 27,158 gallons,so the water supply must be ableto supply a minimum of 7,000 to8,000 gallons per acre perday(after evaporation and otherlosses) to be effective for irrigatingany field or pasture.

■ Pumping from streams frequentlyrequires a permit from the U.S.Army Corps of Engineers and/orthe state agency or regional waterdistrict responsible for naturalresources. If irrigation is desired bya certain time, there should be anassessment as to how long it willlikely take to acquire permits andinstall equipment. Permit time canbe up to 12 months, depending onthe on-site physical situation.

9

Table 2.Comparison of animal gain and winter hay requirements usingcontinuous and rotational grazing systems.

———Grazing systemsa———Continuous Rotational Change,%

Stocking rate, cow-calf units/acre 0.50 0.69 +38

Calf weaning weight, lb 500 496 0

Total calf gain/acre, lb 248 340 +37

Cow pregnancy rate,% 96 95 0

Hay fed/cow, lb 2,570 1,750 –32aBeef cattle grazed stockpiled tall fescue (‘AU Triumph’).

Source:Dr. Carl Hoveland,University of Georgia.

Table 3.Daily and seasonal forage costs for alternative wintering strategies attypical yields, costs, and period of use based on a 100-cow autumn-calvingherd.Winter feeding period from December 1 to April 10.

Stockpiled Ryegrass +Item Hay Cornstalks tall fescue cereal rye

$/cow/daya 100% 4% 23% 46%

Days of use 130 (hay) 60 (stalks) 90 (graze) 90 (graze)70 (hay) 40 (hay) 40 (hay)

Wintering costa 100% 71% 41% 63%a Expressed as a percentage of hay.

Source: Jim Gerrish, University of Missouri.

■ Will irrigation of pastures be costeffective? The quantity and valueof forage produced on averagemust be enough to justifyinstalling the system plus theexpense of operating it. Typically,irrigation must be used hundredsof hours each year for many yearsto be economical.

■ Irrigation equipment applicationefficiency should be considered.Newer pivot irrigation equipmentmay have 85% or higher efficiency(% of water pumped that is madeavailable to plant), but oldersystems, particularly travelingguns,may only be 60% efficient.Lower efficiency means morewater and more pumping energyis needed to get water applicationrates and yield responses compa-rable to higher efficiency systems.

■ Labor to operate irrigation equip-ment should be considered. Pivotirrigation systems are the leastlabor intensive at about 0.0125hour per acre.Traveling gun or towirrigation systems may need tentimes that (about 0.15 hour peracre).

■ With irrigation automaticallycomes the need for balanced andoften increased fertilization.Irrigating malnourished pastures isa waste.

■ In some areas, soil types, or situa-tions, soil compaction caused bythe hooves of grazing animals(which is greatly intensified whensoil is wet) or eventual soil saliniza-tion may be a concern.

If these issues can be resolved, pastureirrigation may be a consideration, butit should be a long-term commitment,not a “knee-jerk” reaction to one ortwo years of drought.

Forages respond to irrigation at anyvegetative stage.The yield increase islinear to the total water applied up tothe amount needed by the plant fordaily growth.The critical question iswhether the extra pasture forage thatmay be produced on average will beworth the cost. An effective pastureirrigation system is generally notmuch less expensive per acre than aneffective row crop irrigation system.

Fertilization and limingA simple and cost-effective strategyfor extending the grazing period is tomaintain a proper fertilizationprogram.Well-fertilized, vigorousplants begin growth earlier and resiststresses such as drought better thanweaker, nutrient-deficient plants. Soiltesting and applying lime and fertil-izer to pastures according to recom-mendations is important.

Fertilizer can be used as a manage-ment tool to optimize productionwhen good growing conditions exist,and to increase forage production justbefore times of slow plant growth.Thus, application of fertilizer can shiftthe timing of availability of pastureforage, although this is contingentupon adequate moisture being avail-able for plant growth.

Nitrogen (N) is the most commonlimiting nutrient. Each growth cycle ofa pasture generally takes up most ofthe soil N available, leaving little forthe next growth cycle.This means thatperiodic applications must occurduring the season.Typically, two orthree applications of 40 to 60 poundsof N per acre are recommendedduring the growing season,with thefirst application being made at

greenup of the species most desiredin the pasture. By splitting applica-tions, some of the high points in thegrowth curve are a bit flatter andforage quality during the growingseason tends to be more uniform.

Failure to have adequate N availablefor plant growth in early spring at thebeginning of the growing season ofperennial grasses is a common reasonfor delayed spring forage growth.(Note: Application of N to agrass/legume mixture may shortenstand life of the legume.) In situationswhere volunteer species that may beconsidered desirable are present (forexample, annual ryegrass and/or wildbarley in a bermudagrass pasture inearly spring), it may be justifiable tofertilize several weeks earlier thannormal. Conversely, on farms wherethere is typically a huge excess ofspring growth, it may make sense topostpone the first application untillater in the season.

In drier areas, providing good fertiliza-tion in spring when rainfall is likelymay provide stockpiled grass for useduring low rainfall periods in summer.Rotational stocking of pastures resultsin more even distribution of recyclednutrients (in the form of manure) aswell as a higher percent utilization ofaccumulated pasture forage.Manure,whether directly deposited by livestockor applied, represents a slow-releasesource of nutrients that favors pasturegrowth over time. However, excessivephosphorus, regardless of the source,is environmentally undesirable.

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E X T E N D I N G G R A Z I N G & R E D U C I N G S T O R E D F E E D N E E D S

Missing later fertilizer applicationsmay limit growth for late summergrazing or stockpiling. Initiating fertil-izer applications at different times todifferent paddocks or pastures mayresult in forage production peaks atdifferent times.

Keeping the soil pH at a level that issuitable for growth of the foragesbeing grown (or to be grown) is alsoessential for good production and along grazing season.The soil pHrequirements for growing manylegumes is higher than that of foragegrasses, and thus it is especially impor-tant to lime the soil in accordancewith soil test recommendations inorder to obtain good legume estab-lishment, production, and persistence.

Other usefulconceptsMatch forage quality andnutrient intake to animalneedsAnother strategy can be to carefullymatch animal needs to forage quality.Different animal types and classeshave different forage quality needs(figure 4).You can get the mostbenefit from your pastures by havinganimals with higher nutritive require-ments graze the best-quality forageand using lower-quality forage in therations of animals with lower nutritiverequirements.

The nutritional needs of breedingfemale livestock vary greatly duringthe year, with the greatest nutritionaldemand occurring during early lacta-tion. This leads to varying require-ments for forage quality and quantityat various times. For example, in a beefcow/calf operation using a late winter

or spring calving schedule, calves havehigh needs for energy and protein tomake good gain late in summer, whiledry, pregnant cows can be on a main-tenance diet.Thus, calves shouldreceive good quality pasture whilecows can be supplemented with lowerquality hay or pasture.

Having a controlled breeding seasonand calving at a time that allowsanimal nutritional needs to match thequality and quantity of availablepasture forage are keys to both goodanimal performance and reduced sup-plemental feeding. Depending oncalving dates, the ease of providingappropriate quality pasture foragemay vary greatly. In an area wherewinter annuals can be easily grown,autumn calving (which lowers cownutrient requirements in early spring)may work well. Late winter or springcalving may be more suitable for pro-ducers who rely primarily on cool-season perennials. (Note: Rebreedingduring warm weather, especially ifanimals are grazing toxic endophytetall fescue,may not work well.)

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100 110 120 130 140 150 160Relative forage quality

■ heifer, 18–24 mo.■ dry cow

■ heifer, 12–18 mo.■ beef cow & calf

■ dairy, last 200 days■ heifer, 3–12 mo.■ stocker cattle

■ dairy, first trimester■ dairy calf

Figure 4. Forage quality needs of cattle.

Get the most benefit from

your pastures by having

animals with higher nutritive

requirements graze the best-

quality forage.

Forage testing—or, in a range orpasture, fecal analysis—is a tool live-stock producers can use to makebetter use of their pasture, hay, andsilage. Knowing the quality of theforage available and matching that toanimal needs allows producers toensure acceptable animal perform-ance while minimizing supplements.When pasture is running short, grain(or grain processing by-products)rather than hay may be the most cost-effective supplement.

Beginning to provide supplementa-tion as pasture growth slows willensure high energy and good animalresponse while substituting for someforage. It may make it possible tostretch the pasture through theperiod of low production by loweringforage intake.This, in turn,may keep apasture from being overgrazed andsubsequently being slow to recover.

Change the stocking rateIt may be beneficial to lower thestocking rate to match pasture growthand production.The major reason thatmost beef producers calve in latewinter or spring is to have plentiful,high-quality pasture available for thegrowing calves and milking beef cowsduring April, May, and June.Whenforage production begins to decline,some method of reducing animalnumbers will leave forage available forthe remaining animals during the restof the summer and fall.Options include:

■ Move cows to an area thatprovides lower-quality forage.Thiseffectively reduces the number ofanimals on a given pasture.

■ Wean calves early and sell some inmidsummer. As calves (or stockercattle) grow, their forage require-ment increases at a time when

pasture production is typicallydeclining. For a cow-calf producerwith a late winter- or early spring-calving herd, selling the largestcalves in early August could freeup sufficient pasture to feed theremaining herd for the rest of theseason. Lighter animals sold inearly August usually sell for moreper pound than heavier animalssold in September when a glut ofanimals reach the market.

■ Retain ownership of calves, butmove a portion to feedlots in earlyAugust. If managed properly, theremaining herd on pasture may beable to remain longer and be soldat higher prices later in the year.

■ In a breeding herd, cull openmature animals before the winterfeeding season. Reducing animalnumbers in late summer andautumn may also allow stockpilingtall fescue or other forage species.Some producers might opt to keepa small enough number of breedinganimals to allow getting throughthe winter without needing muchstored feed, and then purchasecalves or other livestock to grazeduring the spring flush.

Keep in mind that overstockingusually leads to overgrazing, lowerforage yields, and reduced animal per-formance, as well as to higheramounts of stored feed needed.Onfarms where stored feed needs areconsistently high, it may be that somereduction in overall stocking ratesshould be considered.

Use winter annuals incrop rotations or tosupplement perennialforagesIn much of the United States, winterannuals can be useful in helpingprovide an extended grazing season.On farms where row crops are grown,winter annuals can allow use ofcropland all 12 months of the yearwhile providing a cover for the soilduring winter. In combination withcrop residues and fall growth ofannual crops, this can allow livestockgrazing to be extended well into thewinter months.

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E X T E N D I N G G R A Z I N G & R E D U C I N G S T O R E D F E E D N E E D S

Winter annual crops can also bevaluable when planted in areas wherelower quality perennial foragesdominate or to provide grazing attimes when it would otherwise not beavailable. However, because winterannual forages are more costly togrow than most perennials, they maybe most economical to use primarilyfor growing and saleable animalsunless mature animals are to besecond grazers.

Brassicas

Brassicas (including turnips, rape, kale,and swedes) are highly productive,digestible forbs that contain relativelyhigh levels of crude protein. Animalswill readily consume the tops and willalso grub the root bulbs out of theground.These crops are best suited forcrop rotation pastures or for being no-tilled into light sod. Dry matter yield isvariable and highly dependent uponsoil type, fertility, time of seeding, andprecipitation. However, continuouslygrowing them on the same land maylead to a high incidence of crown orroot rot within a few years.

■ Turnips grow fast and can begrazed as early as 70 days afterplanting.They reach near-maximum production level in 80to 90 days.The proportion of topgrowth to roots for turnips canvary from 90% tops and 10% rootsto 15% tops and 85% roots.Turnipscan be seeded any time fromwhen soil temperature reaches50°F until 70 days before a killingfrost.

Note: Sheep producers need to beaware that copper toxicity can be aproblem with turnips.

■ Rape is more easily managed formultiple (more than two) grazingsthan are the other brassica species.Rape can generally be grazed at4-week intervals. Leave approxi-mately 6 to 10 inches of stubbleafter the first grazing to promoterapid regrowth; on the finalgrazing, plants should be grazedclose to ground level. Rape cancause sunburn (scald) on light-skinned animals, especially if it isgrazed while the plants areimmature.

■ Kale has more variation amongvarieties than most other brassicaspecies. Some varieties mayprovide grazing after about 90 days,followed by a regrowth opportu-nity; others may require as muchas 180 days to mature. Dry matteryield of kale can be impressive.

■ Swedes (also known as rutabagas),like turnips, produce large edibleroots. Swedes yield more thanturnips, but require 150 to 180days to reach maximum produc-tion. Swedes is one of the bestcrops for fattening lambs andflushing ewes.Yield is maximizedwith a 180-day growth period formany varieties, but most hybridsproduce the greatest yields whenallowed to grow 60 days beforefirst grazing and 30 days beforethe second grazing.

Brassicas should not comprise morethan about two-thirds of cattle dietsbecause of their low dry mattercontent.Therefore, it is important toprovide adjacent pasture, corn stalks,or a palatable, dry hay fed free choiceto cattle when grazing these crops. Itis also desirable to introduce them tobrassicas slowly by limit grazing for acouple of hours per day until theirdigestive systems are accustomed tothem.

Brassicas require good soil drainage,and soil pH should be in the range of5.5 to 6.8. Brassicas can be seeded intowheat stubble or no-tilled into a sod,provided it has been killed withglyphosate. Clean-till seeding workswell, but may have increased insectpressure. If seeding after crop farming,herbicide carryover residues can be anenormous problem. As a rule, carry-over label recommendations for sugarbeets are usually applicable to mostbrassica species. Some producers inthe Upper Midwest have had successin aerially seeding turnips intostanding corn in mid-August.The cornmust be physiologically mature forthis to be successful.

Fertilizer should be applied at thetime of seeding to give brassicas acompetitive edge on weeds. Normally75 to 80 pounds of nitrogen per acreand any phosphorus and potassiumneeded should be applied similar towhat would be applied for a small grain.Good soil moisture following seedingis key to successful establishment.

As with stockpiled forage, brassicasshould be strip grazed. If regrowth isdesired, at least 2 inches of leaf shouldbe left intact. Generally animals willconsume the leafy portion of the plantbefore progressing to the root portion.To encourage consumption of roots, itmay be necessary to disk after thetops have been grazed.

Small grains

Cereal crops such as wheat, rye, oats,barley, or triticale can provide autumnor early winter grazing opportunities.However, certain management prac-tices need to be modified from what isnormally done for grain production.When small grains are used forgrazing, they should be planted 3 to4 weeks earlier than for grain produc-tion. Also, between 60 and 100pounds of nitrogen per acre isnormally applied at planting time(check local recommendations).

13

Recommended seeding rates varydepending on establishment methodand seeding combinations.

Rye is more productive than wheat ortriticale for both fall and spring pro-duction. However, forage quality isbetter with triticale than with rye. Oatsseeded in the fall can be excellentquality and very productive, but willbe killed by cold weather duringwinter (except in the Deep South).Depending on geographical location,with adequate fall moisture, rye, triti-cale, and wheat should be availablefor grazing from October throughmuch of December and then again inearly spring.

The intended use of small grain deter-mines what the stocking rate andgrazing dates should be. If a silage orgrain harvest is planned, grazingshould only be moderate, as heavygrazing can reduce grain yields.Moderate grazing in the autumn willnot result in significant silage or grainlosses provided moisture and soil fer-tility are adequate. In fact, fall pastur-ing can be beneficial where the smallgrain was seeded early and has madeexcessive growth and soil conditionsare dry. Spring grazing may be startedwhen growth resumes. If a grain orsilage crop is to be harvested, grazingshould be discontinued when theplants start to grow erect, just beforejointing (growth stage); otherwisegrain yield will be reduced.

Seeding date has a major impact onhow early small grains can be grazed.If the goal is to graze in late fall,seeding should be completed by lateAugust in the Midwest and by lateSeptember in the Deep South.Withadequate moisture, growth willcontinue until air temperatures dropto around 40°F. Remove livestockwhen 3 inches of growth remain tomaintain sufficient leaf area for contin-ued growth and recovery.

Annual ryegrass

Annual (or Italian) ryegrass can beused as a companion species with, oras an alternative to, the small graincereal crops to provide grazing in lateautumn, early winter, and spring.Compared to small grains, ryegrass iseasier to manage, has a higher feedquality, and fewer managementproblems in spring, and can makerapid regrowth after initial grazing.

Annual ryegrass can be easily estab-lished into standing corn or soybeansor in these or other summer row cropfields after harvest. It can also be no-tilled into old alfalfa fields.There aredifferences in winterhardiness amongannual ryegrass varieties, so if springgrazing is desired, it is important toplant varieties that are known to beadapted. Seeding rates vary accordingto planting method and combinationof species. (Check local recommenda-tions for specific seeding information.)Wait to graze winter annual grassesuntil at least 8 inches of growth haveaccumulated.

Winter annual legumes

In climates and management situa-tions in which plants are likely topersist, it is generally advantageous togrow perennial rather than annuallegumes. However, in the Deep South,where perennial legumes such aswhite clover usually act like annuals,any of several winter annual legumesare a usually a better choice, depend-ing on soils, rainfall, and producerobjectives.Various species may begrown alone, with another annuallegume, or in combination with winterannual grasses.

Winter annual legumes make almostall of their growth in late winter andspring, but the distribution of growthof various species within this timeperiod varies greatly. Some row cropproducers plant winter annuals ascover crops to provide nitrogen for asummer row crop, improve soil tilth,and protect the soil during winter. Ofcourse this forage can also be grazedin late winter or spring. Hairy vetch ishardy enough to be grown as farnorth as the Lower Midwest, but itproduces most of its growth during afew weeks in mid-spring.

Overseed winter annualson summer grass sodsWinter annuals, including annualryegrass, small grains, and variousannual legumes such as clovers andvetches can be seeded as a singlespecies or in various mixtures intowarm-season perennial grass sodssuch as bermudagrass, bahiagrass, ordallisgrass to extend the grazingseason by 30 to 60 or more days.Winter annuals should normally beoverseeded about 2 or 3 weeks before

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E X T E N D I N G G R A Z I N G & R E D U C I N G S T O R E D F E E D N E E D S

the expected date of a killing frost.Unless some tillage is provided toensure good seed-soil contact, theexisting grass should be clipped orgrazed to 1 to 2 inches tall. Producerswho have pastures of both tall fescueand summer perennial grasses may beable to graze their summer grassclosely to facilitate overseeding ofwinter annuals at the same time theyare stockpiling tall fescue. Overseededpastures should be kept grazedclosely in spring to prevent shading ofsummer species.

Provide supplementalfeed during warmweatherDespite the best management plans,shortages of forage commonly occurduring July and August in the cool-season grass region due to drought oroverstocking.When this happens, sup-plemental feeding of hay or grain by-products in July and August might beused to avoid overgrazing. Also, apasture or paddock of summer annualgrass might be planted in anticipationof reduced pasture availability.

In areas where cool-season perennialforages dominate pastures, if pasturesare short or pasture forage is of poorquality in July and August, feedinganimals in a dry lot might be anoption.This may be more cost effec-tive than overgrazing or trying to sup-plement animals on overgrazedpastures.There is less hay loss whenfeeding hay in summer months ascompared to winter. Also, thisapproach allows pastures to beginrecovering from overgrazing ordrought and provides an opportunityto stockpile for late fall and wintergrazing. Using the same logic, someproducers might also consider feedinghay in late summer or autumn toallow stockpiling of tall fescue forage.

Once livestock are removed frompastures, it may be worthwhile toapply 30 to 60 pounds per acre ofnitrogen to stimulate plant recovery.During hot weather, use ofammonium nitrate may be advisableas surface-applied urea can lose signif-icant amounts of nitrogen throughvolatilization. If using urea, the appli-cation should be made just before arain to minimize the exposure time ofthe fertilizer material on a dry soilsurface.

Minimize hay lossesThis publication emphasizes the valueof grazing, but most livestock produc-ers will need to provide hay or someother stored feed at certain timesduring the year. Losses during the har-vesting, storing, and feeding of hayvary considerably. Ranges in losses areincluded in table 4. Given the worst-case scenario, animals may consumeonly about 29% of the forage presentin a hay field at harvest. Further, themore hay wasted, the more that mustbe produced or purchased to feedanimals at times when adequatepasture forage is not available.

The value of hay storage and feedinglosses alone in the United States areestimated to exceed 3 billion dollarsannually. On some farms, hay storageand feeding losses account for over10% of the cost of livestock produc-tion. This is particularly objectionablebecause these losses occur after allthe time, energy, and effort required toproduce and harvest the hay havebeen incurred. Also, these losses canbe greatly reduced or eliminatedwithout a great deal of expense oreffort.

15

Table 4. Percent loss of hay from curing through feeding.

——Lax management—— ——Goodmanagement——Incrementala Additiveb Incrementala Additiveb

Field curing 25 25 12 12

Harvesting 15 36 8 19

Storage 35 58 5 23

Feeding 30 71 8 29

Total loss — 71 — 29a Losses of dry matter present at the beginning of a step.b Losses accumulate with each step.

Source:Dr.Mike Collins, University of Kentucky.

Extend the grazing season

by 30 to 60 days or more by

overseeding winter annuals

on summer grass sods.

Possible pasturecombinations byregion

Numerous strategies discussedwithin this publication can beused to help extend grazing and

reduce the number of days storedfeed must be provided to livestock.Obviously, some are appropriate onlyin certain geographical areas or oncertain farms within an area, and someare likely to be of much more value ina specific situation than others. Noparticular set of strategies is appropri-ate for every producer, even within agiven geographical area.

In most areas, exploiting foragegrowth distribution differences offersmuch opportunity for extendinggrazing. Figure 5 illustrates someforage species or categories of speciesthat often work well for producers inselected areas of the nation.Thegraphs show a few general combina-tions likely to be used in the UpperMidwest and Northeast, in the TallFescue Belt, in the Deep South, and inthe Humid Southwest.

Once pasture forage growth distribu-tion has been maximized, other strate-gies to lower stored feed require-ments can be employed.These mayinclude changing the breedingseason, selling animals at certain timesof the year, use of creative grazingmanagement, or implementing prac-tices to minimize hay waste. Almostanything a livestock producer can doto shave days off the length of timestored feed would otherwise need tobe fed will favor increased profitability.

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E X T E N D I N G G R A Z I N G & R E D U C I N G S T O R E D F E E D N E E D S

Rye Rye

Warm-seasonperennial grasses

Warm-seasonannual grassesRyegrass

Humid Southwest

LegumeCool-season grassesWarm-season grasses

TurnipTurnip

Corn Belt, Upper Midwest, and Northeast

Stockpiledtall fescue Stockpiled

tall fescueBermudagrass

Tall fescueSmall grain

Tall Fescue Belt

Winter annuals

Warm-seasonperennial grasses

Deep South

Winterannuals

Figure 5.Growth patterns of forage species by region.

Autumn and winter growth (shaded areas) varies due to several factorsincluding date of planting, species planted, and geographical location.

Ten keys to a profitable forage program

1. Remember that you are a forage farmer. Forage typically accounts for over half the cost of produc-tion of forage-consuming animals and provides most of their nutrition.Thus, it has a major influence on

both expenses and income. Efficient forage production and utilization are essential to a profitable operation.

2. Know forage options, animal nutritional needs, and establishment requirements. Forages varyas to adaptation, growth distribution, forage quality, yield, and potential uses.Various types and classes of

animals have different nutritional needs. Good planting decisions depend on knowing forage options for your land

resources and the nutritional needs of your animals.

3. Soil test, then lime and fertilize as needed. This practice,more than any other, affects the level andeconomic efficiency of forage production. Fertilizing and liming as needed help ensure good yields, improve

forage quality, lengthen stand life, and reduce weed problems.

4. Use legumes whenever feasible. Legumes offer important advantages including improved foragequality and biological nitrogen fixation, whether grown alone or with grasses. Once legumes have been

established, proper management optimizes benefits.

5. Emphasize forage quality. High animal gains,milk production, and reproductive efficiency requireadequate nutrition. Producing high-quality forage necessitates knowing the factors that affect forage

quality and using appropriate management.Matching forage quality to animal nutritional needs greatly increases

efficiency.

6. Prevent or minimize pests and plant-related disorders. Variety selection, cultural practices,scouting, pesticides, and other management techniques can minimize pest problems. Knowledge of poten-

tial animal disorders caused by plants can help avoid them.

7. Strive to improve pasture utilization. The quantity and quality of pasture growth vary over time.Periodic adjustments in stocking rate or use of cross fencing to vary the type or amount of available forage

can greatly affect animal performance and pasture species composition.Matching stocking rates with forage pro-

duction is also extremely important.

8. Minimize stored feed requirements. Stored feed is one of the most expensive aspects of animal pro-duction, so lowering requirements reduces costs. Extending the grazing season with use of both cool-

season and warm-season forages, stockpiling forage, and grazing crop residues are examples of ways stored feed

needs can be reduced.

9. Reduce storage and feeding losses.Wasting hay, silage, or other stored feed is costly.Minimizing wastewith good management, forage testing, and ration formulation enhances feeding efficiency, animal perform-

ance, and profits.

10.It’s up to you. Rarely, if ever, do we get something for nothing. In human endeavors, results are usuallyhighly correlated with investments in terms of thought, time, effort, and a certain amount of money. In

particular, the best and most profitable forage programs have had the most thought put into them.

Source: Ball, D.M., C.S. Hoveland, and G.D. Lacefield, 1996. Adapted with permission from the International PlantNutrition Institute, Norcross, GA.

AUTHORS

Dr. Don BallExtension Agronomist/ProfessorAuburn University

Ed BallardAnimal Systems Educator (ret.)University of Illinois Extension

Mark KennedyState Grazing Lands SpecialistUSDA/NRCS, Houston, MO

Dr. Garry LacefieldExtension Agronomist/ProfessorUniversity of Kentucky

Dr. Dan UndersanderExtension Agronomist/ProfessorUniversity of Wisconsin-Madison

James B. CropperUSDA/NRCSForage Management SpecialistGreensboro, NC

R.L. DalrympleAgronomist (ret.),The Noble FoundationArdmore, OK

Dave ForgeyForgey’s River-View Farm, Inc.Logansport, IN

Jim GerrishGrazing Lands Consultant,American Grazing Lands Services, LLCMay, ID

John L. MerrillXXX Ranch, Inc.Crowley, TX

Leah MillerDirector, Small Farm InstituteCoshocton, OH

Dr. Jim RussellProfessor of Animal SciencesIowa State UniversityAmes, IA

Kimberli R. StineUSDA/NRCSNational GLCI CoordinatorFort Worth, TX

Dr. Matt R. SandersonUSDA/ARSPasture Systems/WatershedManagement Research UnitUniversity Park, PA

Acknowledgements: The authorsalso wish to express their appreciationto the Illinois Grazinglands ConservationInitiative Association, to USDA/NRCS,and to the Missouri Forage andGrassland Council/Grazing LandsConservation Initiative for providingfunds to facilitate development of thispublication.

The USDA/NRCS is an equal opportunity provider

and employer.Ball, D.M., E.N. Ballard, M.L. Kennedy, G.D. Lacefield, and D.J. Undersander, 2008.Extending Grazing and Reducing Stored Feed Needs. Grazing Lands ConservationInitiative Publication 8-01, Bryan, TX.

REVIEWERSThe authors gratefully acknowledge reviews of this publication provided by:

Educational programs of Kentucky Cooperative Extension serve all people regardless of race, color, age, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, M. Scott Smith, Director of Cooperative Extension Service, University of Kentucky College of Agriculture, Lexington, and Kentucky State University, Frankfort. Copyright © 2009 for materials developed by University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension. This publication may be reproduced in portions or its entirety for educational or nonpro�t purposes only. Permitted users shall give credit to the author(s) and include this copyright notice. Publications are also available on the World Wide Web at www.ca.uky.edu.Issued 2-2009