Aggrian Reforms in Mughal Period

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Aggrian Reforms in Mughal Period


By Upankar Chutia

:Abstract:

India is known for its fertile land and its ability to produce

various crops, this is the reason for India being invaded by various invaders

Portuguese, British, Mughals, etc. Mughals were the one who had ruled India

for the longest period of time, nearly about 300 years. Under Mughals there

were various reformation made in the agricultural sector like in cropping,irrigation etc. Although various measures taken by Mughals in the improvement

of agricultural sector yet if we see the condition of farmers it was a very pitiable

condition those days, they were given the least hierarchy in the society,

moreover the revenue payable by them was to a large extent that after paying

the revenue there was hardly any resources left with them to take care of their

family. The objective of this research is to find out, how far the measures taken

by Mughals in developing the agricultural sector was successful.



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Table of Contents

Introduction

Mughal Reign and reformation measures taken

Land revenue system under Mughal Emperor

Division of land under Mughal Emperor

Irrigation reforms under Mughal Emperor

Reformation in the practice of plantation

Status of peasants in Mughal reign

Advantages of the reformative measures during Mughal

reign

Disadvantages of the reformative measures during

Mughal reign

Conclusion

Bibliography

Webliography



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Introduction:-

Agriculture has been the basis of Indian economy since ages and in

states like Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Assam, etc. agriculture is believed to be a part of the customs

and traditions. The fact that how keenly the whole of India is related to agriculture can be

depicted from the point that, most of the Indian festivals are related to harvest or first tilling

of the field for eg. Rongali Bihu1 of Assam a harvest festival, Pongal2 in Tamil Nadu is also a

festival which is related to agriculture. Even the mention of agriculture could be seen in some

of the oldest Indian text like Vedas3, Rigveda hymns for example, describes ploughing,

fallowing, irrigation, fruit and vegetable cultivation. Other historical evidence suggests rice

and cotton were cultivated in the Indus Valley, and ploughing patterns from the Bronze Age

have been excavated at Kalibangan in Rajasthan. Bhumivargaha4

, another ancient Indian

Sanskrit text which is suggested to be 2500 years old, classifies agricultural land into twelve

categories: urvara (fertile), ushara (barren), maru (desert), aprahata (fallow), shadvala

(grassy), pankikala (muddy), jalaprayah (watery), kachchaha (land contiguous to water),

sharkara (full of pebbles and pieces of limestone), sharkaravati (sandy), nadimatruka (land

watered from a river), and devamatruka (rainfed). Some archaeologists believe rice was a

domesticated crop along the banks of the Indian river Ganga in the sixth millennium BC. So

were species of winter cereals (barley, oats, and wheat) and legumes (lentil and chickpea)grown in Northwest India before the sixth millennium BC. Other crops cultivated in India

3000 to 6000 years ago, include sesame, linseed, safflower, mustards, castor, mung bean,

black gram, horse gram, pigeonpea, field pea, grass pea (khesari), fenugreek, cotton, jujube,

grapes, dates, jackfruit, mango, mulberry, and black plum. Indian peasants had also

domesticated cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs and horses thousands of years ago. Some

scientists claim agriculture in India was widespread in the Indian peninsula, some 3000 – 5000

years ago, well beyond the fertile plains of the north. For example, one study reports twelve

sites in the southern Indian states of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh providing clear evidence

of agriculture of pulses, millet-grasses, wheats, barley, hyacinth bean, pearl millet, finger

millet, cotton, linseed, as well as gathered fruits of Ziziphus and two Cucurbitaceae.

1 Mitra Aagami, Bihu of Assam, 29 July 2012, Hubpages.2 Kajmani, Pongal Festival History, Significance and Traditions, 15 January 2012.3 Mishra Mangilal, Agricultural Methods in Vedic age, Vedpradip.4 Agriculture in India, 04 July 12, data.gov.in.



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Some claim Indian agriculture began by 9000 BC as a result of early

cultivation of plants and domestication of crops and animals. Settled life soon followed with

implements and techniques being developed for agriculture. Double monsoons led to two

harvests being reaped in one year. Indian products soon reached the world via existing

trading networks and foreign crops were introduced to India. Plants and animals considered

essential to their survival by the Indians, came to be worshiped and respected.

Thus the aspect of agriculture was given utmost importance in the past

and also in the present scenario, as still today India is basically agrarian economy i.e

agriculture contributes almost 21%5 of India’s GDP.

As history depicts that India was basically invaded by various invaders

at various point of time and most of the invaders were the traders who were influenced by the

fertility of its land and its ability to produce various crops and food grains. History says that

India had trade relations with various other countries like Afghanistan, Mongolia, Portugal,

Great Britain, etc in spices and latter the trade relations with India as that of other countries

started growing to a large extent and frequent and with the increasing trade the traders started

establishing their own territory and slowly it lead to invasion and latter rule by those

countries. In the history of India the most remarkable invaders were namely Mughals and

Britishers who ruled India for around 300 and 190 years.

Various civilizations and invasions as the time passed had their impact

as to revolutionise the agricultural system of India, and mughals who had ruled India for

almost 300 years had a large impact in the field of agriculture and they took many

reformation measures as inorder to develop the agricultural sector, as for instance, tobacco

and potato were introduced by Portuguese in India during Jahangir’s reign. Ajmer was

famous for the best quality of sugar cane. Gujarat and Agra was famous for indigo

cultivation. Babur introduced many central Asian fruits to India. During Mughal time

agriculture was not only the largest source of income to state but it was also the source of

livelihood to the large majority of people in India. Main crops that were grown were cereals,

millets, oilseeds, sugarcane, cotton, hemp, chilli, indigo and betel. During Akbar’s reign

Firoz Shah’s Yamuna canal was repaired for the first time. In the reign of Shah Jahan,Nahr-i-

Bihisht was built by opening the canal at Khizrabad for irrigation purposes which makes its

5http://web.worldbank.org/



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very clear that the agricultural sector was given utmost importance any many reformative

measures are also taken by the Mughas during their reign.

Mughal Reign and reformation measures taken:-

The rule of Mughals6 started with Babur who was succeeded by

Humayun, latter comes Akbar the great who was latter succeed by Jahangir, Sahjahan,

Aurengzeb, Bahadursah, etc. In term of each of the rulers various reformation measures were

taken up as for the development of agricultural sector. The availability of cultivatable land

was sufficient and it demanded more cropping. Babur in Tuzuk- i- Baburi says ‘ the country

full of men and full of products were divided into villages which was surrounded by

cultivatable fields, and also had land for pasture and forests for fuel and other

purposes.”Akbar tried to increase the land under cultivation. The methods of cultivation were

almost similar to present times. When plough was used for cultivation a hoe, a mattock, and

few other instruments were used for ploughing the fields. The irrigation facilities used in the

ancient and sultanate period were continued with in the mughal period. Natural and artificial

modes of irrigation were used. Wells, canals, rivers, Persian wheel etc, were used for

irrigation. The peasants knew about the use of manures also during the reign of Mughals.

Land revenue system under Mughal Emperor:-

The land revenue system7 formed the basis of relationship between

the mughal kings and the peasant class. The founder of the Mughal Empire did not establish a

sound land revenue system nor did his son Humayun. Sher Shah introduced revenue reforms

and he was the first Muslim ruler to establish a beneficial system which was equally good for

the state and farmers. When Akbar took over the throne, he had divided the land into crown

lands or ‘ Khalsa” land and the jagir lands. Village was the smallest unit of administration

surrounded by fields and also had lands for pasture and forest for fuel and other purposes.

Villages were known as ‘gaon’ or ‘mauza’ .There were two types of villages ‘asli’ that is

having the habitation intact and ‘dakhili’ that as the deserted village. There were two types of

6 Szczepanski Kallie, The Mughal Empire in India, asianhistory.about.com.7 Sundaram Lanka, Mughal land revenue system, archive.org.



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‘ raiyati’ villages which belonged to ‘ Khalsa’ land but the taluqa villages experiments to

improve the condition of peasants and also the land revenue administration. Akbar’s first

experiment starts with the appointment of Aitmad Khan as the Diwan 8 in 1563 , in which he

divided the empire into 12parganas. In second experiment Muzaffar Khan, in third

experiment Shihabuddin Ahmad, in fourth and fifth experiment Raja Todarmal was appointed

as the imperial Diwan. A uniform method of measurement was appointed known as ‘ Ain- i-

Dahsala’ or the Bandobast system. It was based on Zabti system also known as the Ryotwari

system. Initially it was introduced in eight provinces namely Allahabad, Agra, Oudh, Ajmer,

Malwa, Delhi, Lahore, Multan. The whole empire was divided into dasturs. Provinces were

divided into sarkars or districts and those of districts into Parganas or tehsils. Amalguzar was

appointed in the district level . Each cultivator received a patta or deed. Shahjahan’s Diwan

Sadaulla khan also introduced some changes in the revenue department. The mughal rulers

used measurement units and the division of lands for the successful collection of taxes. New

techniques of units of measurement was introduced. A ‘yard’ was called ‘gaz’ which was of

41 units and a ‘ bigha’ was equal to area of 60 yards square or 3600 square yards. Thus, we

see that during the rule of Akbar improvement was made in the modes of measurement for

the benefit of the state and also the peasant.

Division of land under Mughal Emperor:-

Different modes9 and methods were introduced to enhance the

fertility of the soil and for this during the reign of Akbar the land was divided into four

categories –‘ polaj’ in which two crops was raised every year, ‘ Parauti’ – land which was left

fallow after raising two crops, ‘ Chachar’ – unfertile piece of land which was cultivated every

three to f our years, ‘ Banjar’-was unfit for cultivation and rarely brought under cultivation.

Akbar tried to bring more uncultivated land under cultivation to raise various high quality

crops. India has been an agricultural country since ages and the soil of India and its land is

basically fertile and cultivatable. Whereas the soil of Ajmer is sandy and water obtainable at

great depth, whence the crops are depended on rain, the elevation of Malwa is somewhat

above that of other areas of the country and every in every other part harvests are excellent

especially wheat, poppy, sugarcane, melons and grapes.

8 Vikas Avnish, Administration under Akbar, el.trc.gov.om, 16 March 2010.9 Mughal land revenue system, CSS forum, 11 April 2013.



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Irrigation reforms under Mughal Emperor:-

Irrigation facilities were present in India since ancient times and

the Mughal rulers paid attention to it sincerely. Irrigation10 was done both by natural and

artificial means. The thirty ‘kos’ long canal from Kizrabad to Safidun built by Firuz Tughlaq

which had fallen into disuse was in the time of Akbar reexcavated by Shaha- ud- din Ahmad

Khan to irrigate his jagir land. It was repaired and a new channel from Safidun to Delhi, 30

‘kos’ land was excavated during the reign of Shah Jahan . Jahangir also continued with the

water construction works at Burhanpur and Punjab. In the fear of decrease in agricultural

production, Mughal rulers made arrangements for cultivation. State undertook the

construction of irrigation canals and reservoirs. Irrigation works were put in charge of local

officers called daroghas of canals who were entrusted to keep them in good condition. Nahr-

i- Bihist was a canal at Khizrabad and Nahr Faiz built during the reign of Shah Jahan reign

carried water from Yamuna and irrigated a large area of tract. Dams, reservoirs, tanks, canals

etc. were built for cultivation. Wells, rivers and rain water was also used for cultivation, Abul

Fazl says that wells were mostly used for irrigation. The peasants had the knowledge of

implements of agriculture and the ancient implements were also used for cultivation. In

Punjab and neighbouring parts irrigation was done by the means of Persian wheel. This

device was wooden pin-drum gearing device used in the thirteenth and fourteenth century. Itis said that in 1595 in Punjab, agriculture was mostly based on irrigation from wells. The

technique such as Persian wheel led to the prosperity of the Punjab region. Artificial devices

were used to draw water from wells. The peasants knew about the pulley and lever system.

Based on the lever principle form of an upright beam was kept in swinging position with one

of its end tied with a long rope and other carried a weight heavier than bucket. The Persian

wheel which was used in the sultunate period was the most advanced water lifting device and

it continued to be so in the Mughal period. Hoe, mattock and kudal which is even used

nowadays was also used in those days for cultivation.

Reformation in the practice of plantation:-

During the Mughal rule the fields were generally manured with

animal dung and intensive ploughing as done. Some instruments were used for cutting the

10 Irrigation system in mughal India, 02 November 2010, indianetzone.



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harvest. Ox as used for ploughing of fields. The peasants generally used old methods of

cultivation which might have been similar to that of the present days. An effective

agricultural practice such as dibbling was introduced that is dropping of seeds into holes

driven into grounds by sticks. The use of iron was minimal and wood was used

predominantly. The peasants knew about the rotation of crops and double cropping11. The

peasants raised two crops – Kharif and Rabi in a year. Some special crops such as sugarcane,

indigo , cotton were grown. The food grains produced were wheat, barley, gram, rice, millets,

linseeds and pulses. Wheat was commonly grown in the provinces of Agra, Allahabad,

Awadh, Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Malwa, and Ajmer. Weat is also grown in the Qandhar

region. The production of wheat depended on rainfall and irrigation. Barley as produced in

almost all parts of the country but not much in the parts of Bengal and Orissa. Gram was also

grown in almost all parts of the country. Rice grown in the regions where the climate was

tropical .and had plenty of rainfall and high temperature. Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Agra,

Allahabad, Awadh, Delhi, Lahore, Khandesh, Berar, and Kashmir produced good quality

rice. ‘ Kar’ ‘sukhdas’ and ‘ shali’ were superior quality rice. Fine quality rice was grown in

Kashmir and khandesh. Sukhdas rice as known for its flavor and good quality. Millets

consisted of cheaper grains such as jowar, bajra, kodon, sawan and mandua etc. These also

formed the integral part of the Kharif crops. These crops were grown in the regions of

deficient rainfall and poor soil condition regions. Jowar and Bajra were grown in the regions

of Malwa, Gujarat, Ajmer, Khandesh, Delhi, Lahore, Agra, Allahabad, Khandesh, Delhi,

Lahore, Agra, Awadh, Allahabad and Multan. Pulses were mainly grown in Bihar, Allahabad,

Awadh, Delhi, Lahore, Multan etc. The chief varieties of pulses were moong, month,

arhar,peas etc. These were grown in the autumn season. Linseed like mustard and alsi were

mostly grown in the subas of Agra, Allahabad, Lahore, Malwa, Ajmer, and Multan. Best

indigo was grown in the areas of Bayana and in the reign of Akbar it was sold at Rs. 10-12

per maunds and it as exported to Turkey and also to European countries. Bengal indigo came

into prominence in the seventeenth century. The Dutch and the Britishers exported the best

quality Bayana indigo. During the reign of Shahjahan the trade in indigo12 had achieved the

status of a profitable business. In the months of August and September just after the rains, the

leaves are cut and gathered, cast in into long cisterns, pressed down with stones, and left

therein with water. The water is then passed out into another circular cistern. In the first year

11 Indira Gandhi National Open University, Expansion and Growth of Medieval Economy-1, aura.edu.in.12 Foreign trade in mughal times, Chapter 5, rmsa.karnatakaeducation.org.



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of its growth, the leaves are tender and not having attained perfection, produce heavy reddish

‘Neel’. In the second year it is called Cyrese (aree or sprouting from the roots). It is light and

of perfect violet colour but in the third year the herb declines, being worst of the three. It is

called Cattled ( Khutizal or Khuntri). The techniques and method used for the cultivation of

indigo is amazing for that period. It is obvious that the peasants were aware of the science of

production of indigo which was an integral part of the commerce of the Mughal period. Its

cultivation started in the region of Ahmadabad and Sukhraj. Further Aligarh, Itimadpur,

Khurja and Agra became important centres of indigo cultivation. During the reign of Jahangir

,indigo in the words of Sir Thomas Roe, as “ the prime commodity”. Safflower an another

dye which was also cultivated on a large scale all throughout the Mughal rule. Safflower

during Akbar rule was cultivated in the regions of Agra, Allahabad, Aadh, Delhi, Mala,

Lahore and Multan. Sugarcane as grown in the regions of Agra, Allahabad, Awadh, Lahore,

Multan and Mala. Silk was extensively produced in the Bengal region13 and it became a

centre of Sericulture and from their silk was exported to foreign countries also. In Akbar’s

time Bengal including Patna, as an important centre of the industry besides Ahmedabad and

Kashmir which used to export large quantities of silk to the other centres. Various varieties of

sugarcane such as paunda, black and ordinary were grown. Sugarcane was a costly and

superior crop14 and was sold at the prices double of it. The cost of paunda quality of

sugarcane as highest in Ajmer. In the Kota region the price of sugarcane as as high as 100

per maunds. Sugarcane cultivation had extended to the region of Aurangabad and several

places of Bihar. Cotton and indigo were grown in Malwa, Multan and Ajmer. Cotton was

more widely grown, though the aggregate of production was probably less but it is reasonable

to infer that most parts of the country were nearly self-sufficient in the matters of clothes.

Poppy was also cultivated in Agra, Awadh, Lahore, Multan and Ajmer. Poppy was exported

to Pegu. Various kinds of vegetables were grown such as – spinach, cabbage, bethuwa,

ginger, peas, carrot, radish, lettuce, potato, lemon was grown in all parts of the country

especially Agra, Malwa, Ajmer, Bengal, Bihar. ‘ Pan’ ( betel leaves) were grown in Bengal,

Bihar, Awadh, and Berar. Tobbaco was introduced by the Portugese in the first fifty years of

the seventeenth century.The muslims opposed to smoking , the cultivation did not prosper .

The Dutch and the Portugese grew it in their colonies, latter Jahangir prohibited smoking in

1617 A.D. The cultivation of new fruits was encouraged by the Mughal rulers. Musk- melon ,

13 Padma Mohan Kumar, India - The Roaring Trade Partner of Yore, Gateway for India.14 Kumar Ram, Industrial Economy: Technology Used In Sugar Industry During Mughal Age, June 2011.



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water melon, apple, grapes, date, figs, pomegranate , mango was grown. Jahangir introduced

the cultivation of pineapples. Guauva and custard apples was introduced by the Portugese.

The Honeydrew variety of water melon of colder regions was cultivated in the plains of

Northern India. Muhammad Rida of Khurasan raised the first crop of this variety of

watermelon who was honoured for this by Shah Jahan. Jahangir says cherry was not found in

Kashmir before the conquest of Akbar, his official Ali Quli Afshar brought it from Kabul and

propagated it by means of grafting. During the reign of Shahjahan, grafting method was used

extensively and three quality of oranges such as sangatara, kaulna, and narangi were

cultivated. Description of grafting of Mangoes and growing it in the Murshidabad region is

also found. The grafted variety of Alfonso developed by portugese in the western coast is

mentioned by traveler Nicolo Manucci in the seventeenth century. Jahangir built gardens in

Kashmir and Lahore. Babur introduced a good quality of rose of Gwalior to the gardens of

Agra. Gardens which were popular in Iran those were introduced in India by Babur. Gardens

were introduced in tombs and palaces. Shahjahan completed the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore

in 1637 and Jahangir introduced gardens in the Valleys of Kahmir. The formal gardens were

divided into four parts by paved paths. Forest produce15 included bamboo, sandal, babul,

spinewood, amber, gumlac. Wood was used for making furniture, jewellery, boxes, windos,

doors, ceilings, etc. Paper as a product made from wood pulp. During Akbar’s reign paper as

manufactured from wood pulp in Lahore and during Aurangzeb’s reign in Awadh region. Red

Bakham wood and drug were used for consumption and export. Certain other fragrant wood

which was grown were aloe-wood, amber, camphor, etc. The western ghats and Mysore

forests produced blackwood and sandalwood. White and yellow varieties of sandalwood were

grown. White sandalwood came into prominence during the reign of Jahangir. Saffron

cultivated in the two districts of Kashmir to Pampur in the district of Moraraj to the south of

Srinagar and Paraspur near Indrakot. Spices such as cardamom, ginger, cloves, nutmeg,

cinnamon and cardmon was grown in the Malabar Coast. Spices were exported to Ormuz.

Cardmon was grown in the areas of Bijapur and ginger in all parts of India. Cardamom was

sold at 52- 80 dams per seer and was considered as a costly spice. Pepper was grown in the

regions of Bijapur, Malabar and Cochin, in Champaran region of Bihar. Pepper which was

grown in Assam was sent to Surat and from their it was exported to Ormuz, Basra and Red

Sea. Cloves and nutmeg were also sent to Surat by the Dutch and exported to Europe. Mughal

Emperors had a fetish for fruits and special attention was paid to the cultivation of fruits.

15 History of forests in India, edugreen.teri.res.in.



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Fruit Orchards were treated in a special manner. A rate of rupees 3-3/4 per Bigha was

charged even if their production was not as expected Exception was made if the orchards

were planted with grapes and almonds, in which demand was made only when trees bore

fruits. If the maintenance of the orchard was costly and more than the actual yield than no

charges were made on such orchards. Spices Prices Cloves 60 dams per seer Cardamons 52

dams per seer Cuminseed 2 dams per seer Aniseed 2 dams per seer Turmeic 10 dams per

seer. The agricultural patterns in the mughal period determined social condition of the

peasants.

Status of peasants in Mughal reign:-

As science always affects the society similarly agriculture science

affected the social condition of the peasants16. In the social hierarchy peasants17 belonged to

the lower segment of the society. Cultivators were known as asami, raya or mazaram.

Peasants were also known as khudakhasta, Pahikashta, Muqarra. Basically the peasants were

of three classes – Riayah Khudkastha who had field and house in different villages, Riayah

Pahikashta, who had fields and house in different villages, Muqarrari Riayah were those who

had possession larger than they could cultivate. Housing, clothing, shelter determined thesocial condition of the social class. The peasants of Bihar used primarily languta and the

women wore short dhotis. The clothing of the people in Bihar and Bengal was small, in

Bengal men and women went naked except for the loin cloth and in Orissa women used cloth

which did not cover anything expect for the private parts. Bengal huts were covered with

straw, they made mud walls. In Orissa the walls were covered with reeds while in Bihar the

roofs were covered with tiles. Around the Malwa region peasants lived in small huts. If the

belongings in the huts are to be considered then it only included pots and some cots, etc. The

food habits were also very simple. Rice, jowar, and bajra were the main cereals. During the

reign of the Mughals it as during the greatest ruler of the Mughal Empire, Akbar the Great

took stringent steps to improve the condition of the agriculture and in this way enhanced the

revenue of the Mughal empire. The Bihar especially during that time was very fertile and

supported a huge army of cavalry and the infantry. Bihar as known for its good quality of rice

16 Lee, Jin Hyuck, India in the 18th Century, Korean Minjok Leadership Academy International Program, June

2009.17 Historical background, Chapter 1, shodhganga inflibnet.



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Kisari a crop resembling pulse was eaten by the poor people. Betel crop grown in Bihar

known as Maghi was known for its fragrance, colour and taste. At Maner a beautiful flower

known as Muchakand was grown. In the sarkar of Hajipur the fruits known as Kathal and

Barhal are grown in abundance. References of sarkar of Hajipur, Saran, Tirhut, Rohtas is

found from where huge amount of revenue was collected that supported the army.

Thus the farmers and indirectly agriculture as science helped the

Mughal emperors to maintain large armies and the mansabdari system. With the development

of the agriculture science, revenue department’s commutation and collection also developed.

The farmers had to live on a bare minimum and maximum of the produce was collected by

the officers of the revenue department18. The peasants held land of reasonable sizes as the

pressure upon the land as not so much as compared to that of the population. The forests were

also a source of income for the farmers. Forests where the source of fuel, timber, floers,

herbs, honey and even some fruits. The peasants to support themselves financially also

depended on the cottage industries such as handicrafts. However, the peasants were taxed

heavily sometimes directly and sometimes by intermediaries, the Amils had various functions

to perform. The registers kept by patari, Karkun and muqaddam as cheked by the amils. The

duties of the Bitikchi as similar to that of the amils. The Potdar or Khizandar collected

revenues from the peasant and kept the treasury in safe custody. Similar other revenueofficers are Karkuns, Qanungos, and Patwaris. Each village had officer named as Muqaddam

and Patwari who maintained revenue records. Assessment of land was done on the basis of

measurement and crops After the assessment of the revenue it was converted into cash with

price schedules. For this purpose land was divided into Dasturs. The provinces were divided

into Sarkars or districts and that of a district into parganas or tehsil. Officer recruited to

collect revenue at the district level as Amalguzar and officers at the tehsil level ere known as

Amils. Each cultivator received a patta or title deed . The land revenue as payable in cash or

kind twice in a year. Besides regular revenue the farmers had to sometimes levy Abwabs

which can be classified under following heads- duties on the sale of the produce, fees on the

sale of immovable property, prerequisite taken by the officers by their on sake and fees or

commission taken for the state, license-tax for carrying on certain trades, forced subscription,

imposts on Hindus etc. Sharing as the method of taxation were share in the produce as made

when the crop as standing. The other method of measurement as called Batai or

18 Bhaskar Sunil, Revinue- The mughal empire, 29 November 2009, blogspot.in.



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GhallaBakhshi . In Batai state demand was 4 heaps if ¼, 3 heaps if 1/3, 2 heaps if ½ . Cash

payment was demanded by the peasants which was troublesome for the farmers of the

seventeenth century. The state demand of the revenue as 1/3 but it was greater than in actual

practice. In some areas it seems that the state demand reached 1/2of the produce. In Gujarat

and the areas which were fertile the demand went up as high as ¾ part and in barren lands it

as less than ½.The Khalisa lands after Akbar’s reign the assessment went up as high as ¼.

During Jahangir reign it reached less than 5% and during Shah Jahan reign it as 7 % and

again during the reign of Aurangzeb it again increased to 1/5 part. The prices varied in the

various parts of India The foodgrains were cheaper in Nortern India than in Gujarat. The

prices of essential commodities were low. The prices showed regional and periodical

variations. This was due to transportation difficulties in carrying bulkier products from one

place to another. Every village thus tried to be self sufficient in itself. Sometimes in the same

region the fluctuation in the prices as seen. When the court was moved in the 43rd regnal year

from Lahore Akbar reduced the rates of the demand of taxation. The average prices of

principal foodgrains towards the end of Akbar’s reign as calculated on the basis of 82.3 lbs

equivalent to one maund. The agriculture and the taxation determined the socio – economic

condition of the peasants. Village was the smallest working unit for the peasants. The villages

known as ‘gaon’ and ‘ mauza’ had wide range of variations in the areas of the villages. It was

divided into fields and plots which were marked and raised. The peasants gave each plot a

particular name. The economic condition of the farmers determined their social condition

also. The economic condition also showcased their living standards such as fooding, clothing

and housing. It is mentioned that farmers has the worse condition of the house. It is also

found that men and women also went naked expect for the loin cloth. The food habits of the

farmers was also simple. Rice, jowar, bajra, were the food crops and cereals eaten by the

peasant class. Few vegetables were eaten and pot herbs also formed part of the staple diet of

the farmers. Ghee formed the integral part of the diet of people in the regions of Bengal and

Western India. Gur was consumed more in the villages than sugar. Salt was very expensive

and the cloves were the cheapest. Cloves were also used by women to make jewellery. Toddy

drinking and tobacco smoking was used as intoxicants. Thus, we see the producers of the

food themselves sometimes went starved and lead a simple and frugal live. The peasants19

had to bear the brunt of the taxation, floods, Famines, wild beasts, etc. The condition of the

peasants socially and economically was very poor. The burden of the taxes made their

19 The Mughal Empire – Society, library.thinkquest.org.



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condition worse. The economic set up of the Mughal empire was based on agriculture and the

peasants. The economy largely based on the revenues collected by the farmers .The rate of

the land revenue demand of it depended on the mughal administration. However, sometimes

the revenue rates was so high that it was not enough for the survival of the peasants.

Sometimes the peasants were left with bare minimum for their survival.

But the land policy of Akbar was peasant friendly20. He

introduced quality assessment to ensure land revenue for his expanding empire. Loans and

implements were provided to the farmers to encourage them. Taqavi loans were provided to

farmers in case of emergency. However, not adequate steps were taken to improve the

economic condition of the farmers. When the farming season ended farmers used to leave

their villages and work as basket makers, weaver, or water carrier The society of pre- british

period had more self-sufficiency and was adorned with respect and admiration. The condition

of the peasants was comparatively good during the reign of Akbar.

Advantages of the reformative measures during Mughal reign:-

During the rule period of Mughals agricultural sector in India has

gone through a very crucial stage of development, as this sector is being unified and various

measures has been brought throughout the country. As it is seen that Mughals had concurred

almost all the parts of the country and agriculture being the main source of revenue so

development was mandatory for them to develop this sector inorder to increase revenue.

Various new crops and new reformative measures introduced during

that period which can be said to be among the most important contributions made towards

Indian agricultural sector. India being among one of the largest countries of the having a huge

agricultural land but all those land was not utilized properly and with the reformative

measures by the mughals, all those unused land and the under used land are brought up and

better utilization measures were imposed on them by acquiring the unutilized land

cultivating on it. Steps taken up during the reign of Akbar was a very remarkable in this

aspect of reformation, as during his period lands were being categorised into different heads

according to its potentiality and various alternative crops were being given to produce.

20 Garbe Richard Von, Akbar Emperor India, Hinduwebsite.



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Moreover the multi cropping system was been given more emphasis during that period.

Before the period of mughals generally only one crops were being cultivated in a certain area

moreover in a year only one crop is being cultivated, but with the measures taken by Mughals

it has flourished multicropping system whereby farmers started cultivating two or three

different crops in a year making the whole India more or less self sufficient in almost all the

agricultural produce. The practice of multi cropping yielded more inturn resulting in

generation more of revenue. The irrigation system in those period was also given importance,

various cannels has been built inorder to facilitate some dry land with water which resulted in

reuse of dry land in production of various cops. Nahr-i- Bihist was a canal at Khizrabad and

Nahr Faiz built during the reign of Shah Jahan reign carried water from Yamuna and irrigated

a large area of tract. Dams, reservoirs, tanks, canals etc. were built for cultivation, Wells,

rivers and rain water was also used for cultivation, wells were mostly used for irrigation. This

improvement in irrigation had helped farmers in using those land which did not had a proper

water facilities and was left uncultivated, thus it resulted in increase in the production.

Disadvantages of the reformative measures during Mughal reign:-

Although the advantages seen above, but it is backed hugedemerits. Firstly, there was a huge farmer’s rights violation during those Mughal reign,

during the reign of Mughals although there was huge production and self-sufficiency in food

still the farmers had to live a very poor life. In the reign of Mughals the farmers were

regarded as the lowest category of people in the hierarchy of the society. Moreover the tax

which was levied on them was so high that, it left the farmers with resources to meet the

house expenses at least. The land revenue payable was twice a year which was an excessive

burden on the farmers in some case where if farmers are not able to pay due to epidemics or

any reason the revenue, their lands were captured by jamindars appointed in order to collect

taxes from farmers. Moreover there was no secular system employed in collection of

revenues as the Hindu Farmers were taxed more than that of muslim farmers. No rebate was

given to farmers if any floods, Famines, wild beasts, destroys the harvest. It was taxed as high

as 4 heaps if ¼, 3 heaps if 1/3, 2 heaps if ½ and above all Cash payment was demanded,

which was troublesome for the farmers of the seventeenth century. The state demand of the

revenue as 1/3 but it was greater than in actual practice. In some areas the state demand



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reached 1/2of the produce. In Gujarat and the areas which were fertile the demand went up as

high as ¾ part and in barren lands it as less than ½. During Akbar reign there was some

reduction of taxes but still it was so high that farmers was left with least than they deserve.

Conclusion:-

The political and economic unification of India under the Mughal rule

and establishment of law and order over extensive areas created the favourable environment

for trade and commerce of agricultural products. The improvement of transport and

communications by the Mughals had a great role to play in Indian agrarian economy. Deccan

was the famous centre of muslin and textiles. Agra, Fatehpursikri and Lahore were the main

centres of silk weaving. Surat, Cambay, Braoch in Gujarat was the main ports for foreign

trade. Agriculture was the most significant factors forming the basis of a strong economy.

The significant features of agriculture was firstly, that a large number of crops were

cultivated by the farmers and secondly, the life of peasant life was a combination of

agricultural work with manufacturing processes. The reformation brought in cropping

structure also had great role to play in the improvement of agriculture, it almost unified the

whole of the princely states in the country and brought a static reformation towards all. As before India was divided by different princely states whereby there was problem in

implementing unified measures but in mughla rein, they concurred almost all the states which

made them in implementing a unified reformation to whole of India. The irrigation

reformation during mughals was a great reformation done during that period, with the

building of cannels even the land which was inaccessible of water was brought to production.

Although these improvements yet it left Indian economy in darkness, as excessive taxed was

extracted by the mughals and they framed policies which was not secular, moreover farmers

were taxed so high those days that it left even a penny with them to lead a proper family life.



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Mitra Aagami, Bihu of Assam, 29 July 2012, Hubpages.

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Mishra Mangilal, Agricultural Methods in Vedic age, Vedpradip.

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Aggrian Reforms in Mughal Period

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