CHINESE CULTURE: CUSTOMS & TRADITIONS OF CHINA

China is an extremely large country, and the customs and

traditions of its people vary by geography and ethnicity.

More than 1 billion people live in China, according to

the Asia Society, representing 56 ethnic minority groups.

The largest group is the Han Chinese, with about 900

million people. Other groups include the Tibetans, the

Mongols, the Manchus, the Naxi, and the Hezhen, which is

smallest group, with fewer than 2,000 people.

"Significantly, individuals within communities create their

own culture," said Cristina De Rossi, an anthropologist at Barnet and Southgate College in London.

Culture includes religion, food, style, language, marriage, music, morals and many other things

that make up how a group acts and interacts. Here is a brief overview of some elements of the

Chinese culture.

RELIGION

The Chinese Communist Party that rules the nation is

officially atheist, though it is gradually becoming more

tolerant of religions, according to the Council on Foreign

Relations. Currently, there are only five official religions. Any

religion other than Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and

Protestantism are illegal, even though the Chinese constitution

states that people are allowed freedom of religion. The gradual

tolerance of religion has only started to progress in the past

few decades.

About a quarter of the people practice Taoism and

Confucianism and other traditional religions. There are also

small numbers of Buddhists, Muslims and Christians. Although numerous Protestant and Catholic

ministries have been active in the country since the early 19th century, they have made little

progress in converting Chinese to these religions.

LANGUAGE

There are seven major groups of dialects of the Chinese

language, which each have their own variations, according

to Mount Holyoke College. Mandarin dialects are spoken

by 71.5 percent of the population, followed by Wu (8.5

percent), Yue (also called Cantonese; 5 percent), Xiang (4.8

percent), Min (4.1 percent), Hakka (3.7 percent) and Gan

(2.4 percent).

Chinese dialects are very different, according to Jerry

Norman, a former professor of linguistics at the University of Washington and author of "Chinese

(Cambridge Language Surveys)" (Cambridge University Press, 1988). "Chinese is rather more like

a language family than a single language made up of a number of regional forms," he wrote. "The

Chinese dialectal complex is in many ways analogous to the Romance language family in Europe.

To take an extreme example, there is probably as much difference between the dialects of Peking

[Beijing] and Chaozhou as there is between Italian and French."

The official national language of China is Pŭtōnghuà, a type of Mandarin spoken in

the capital Beijing, according to the Order of the President of the People's Republic of China.

Many Chinese are also fluent in English.

FOOD

Like other aspects of Chinese life, cuisine is heavily influenced by geography and ethnic diversity.

Among the main styles of Chinese cooking are Cantonese, which features stir-fried dishes, and

Szechuan, which relies heavily on use of peanuts, sesame paste and ginger and is known for its

spiciness.

Rice is not only a major food source in China; it is also a major element that helped grow their

society, according to "Pathways to Asian Civilizations: Tracing the Origins and Spread of Rice

and Rice Cultures," an 2011 article in the journal Rice by Dorian Q. Fuller. The Chinese word for

rice is fan, which also means "meal," and it is a staple of their diet, as are bean sprouts, cabbage

and scallions. Because they do not consume a lot of meat — occasionally pork or chicken — tofu

is a main source of protein for the Chinese.

THE ARTS

Chinese art is greatly influenced by the country’s rich spiritual

and mystical history. Many sculptures and paintings depict

spiritual figures of Buddhism, according to the Metropolitan

Museum of Art.

Many musical instruments are integral to Chinese culture,

including the flute-like xun and the guqin, which is in the

zither family. Eastern-style martial arts were also developed in China, and it is the birthplace of

kung fu. This fighting technique is based on animal movements and was created in the mid-1600s,

according to Black Belt Magazine. Ancient Chinese were avid writers and philosophers —

especially during the Ming and Qing dynasties — and that is reflected in the country’s rich

liturgical history.

CUSTOMS AND CELEBRATIONS The largest festival — also called the Spring Festival — marks the beginning of the Lunar New

Year. It falls between mid-January and mid-February and is a time to honor ancestors. During the

15-day celebration, the Chinese do something every day to welcome the new year, such as eat rice

congee and mustard greens to cleanse the body, according to the University of Victoria. The

holiday is marked with fireworks and parades featuring dancers dressed as dragons.

Many people make pilgrimages to Confucius' birthplace in Shandong Province on his birthday,

Sept. 28. The birthday of Guanyin, the goddess of mercy, is observed by visiting Taoist temples.

It falls between late March and late April. Similar celebrations mark the birthday of Mazu, the

goddess of the sea (also known as Tianhou), in May or June. The Moon Festival is celebrated in

September or October with fireworks, paper lanterns and moon gazing.

LITERATURE

The Zhou dynasty is often regarded as the touchstone of

Chinese cultural development. Concepts covered within the

Chinese classic texts present a wide range of subjects

including poetry, astrology, astronomy, calendar,

constellations and many others. Some of the most important

early texts include the I Ching and the Shujing within the Four

Books and Five Classics. Many Chinese concepts such as Yin

and Yang, Qi, Four Pillars of Destiny in relation to heaven and

earth were theorized in the pre-imperial periods.

The Song dynasty was also a period of great scientific literature, and saw the creation of works

such as Su Song's Xin Yixiang Fayao and Shen Kuo's Dream Pool Essays. There were also

enormous works of historiography and large encyclopedias, such as Sima Guang's Zizhi Tongjian

of 1084 or the Four Great Books of Song fully compiled and edited by the 11th century. Notable

Confucianists, Taoists and scholars of all classes have made significant contributions to and from

documenting history to authoring saintly concepts that seem hundred of years ahead of time. Many

novels such as Four Great Classical Novels spawned countless fictional stories. By the end of the

Qing dynasty, Chinese culture would embark on a new era with written vernacular Chinese for the

common citizens. Hu Shih and Lu Xun would be pioneers in modern literature.

VALUES

Most social values are derived from Confucianism and Taoism.

The subject of which school was the most influential is always

debated as many concepts such as Neo-Confucianism, Buddhism

and many others have come about. Reincarnation and other rebirth

concept is a reminder of the connection between real-life and the

after-life. In Chinese business culture, the concept of guanxi,

indicating the primacy of relations over rules, has been well

documented.

Confucianism was the official philosophy throughout most of Imperial China's history, and

mastery of Confucian texts was the primary criterion for entry into the imperial bureaucracy. A

number of more authoritarian strains of thought have also been influential, such as Legalism.

There was often conflict between the philosophies, e.g. the Song Dynasty Neo-Confucians

believed Legalism departed from the original spirit of Confucianism. Examinations and a culture

of merit remain greatly valued in China today. In recent years, a number of New Confucians (not

to be confused with Neo-Confucianism) have advocated that democratic ideals and human rights

are quite compatible with traditional Confucian "Asian values".

MALAYSIA CULTURE AND TRADITIONS

The culture of Malaysia draws on the varied cultures of the different people of Malaysia. The first

people to live in the area were indigenous tribes that still remain; they were followed by the Malays,

who moved there from mainland Asia in ancient times. Chinese and Indian cultural influences made

their mark when trade began with those countries, and increased with immigration to Malaysia. Other

cultures that heavily influenced that of Malaysia include Persian, Arabic, and British. The many

different ethnicities that currently exist in Malaysia have their own unique and distinctive cultural

identities, with some crossover.

ETHNIC GROUPS

Malaysia is a multi–ethnic, multicultural, and

multilingual society, and the many ethnic groups in

Malaysia maintain separate cultural identities. The

society of Malaysia has been described as "Asia in

miniature". The original culture of the area stemmed

from its indigenous tribes, along with the Malays who

moved there in ancient times. Substantial influence exists

from the Chinese and Indian cultures, dating back to

when trade with those countries began in the area. Other

cultures that heavily influenced that of Malaysia

include Persian, Arabic, and British. The structure of the

government, along with the racial balance of power caused by the idea of a social contract, has resulted

in little incentive for the cultural assimilation of ethnic minorities in Malaya and Malaysia. The

government has historically made little distinction between "Malay culture" and "Malaysian culture".

FESTIVALS

The largest celebration for the Muslim community is Eid

ul Fitr, or locally known as Hari Raya Aidilfitri. It marks

the end of the fasting month, Ramadan and the

beginning of Syawal. Another major festival is the Hari

Raya Aidiladha, which marks the completion of the Haji

pilgrimage in Makkah.

The Kadazandusun and Murut communities in Sabah

celebrate Tadau Kaamatan or Harvest Festival in May.

In Sarawak, Gawai Dayak (celebrated in June) is

centuries-old celebration that marks the end of the paddy

planting season ant the start of a new season.

MUSIC

Traditional Malay music and performing arts appear to have originated in the Kelantan-Pattani region

with influences from India, China, Thailand, and Indonesia. The music is based around percussion

instruments, the most important of which is the gendang (drum). There are at least 14 types of

traditional drums. Drums and other traditional percussion instruments are often made from natural

materials such as shells. Other instruments include the rebab (a bowed string instrument), the serunai

(a double-reed oboe-like instrument), the seruling (flute), and trumpets.

ARTS

Traditional Malaysian art is mainly centred on the crafts of

carving, weaving, and silversmithing. Traditional art ranges from

handwoven baskets from rural areas to the silverwork of the

Malay courts. Common artworks included

ornamental kris and beetle nut sets. Luxurious textiles known

as Songket are made, as well as traditional

patterned batik fabrics. Indigenous East Malaysians are known

for their wooden masks. Malaysian art has expanded only

recently, as before the 1950s Islamic taboos about drawing

people and animals were strong. Textiles such as

the batik, songket, pua kumbu, and tekat are used for decorations, often embroidered with a painting

or pattern. Traditional jewelry was made from gold and silver adorned with gems, and, in East

Malaysia, leather and beads were used to the same effect.

FOOD AND ECONOMY

Food in Daily Life.Malaysia's diversity has blessed the country with one of the most exquisite cuisines

in the world, and elements of Malay, Chinese, and Indian cooking are both distinct and blended

together. Rice and noodles are common to all cuisine; spicy dishes are also favorites. Tropical fruits

grow in abundance, and a local favorite is the durian, known by its spiked shell and fermented flesh

whose pungent aroma and taste often separates locals from foreigners.

RELIGION

Religious Beliefs. Nearly all the world religions, including Islam,

Buddhism, Hinduism, and Christianity are present in Malaysia. Religion

correlates strongly with ethnicity, with most Muslims Malay, most Hindus

Indian, and most Buddhists Chinese. The presence of such diversity

heightens the importance of religious identity, and most Malaysians have a

strong sense of how their religious practice differs from that of others

(therefore a Malaysian Christian also identifies as a non-Muslim).

Religious holidays, especially those celebrated with open houses, further

blend the interreligious experience of the population.

ARCHITECTURE

Architecture in Malaysia is a combination of many styles, from

Islamic and Chinese styles to those brought by European

colonists. Malay architecture has changed due to these

influences. Houses in the north are similar to those in Thailand,

while those in the south are similar to those in Java. New

materials, such as glasses and nails, were brought in by

Europeans, changing the architecture. Houses are built for

tropical conditions, raised on stilts with high roofs and large

windows, allowing air to flow through the house and cool it

down. Wood has been the main building material for much of

Malaysia's history; it is used for everything from the simple kampung to royal palaces. In Negeri

Sembilan traditional houses are entirely free of nails. Besides wood, other common materials such as

bamboo and leaves were used. The Istana Kenangan in Kuala Kangar was built in 1926, and it the only

Malay palace with bamboo walls.

LITERATURE

The strong oral tradition that has existed since before the arrival

of writing to what is now Malaysia continues today. These early

works were heavily influenced by Indian epics. Oral literature

such as folktales flourished even after printed works

appeared.The Arabic Jawi script arrived with the coming of

Islam to the peninsula in the late 15th century. At this point,

stories which previously had given lessons in Hinduism and

Buddhism were taken to have more universal meanings, with

their main story lines remaining intact.

CLOTHING

As of 2013 most Muslim Malaysian women wear the tudung, a

type of hijab. This use of the tudung was uncommon prior to the

1979 Iranian revolution, and the places that had women in

tudung tended to be rural areas. The usage of the tudung sharply

increased after the 1970s. as religious conservatism among

Malay people in both Malaysia and Singapore increased.

CULTURE OF AFRICA

The culture of Africa is varied and manifold, consisting of a mixture of tribes that each have their own

unique characteristics. It is a product of the diverse populations that today inhabit the continent of

Africa and the African Diaspora. African culture is expressed in its arts and crafts, folklore and religion,

clothing, cuisine, music and languages.[1] Africa is so full of culture, with it not only changing from

one country to another, but within a single country, many cultures can be discovered. Even though

African cultures are widely diverse, it is also, when closely studied, seen to have many similarities.

For example, the morals they uphold, their love and respect for their culture as well as the strong

respect they hold for the aged and the important i.e. Kings and Chiefs.

Africa has influenced and been influenced by other continents. This can be portrayed in the willingness

to adapt to the ever changing modern world rather than staying rooted to their static culture. The

Westernized few, persuaded by European culture and Christianity, first denied African traditional

culture, but with the increase of African nationalism, a cultural recovery occurred. The governments

of most African nations encourage national dance and music groups, museums, and to a lower degree,

artists and writers.

AFRICAN ARTS AND CRAFTS

Africa has a rich tradition of arts and crafts. African arts and

crafts find expression in a variety of woodcarvings, brass and

leather art works. African arts and crafts also include sculpture,

paintings, pottery, ceremonial and religious headgear and dress.

Maulana Karenga states that in African art, the object was not as

important as the soul force behind the creation of the object. He

also states that All art must be revolutionary and in being revolutionary it must be collective,

committing, and functional.

FOLKLORE AND RELIGION

Like all human cultures, African folklore and religion represents a

variety of social facets of the various cultures in Africa. Like almost

all civilizations and cultures, flood myths have been circulating in

different parts of Africa. Culture and religion share space and are

deeply intertwined in African cultures. In Ethiopia, Christianity and

Islam form the core aspects of Ethiopian culture and inform dietary

customs as well as rituals and rites. Folktales also play an important

role in many African cultures. Stories reflect a group cultural identity

and preserving the stories of Africa will help preserve an entire

culture. Storytelling affirms pride and identity in a culture. In Africa, stories are created by and for the

ethnic group telling them. Different ethnic groups in Africa have different rituals or ceremonies for

storytelling, which creates a sense of belonging to a cultural group. To outsiders hearing an ethnic

group's stories, it provides an insight into the community's beliefs, views, and customs. CLOTHING

Women's traditional clothes in Ethiopia are made from cloth called shemma and are used to make

habesha kemis. The latter garment is basically cotton cloth, about 90 cm wide, woven in long strips

which are then sewn together. Sometimes shiny threads are woven into the

fabric for an elegant effect. Men wear pants and a knee-length shirt with a

white collar, and perhaps a sweater. Men often wear knee-high socks,

while women might not wear socks at all. Men as well as women wear

shawls, the netela. Zulus wear a variety of attire, both traditional for

ceremonial or culturally celebratory occasions, and modern westernised

clothing for everyday use. Traditional male clothing is usually light,

consisting of a two-part apron (similar to a loincloth) used to cover the

genitals and buttocks.

CUISINE

The various cuisines of Africa use a combination of locally

available fruits, cereal grains and vegetables, as well as milk and

meat products. In some parts of the continent, the traditional diet

features a preponderance of milk, curd and whey products. In

much of tropical Africa, however, cow's milk is rare and cannot

be produced locally (owing to various diseases that affect

livestock). The continent's diverse demographic makeup is

reflected in the many different eating and drinking habits, dishes,

and preparation techniques of its manifold populations.

AFRICAN MUSIC

Traditional Sub-Saharan African music is as diverse as the region's various

populations. The common perception of Sub-Saharan African music is that it is

rhythmic music centered on the drums, and indeed, a large part of Sub-Saharan

music, mainly among speakers of Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan languages, is

rhythmic and centered on the drum. Sub-Saharan music is polyrhythmic, usually

consisting of multiple rhythms in one composition. Dance involves moving

multiple body parts. These aspects of Sub-Saharan music were transferred to the

new world by enslaved Sub-Saharan Africans and can be seen in its influence on

music forms as Samba, Jazz, Rhythm and Blues, Rock & Roll, Salsa, and Rap

music.

LANGUAGES

The main ethno-linguistic divisions in Africa are Afro-Asiatic (North Africa, Horn of Africa), Niger–

Congo (including speakers from the Bantu branch) in most of Sub-Saharan Africa, Nilo-Saharan in

parts of the Sahara and the Sahel and parts of Eastern Africa, and Khoisan (indigenous minorities of

Southern Africa).[23] The continent of Africa speaks hundreds of languages, and if dialects spoken by

various ethnic groups are also included, the number is much higher. These languages and dialects do

not have the same importance: some are spoken by only few hundred people, others are spoken by

millions. Among the most prominent languages spoken are Arabic, Swahili and Hausa. Very few

countries of Africa use any single language and for this reason several official languages coexist,

African and European. Some Africans speak various European languages such as English, Spanish,

French, Portuguese, Italian, German and Dutch.

CULTURE OF JAPAN

The culture of Japan has evolved greatly over the millennia, from the country's prehistoric Jōmon

period, to its contemporary modern culture, which absorbs influences from Asia, Europe, and

North America. The inhabitants of Japan experienced a long period of relative isolation from the

outside world during the Tokugawa shogunate after Japanese missions to Imperial China, until the

arrival of "The Black Ships" and the Meiji period.

LANGUAGE

Japanese is the official and primary language

of Japan. Japanese is relatively small but has

a lexically distinct pitch-accent system. Early

Japanese is known largely on the basis of its

state in the 8th century, when the three major

works of Old Japanese were compiled. The

earliest attestation of the Japanese language

is in a Chinese document from 252 AD.

Japanese is written with a combination of

three scripts: hiragana, derived from the Chinese cursive script, katakana, derived as a shorthand

from Chinese characters, and kanji, imported from China. The Latin alphabet, rōmaji, is also often

used in modern Japanese, especially for company names and logos, advertising, and when

inputting Japanese into a computer. The Hindu-Arabic numerals are generally used for numbers,

but traditional Sino-Japanese numerals are also very common.

LITERATURE

Early works of Japanese literature were heavily influenced by cultural contact with China and

Chinese literature, often written in Classical Chinese. Indian literature also had an influence

through the spread of Buddhism throughout Japan. Eventually, Japanese literature developed into

a separate style in its own right as Japanese writers began writing their own works about Japan.

Since Japan reopened its ports to Western trading and diplomacy in the 19th century, Western and

Eastern literature have strongly affected each other and continue to do so.

MUSIC

The music of Japan includes a wide array of performers in distinct styles both traditional and

modern. The word for music in Japanese is 音楽 (ongaku), combining the kanji 音 "on" (sound)

with the kanji 楽 "gaku" (enjoyment). Japan is the second largest music market in the world, behind

the United States, and the largest in Asia, and most of the market is dominated by Japanese artists.

Local music often appears at karaoke venues, which is on lease from the record labels. Traditional

Japanese music is quite different from Western Music and is based on the intervals of human

breathing rather than mathematical timing In 1873, a British traveler claimed that Japanese music,

"exasperates beyond all endurance the European breast.

VISUAL ARTS

Painting- Painting has been an art in Japan for a very long time:

the brush is a traditional writing and painting tool, and the

extension of that to its use as an artist's tool was probably natural.

Calligraphy- The flowing, brush-drawn Japanese rendering of text

itself is seen as a traditional art form as well as a means of

conveying written information. The written work can consist of

phrases, poems, stories, or even single characters.

RELIGION

Buddhism and Shintoism is the primary religions of Japan.

ARCHITECTURE

Japanese architecture has as long of a history as any other aspect of Japanese culture. Originally

heavily influenced by Chinese architecture, it has developed many differences and aspects which

are indigenous to Japan. Examples of traditional architecture are seen at temples, Shinto shrines,

and castles in Kyoto and Nara. Some of these buildings are constructed with traditional gardens,

which are influenced from Zen ideas.

TRADITIONAL CLOTHING

Traditional Japanese clothing distinguishes Japan from all other countries around the world. The

Japanese word kimono means "something one wears" and they are the traditional garments of

Japan. Originally, the word kimono was used for all types of clothing, but eventually, it came to

refer specifically to the full-length garment also known as the naga-gi, meaning "long-wear", that

is still worn today on special occasions by women, men, and children. The earliest kimonos were

heavily influenced by traditional Han Chinese clothing, known today as hanfu (漢服, kanfuku in

Japanese), through Japanese embassies to China which resulted in extensive Chinese culture

adoptions by Japan, as early as the 5th century AD.

CUISINE

Through a long culinary past, the Japanese have developed sophisticated and refined cuisine. In

more recent years, Japanese food has become fashionable and popular in the United States, Europe,

and many other areas. Dishes such as sushi, tempura, noodles, and teriyaki are some of the foods

that are commonly known. The Japanese diet consists principally of rice; fresh, lean seafood; and

pickled or boiled vegetables. The healthy Japanese diet is often believed to be related to the

longevity of Japanese people.

POPULAR CULTURE

Japanese popular culture not only reflects the attitudes and concerns of the present day, but also

provides a link to the past. Popular films, television programs, manga, music, anime and video

games all developed from older artistic and literary traditions, and many of their themes and styles

of presentation can be traced to traditional art forms. Contemporary forms of popular culture, much

like the traditional forms, provide not only entertainment but also an escape for the contemporary

Japanese from the problems of an industrial world.

CULTURE OF SAUDI ARABIA

The cultural setting of Saudi Arabia is Arab and Islam, and society itself

is in general deeply religious, conservative, traditional, and family

oriented. Many attitudes and traditions are centuries-old, derived from

Arab civilization. However its culture has also been affected by rapid

change, as the country was transformed from an impoverished nomadic

society into a rich commodity producer in just a few years in the

1970s.The most recent ruler or king of Saudi is King Salman Al Saud.

The Wahhabi Islamic movement, which arose in the 18th century and is

sometimes described as austerely puritanical, now predominates in the

country. Following the principle of "enjoining good and forbidding

wrong", there are many limitations on behaviour and dress are strictly

enforced both legally and socially, often more so than in other Muslim

countries. Alcoholic beverages are prohibited, for example, and there is no theatre or public exhibition

of films.

Daily life is dominated by Islamic observance. Five times each day, Muslims are called to prayer from

the minarets of mosques scattered throughout the country. Because Friday is the holiest day for

Muslims, the weekend is Friday-Saturday. In accordance with Wahhabi doctrine, only two religious

holidays, Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha, were publicly recognized, until 2006 when a non-religious

holiday, the 23 September national holiday (which commemorates the unification of the kingdom) was

reintroduced.

RELIGION

Observers have described Saudi Arabian society as deeply religious and

deeply conservative. Saudi Arabia is the "only modern Muslim state to

have been created by jihad, the only one to claim the Quran as its

constitution", and the only Arab-Muslim country "to have escaped

European imperialism." Islam is the state religion of Saudi Arabia

The official and dominant form of Islam in the kingdom, and "the

predominant feature of Saudi culture"[6] is the austerely puritanical

form of Sunni Islam known as Wahhabism. Wahhabism arose in the central region of Najd, the

eighteenth century. Proponents call the movement "Salafism",and believe that its teachings purify the

practice of Islam of innovations or practices that deviate from the seventh-century teachings of

Muhammad and his companions. SOCIAL LIFE AND CUSTOMS

Bedouin- A large portion of the original inhabitants of the area that is now Saudi were desert nomads

known as Bedouin. They remain a significant and very influential minority of the indigenous Saudi

population, though many who call themselves "bedou" no longer engage in "traditional tribal activities

of herding sheep and riding camels.

Greetings- Greetings in Saudi Arabia have been called "formal and proscribed" and lengthy. Saudis

(men) tend "to take their time and converse for a bit when meeting". Inquiries "about health and family"

are customary, but never about a man's wife, as this "is considered disrespectful.

Dress- The religion and customs of Saudi Arabia dictate not only conservative

dress for men and women, but a uniformity of dress unique to most of the Middle

East. Traditionally, the different regions of Saudi have had different dress, but

since the re-establishment of Saudi rule these have been reserved for festive

occasions, and "altered if not entirely displaced" by the dress of the homeland of

their rulers (i.e. Najd).

MARRIAGE

Traditionally, in Saudi Arabia (and other Gulf countries), families arrange marriages with the tribeor

family's considerations in mind, rather than Western/modern ideas of romantic love and self-identity.

Sons and daughters have been encouraged to "marry cousins or other relatives in order to increase and

strengthen" the extended family or tribe, "or occasionally to marry into another tribe in order to heal

rifts". At least in the 1990s, most marriages in Saudi were "consanguineous"—i.e. between close

relatives—sometimes a second cousin but usually a first cousin. and marriage between cousins in Saudi

is among the highest rate in the world. Unfortunately the practice has been cited as a factor in higher

rates of Type 2 diabetes, (which affects about 32% of adult Saudis), hypertension, (which affects 33%),

and higher rates of severe genetic diseases like cystic fibrosis or Thalassemia, a blood disorder,

thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, spinal muscular atrophy, deafness and muteness. As a consequence of

frequent consanguineous marriage, genetic counseling is a growing field in Saudi Arabia

OTHER CUSTOMS

As in other Arab and especially Gulf countries, Saudi customs include avoiding certain practices, such

as:

• anything that would cause someone (or at least another Saudi) embarrassment and loss

of face, criticism by outsiders must be delivered indirectly, circumspectly, and never in front of

others;

• exposing the soles of the feet or footwear to someone;(other insulting body language include

upward raising of the a single finger, excessive pointing, fist clenching and pounding of the right

fist into the left palm)

• using the left hand when eating (that hand traditionally being used for personal hygiene);

• rushing into doing business before conversation and the drinking of tea and coffee (violation of a

desert code of hospitality, a code stemming from the recognition that a desert traveler who is denied

hospitality might not survive).

• admiring a movable possession of a Saudi, since an hospitable Saudi will feel obliged to offer the

possession as a gift to the guest admirer.

FOOD AND DRINK

Saudi Arabian cuisine is similar to that of the surrounding countries in the Arabian Peninsula, and has

been heavily influenced by Turkish, Persian, and African food. Animals are slaughtered in accordance

with halal Islamic dietary laws, which consider pork impure (najis) and alcohol forbidden (haram). As

a general rule, Saudis (like other Muslims) consider impure pork to be disgusting, but forbidden alcohol

a temptation. Consequently, dietary laws regarding the former are more strictly observed than those

regarding the latter.

SPORT

Association football (soccer) is the national sport in Saudi Arabia. In recent years, some Saudi players

have become skilled enough to play in Europe. The Saudi Arabian national football team is governed

by the Saudi Arabia Football Federation (SFF). The national team competed in the FIFA World Cup

four times, and the AFC Asian Cup 12 times. Basketball is also popular. The Saudi Arabian national

basketball team won the bronze medal at the 1999 Asian Championship.

ARTS AND ENTERTAINMENT

Visual arts tend to be dominated by geometric, floral, and abstract designs and by calligraphy. Sunni

Islam traditionally prohibits creating representations of people, and from the 18th century onward,

Wahhabi fundamentalism discouraged artistic development inconsistent with its teaching. With the

advent of oil wealth in the 20th century came exposure to outside influences, such as Western housing

styles, furnishings, and clothes.

The ten-day-long Jenadriyah National Festival celebrates the founding of the kingdom and showcases

Saudi culture and heritage, traditional crafts such as pottery and woodcutting, folk dance and traditional

songs.

LITERATURE

Bedouin poetry is a cultural tradition in Saudi Arabia. According to Sandra Mackey, author of The

Saudis: Inside the Desert Kingdom, "the role that formal poetry, prose, and oratory play in Saudi

culture is totally alien to Western culture." Mackey explained that the Bedouin poet was the origin of

Saudi society's traditionally strong attachment to the concept of language. She said that poetry "can

arise in the most curious of situations" due to the role of poetry in Saudi culture.

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

Many outsiders are struck by the superficial resemblance of Saudi cities (at least those on the coast

such as Jeddah) -- with their superhighways, shopping malls and fast food—to those of post-World

War II western cities and suburbs.

ISLAMIC HERITAGE SITES

Saudi Arabia, and specifically the Hejaz, as the cradle of

Islam, has many of the most significant historic Muslim sites,

including the two holiest sites of Mecca and Medina. One of

the King's titles is Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, the

two mosques being Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, (which

contains Islam's most sacred place, the Kaaba), and Al-

Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina, which contains Muhammad's

tomb.

CULTURE OF INDIA

The culture of India refers collectively to the thousands of distinct and unique cultures of all

religions and communities present in India. India's languages, religions, dance, music, architecture,

food, and customs differs from place to place within the country. The Indian culture, often labeled

as an amalgamation of several cultures, spans across the Indian subcontinent and has been

influenced by a history that is several millennia old. Many elements of India's diverse cultures,

such as Indian religions, Indian philosophy and Indian cuisine, have had a profound impact across

the world.

CULTURE

India is one of the world's oldest civilizations and one of the most populated countries in the world.

The Indian culture, often labeled as an amalgamation of several various cultures, spans across the

Indian subcontinent and has been influenced and shaped by a history that is several thousand years

old. Throughout the history of India, Indian culture has been heavily influenced by Dharmic

religions. They have been credited with shaping much of Indian philosophy, literature,

architecture, art and music. Greater India was the historical extent of Indian culture beyond the

Indian subcontinent. This particularly concerns the spread of Hinduism, Buddhism, architecture,

administration and writing system from India to other parts of Asia through the Silk Road by the

travellers and maritime traders during the early centuries of the Common Era. To the west, Greater

India overlaps with Greater Persia in the Hindu Kush and Pamir Mountains. Over the centuries,

there has been significant fusion of cultures between Buddhists, Hindus, Muslims (Sunni, Shia,

Sufi), Jains, Sikhs and various tribal populations in India.

India is the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, collectively known as Indian

religions. Indian religions are a major form of world religions along with Abrahamic ones. Today,

Hinduism and Buddhism are the world's third and fourth-largest religions respectively, with over

2 billion followers altogether, and possibly as many as 2.5 or 2.6 billion followers. Followers of

Indian religions – Hindus, Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists make up around 80–82% population of India.

India is one of the most religiously and ethnically diverse nations in the world, with some of the

most deeply religious societies and cultures. Religion plays a central and definitive role in the life

of many of its people. Although India is a secular Hindu-majority country, it has a large Muslim

population. Except for Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Meghalaya, Manipur, Nagaland, Mizoram

and Lakshadweep, Hindus form the predominant population in all 29 states and 7 union territories.

Muslims are present throughout India, with large populations in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra,

Kerala, Telangana, West Bengal and Assam; while only Jammu and Kashmir and Lakshadweep

have majority Muslim populations. Sikhs and Christians are other significant

minorities of India

PHILOSOPHY

Indian philosophy comprises the philosophical traditions of the Indian

subcontinent. There are six schools of orthodox Hindu philosophy—Nyaya,

Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta—and four heterodox

schools—Jain, Buddhist, Ājīvika and Cārvāka – last two are also schools of

Hinduism. However, there are other methods of classification; Vidyaranya for

instance identifies sixteen schools of Indian philosophy by including those that belong to the Śaiva and

Raseśvara traditions. Since medieval India (ca.1000–1500), schools of Indian philosophical thought

have been classified by the Brahmanical tradition as either orthodox or non-orthodox – āstika or nāstika

– depending on whether they regard the Vedas as an infallible source of knowledge.

FAMILY STRUCTURE AND MARRIAGE

For generations, India has a prevailing tradition of the joint family system.

It is when extended members of a family – parents, children, the children's

spouses and their offspring, etc. – live together. Usually, the oldest male

member is the head in the joint Indian family system. He mostly makes all

important decisions and rules, and other family members are likely to abide

by them.

WEDDING RITUALS

Weddings are festive occasions in India with extensive decorations, colors,

music, dance, costumes and rituals that depend on the religion of the bride

and the groom, as well as their preferences. The nation celebrates about 10

million weddings per year,of which over 80% are Hindu weddings.

While there are many festival-related rituals in Hinduism, vivaha (wedding)

is the most extensive personal ritual an adult Hindu undertakes in his or her

life. Typical Hindu families spend significant effort and financial resources to prepare and celebrate

weddings. The rituals and process of a Hindu wedding vary depending on region of India, local

adaptations, resources of the family and preferences of the bride and the groom.

FESTIVALS

India, being a multi-cultural, multi-ethnic and multi-

religious society, celebrates holidays and festivals of

various religions. The three national holidays in India,

the Independence Day, the Republic Day and the

Gandhi Jayanti, are celebrated with zeal and

enthusiasm across India. In addition, many Indian

states and regions have local festivals depending on

prevalent religious and linguistic demographics.

Popular religious festivals include the Hindu festivals

of Navratri, Janmashtami, Diwali, Maha Shivratri,

Ganesh Chaturthi, Durga Puja, Holi, Rath Yatra,

Ugadi, Onam, Vasant Panchami, Rakshabandhan, and Dussehra. Several harvest

festivals such as Makar Sankranti, Pongal and Raja sankaranti swinging festival

are also fairly popular. CLOTHING

Traditional clothing in India greatly varies across different parts of the country and

is influenced by local culture, geography, climate and rural/urban settings. Popular

styles of dress include draped garments such as sari for women and dhoti or lungi

or panche (in Kannada) for men. Stitched clothes are also popular such as churidar

or salwar-kameez for women, with dupatta (long scarf) thrown over shoulder

completing the outfit. Salwar is often loose fitting, while churidar is a tighter cut.

LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE

The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful

structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin,

and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them

a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and the forms of

grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so

strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three,

without believing them to have sprung from some common source,

which, perhaps, no longer exists; there is a similar reason, though

not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothic and the

Celtic, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same

origin with the Sanskrit ...

— Sir William Jones, 1786.

EPICS

The Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata are the oldest preserved and

well-known epics of India. Versions have been adopted as the

epics of Southeast Asian countries like Philippines, Thailand,

Malaysia and Indonesia. The Ramayana consists of 24,000 verses

in seven books (kāṇḍas) and 500 cantos (sargas), and tells the

story of Rama (an incarnation or Avatar of the Hindu preserver-

god Vishnu), whose wife Sita is abducted by the demon king of

Lanka, Ravana. This epic played a pivotal role in establishing the

role of dhárma as a principal ideal guiding force for Hindu way of life. The earliest parts of the

Mahabharata text date to 400 BC and is estimated to have reached its final form by the early Gupta

period (c. 4th century AD). Other regional variations of these, as well as unrelated epics include

the Tamil Ramavataram, Kannada Pampa Bharata, Hindi Ramacharitamanasa, and Malayalam

Adhyathmaramayanam. In addition to these two great Indian epics, there are five major epics in

the classical Tamil language — Silappatikaram, Manimekalai, Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi and Valayapathi-

kundalakesi

DANCE

India has had a long romance with the art of dance. The Hindu

Sanskrit texts Nātyaśāstra (Science of Dance) and Abhinaya

Darpana (Mirror of Gesture) are estimated to be from 200 BCE to

early centuries of the 1st millennium CE.

The Indian art of dance as taught in these ancient books, according to

Ragini Devi, is the expression of inner beauty and the divine in man.It

is a deliberate art, nothing is left to chance, each gesture seeks to

communicate the ideas, each facial expression the emotions.

CULTURE OF SINGAPORE

The culture of Singapore is the combination of Asian and European

cultures. Influenced by Malay, South Asian, East Asian, and Eurasian

cultures, Singapore has been dubbed as a country where "East meets

West", "Easy Asia" and "Garden city".

HISTORY

Singapore history dates back to the third century. It was a vassal state of various empires before being

reestablished and renamed by Sang Nila Utama. The island was ruled by various sultanates until 1819,

when the British came to the island and set up a port and colony. During British rule, the port of

Singapore flourished and attracted many migrants. After independence in 1965, Singapore made its

own way. It has a diverse populace of over 5.47 million people which is made up of Chinese, Malays,

Indians, and Eurasians (plus other mixed groups) and Asians of different origins.

ATTITUDES AND BELIEFS

Meritocracy- "The system of meritocracy in Singapore ensures that the best and brightest, regardless

of race, religion and socio-economic background, are encouraged to develop to their fullest potential.

Everyone has access to education, which equips them with skills and knowledge to earn a better living."

Indeed, the Education in Singapore ensures that primary education is compulsory for all children of

age 7 to 12. Parents have to apply for exemptions from the Ministry of Education in Singapore in order

to exempt their children under this compulsory rule with valid reasonings.

Social harmony- Singapore is a secular immigrant country. The main religions in Singapore are

Buddhism, Christianity, Islam and Hinduism. Respect for different religions and personal beliefs is

heavily emphasised by the government.

Democracy, peace, progress, justice and equality- he concepts of democracy, peace, progress, justice

and equality are enshrined as stars in the Singapore national flag. Freedom in the World ranked

Singapore 4 out of 7 for political freedom, and 4 out of 7 for civil liberties (where 1 is the most free),

with an overall ranking of "partly free". Reporters without Borders ranked Singapore 153th out of 180

countries in their Press Freedom Index for 2015.

ETHNIC AREAS

Singapore has several distinct ethnic neighbourhoods, including Little India, Chinatown and Kampong

Glam.

Little India is known and patronised by all races within the population for its thalis-- South Indian

"buffets" that are vegetarian and served on the traditional banana leaves. These neighbourhoods are

accessible by public transport, especially by Mass Rapid Transit (MRT).

Singapore's Chinatown is an ethnic neighbourhood featuring distinctly Chinese cultural elements and

a historically concentrated ethnic Chinese population. Chinatown is located within the larger district

of Outram.

CULTURAL POLICY

Singapore maintains tight restrictions on arts and cultural performances. Most artistic works have to

be vetted by the government in advance, and topics that breach so-called out of bounds markers (OB

markers) are not permitted. While the OB markers are not publicly defined, they are generally

assumed to include sensitive topics such as race, religion, and allegations of corruption or nepotism

in government. Nudity and other forms of loosely defined "obscenity" are also banned. Singaporean

film director Royston Tan has produced movies which challenge these policies, including a movie

called Cut in reference to censorship of the arts.

CULTURAL WORLD HERITAGE SITES

The Singapore Botanic Gardens is one of three gardens, and the

only tropical garden, to be honored as a UNESCO World

Heritage Site.

CUISINE

Singaporean cuisine is also a prime example of diversity and cultural diffusion in Singapore. In

Singapore's hawker centres, for example, traditionally Malay hawker stalls selling also Tamil food.

Chinese stalls may introduce Malay ingredients, cooking techniques or entire dishes into their range of

catering. This continues to make the cuisine of Singapore significantly rich and a cultural attraction.

Singaporeans also enjoy a wide variety of seafood including crabs, clams, squid, and oysters. One

favorite dish is the stingray barbecued and served on banana leaf and with sambal (chilli).

FESTIVALS

The major public holidays reflect the mentioned racial diversity, including Chinese New Year,

Buddhist Vesak Day, Muslim Eid ul-Fitr (known locally by its Malay name Hari Raya Puasa), and

Hindu Diwali (known locally by its Tamil name Deepavali). Christians constitute a large and rapidly

growing minority, and Christmas Day, Good Friday, and New Year's Day are also public holidays.

LANGUAGES

Many Singaporeans, are bilingual. Most speak Singaporean English and another language, most

commonly Mandarin, Malay, Tamil or Singapore Colloquial English (Singlish). Singapore Standard

English is virtually the same as British, Malaysian, and Indian Standard English in most aspects of

grammar and spelling, though there are some differences vocabulary and minor spelling differences,

for example the word 'swap' is commonly spelt 'swop', as is standard in The Straits Times.

MUSIC

Singapore has a diverse music culture that ranges from rock and pop to folk and classical.

RELIGION

Religion in Singapore is characterized by a diversity of religious beliefs and practices due to its diverse

ethnic mix of peoples originating from various countries.