Affirmative Action Policies in the US:An Introductory Overview

Presentation by Glenn C. LouryMerton P. Stoltz Professor of the Social Sciences

Brown University

For Discussion Group on Affirmative ActionInstitute for Advanced Study in Toulouse,

September 14, 2018

AA = {cognizance of ‘social identity’} + {concern for ‘inequality’} + {need to ration access to elite positions}

Affirmative Action policies presuppose four things:

(1) Hierarchy of more/less desired positions,

(2) Significant racial/ethnic (gender) diversity of identities

(3) Substantial social disparity between these groups (due perhaps to a history of social exclusion/discrimination)

(4) Demand (political/economic) for more equal grouprepresentation

Start with a Basic Definition of Affirmative Action:

In many societies and for a variety of reasons, policy makers may seek to increase the marginalized group’s representation in scarce, high status positions.

AA policies may thus be seen as departures from purely ‘meritocratic’ selection in the interest of achieving greater ‘diversity’. (Ironically?) Affirmative Action policies presuppose elitism. That is, they seek to promote the racial integration of elite cadres.

Goals of AA Policy

(I simply note that these are very different and sometimes conflicting goals, especially the last one…)

•Deep Philosophical Q: Why Care about Group Inequality, Per Se?(Answer: Individual opportunities often determined by group status)

• Deep Political Q: Should We Formulate Policy in Explicit Group Terms?(“Group-Blindness” could be a rule even if not “Group-indifferent”)

•Related Q: When to collect social statistics in explicit group terms?(crime statistics, e.g.)

• What accounts for appeal in US of Color-Blind/Post-Racial Narratives?

• Blacks vs. Immigrants – Allies or Competitors? Conflicting Narratives?

Some elemental questions raised in the AA debate in US:

Racial Attitudes of National Samples of Whites(Source: General Social Survey, 1972 to 2004)

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Would vote for a black candidate

Would vote forOpen Housing

Law

Believe blacks shouldn't

push

Oppose interracialmarriage

Believe whites have right to segregate their neighborhoods

But Aren’t We Living In A Post-Racial Era In the US?

Chart1

19721972197219721972

19731973197319731973

19741974197419741974

19751975197519751975

19761976197619761976

19771977197719771977

19781978197819781978

19791979197919791979

19801980198019801980

19811981198119811981

19821982198219821982

19831983198319831983

19841984198419841984

19851985198519851985

19861986198619861986

19871987198719871987

19881988198819881988

19891989198919891989

19901990199019901990

19911991199119911991

19921992199219921992

19931993199319931993

19941994199419941994

19951995199519951995

19961996199619961996

19971997199719971997

19981998199819981998

19991999199919991999

20002000200020002000

20012001200120012001

20022002200220022002

20032003200320032003

20042004200420042004

Would vote for a black candidate

Would vote forOpen HousingLaw

Believe blacks shouldn'tpush

Oppose interracialmarriage

Believe whites have right to segregate their neighborhoods

% Who favor a law against interracial marriage

% Who agree that blacks shouldn't push where they aren’t wanted

% Who agree that whites have the right to segregate their neighborhoods

% Who say they would vote for a black candidate for president

% Who would vote in favor of an open housing law

0.39

0.76

0.4

0.74

0.38

0.73

0.4

0.775

0.34

0.35

0.735

0.4

0.81

0.34

0.39

0.74

0.4

0.82

0.34

0.33

0.71

0.4

0.8

0.35

0.29

0.73

0.42

0.78

0.36

0.2966666667

0.7133333333

0.39

0.83

0.37

0.3033333333

0.6966666667

0.36

0.8375

0.385

0.31

0.68

0.33

0.845

0.4

0.32

0.645

0.315

0.8525

0.4166666667

0.33

0.61

0.3

0.86

0.4333333333

0.3

0.6

0.28

0.855

0.45

0.27

0.59

0.26

0.85

0.49

0.28

0.61

0.26

0.83

0.48

0.275

0.5911111111

0.26

0.86

0.47

0.27

0.5722222222

0.26

0.825

0.49

0.26

0.5533333333

0.25

0.79

0.53

0.23

0.5344444444

0.22

0.81

0.57

0.21

0.5155555556

0.24

0.87

0.53

0.2

0.4966666667

0.2

0.88

0.58

0.195

0.4777777778

0.175

0.875

0.605

0.19

0.4588888889

0.15

0.87

0.63

0.16

0.44

0.17

0.89

0.61

0.145

0.425

0.15

0.905

0.635

0.13

0.41

0.13

0.92

0.66

0.13

0.42

0.66125

0.13

0.43

0.6625

0.125

0.425

0.66375

0.12

0.42

0.665

0.11

0.395

0.66625

0.1

0.37

0.6675

0.66875

0.67

Sheet1

Racial Attitudes of National Samples of Whites: General Social Survey 1972 to 2004

Year% Who favor a law% Who agree that% Who agree that% Who say they would% Who would vote in

against interracialblacks shouldn'twhites have the right tovote for a blackfavor of an open

marriagepush where theysegregate theircandidate forhousing law

aren’t wantedneighborhoodspresident

1972397640740.390.760.400.74

19733873340.380.730.400.780.34

197435810.350.740.400.810.34

1975397482340.390.740.400.820.34

1976337140350.330.710.400.800.35

1977297342780.290.730.420.780.36

197883370.300.710.390.830.37

19790.300.700.360.840.39

1980316833400.310.680.330.850.40

19810.320.650.320.850.42

1982336130860.330.610.300.860.43

1983450.300.600.280.860.45

198427592685490.270.590.260.850.49

1985286126830.280.610.260.830.48

198686470.280.590.260.860.47

19872726490.270.570.260.830.49

1988262579530.260.550.250.790.53

1989232281570.230.530.220.810.57

1990212487530.210.520.240.870.53

1991202088580.200.500.200.880.58

19920.200.480.180.880.61

1993191587630.190.460.150.870.63

199416441789610.160.440.170.890.61

19950.150.430.150.910.64

199613411392660.130.410.130.920.66

19970.130.420.66

199813430.130.430.66

19990.130.430.66

200012420.120.420.67

20010.110.400.67

200210370.100.370.67

20030.67

2004670.67

Source: General Social Survey

Questions: Intermarriage. Do you think there should b e laws against marriages between (Negroes/blacks/African Americans) and whites?

Blacks Push. (Negroes/blacks/African Americans) shouldn't push themselves where they are not wanted? Agree or disagree

Segregated neighborhoods. White people have a right to keep (Negroes/blacks/African Americans) out of their neighborhood if they

want to, and (Negroes/blacks/African Americans) should respect that right? Agree or Disgree

Black Candidate. If your party nominated a (Negro/black/African American) for president, would you vote for him if he were

qualified for the job?

Open Housing Law. Suppose there is a community-wide vote on the general housing issue. There are two possible laws to vote on.

One law says that a homeowner can decidee for himself who to sell his house to, even if he prefers not to sell to (Negroes/blacks/African

Americans). The second law says that a homeowner cannot refuse to sell to someone because of their race or color. Which law would

you vote for?

Sheet2

Sheet3

Further (Technical) Questions about AA Policy (to be addressed in some of the papers to come…)

• What is impact of affirmative action policy on group stereotypes? (Coate/Loury, AER 1993)

• When will AA policies undercut incentives to acquire skills in beneficiary groups? (Fryer/Loury, JPE 2013)

• Is AA best employed early or late in the process of skill development? [a difficult/important Q; Fryer/Loury]

• In a complex multiethnic society which groups should be favored by AA policies? (Asian Americans v. Harvard)

• Should AA policies be temporary and, if so, how long should they continue?

Some of My Papers on Affirmative Action

– Coate-Loury [Stephen Coate, Economics, Cornell]• AER 1993: Show how AA can worsen racial stereotypes• AER Proceedings 1994: Show how overly ambitious AA goal can lead to

the undercutting of skill acquisition incentives

– Loury• Bowen and Bok’s The Shape of the River (1998) [Forward]• Unpublished essay on reparations (argues for an “interpretative” not a

“compensatory” approach)

– Fryer-Loury [Roland Fryer, Economics, Harvard]• JEcIneq 2005: Study optimal handicapping of tournaments• JEP 2005: Dispels some popular “myths” surrounding AA• JLEO 2008: Estimate cost of color-blindness in US higher ed)• JPE 2013: Study the design of affirmative action policy as an optimal-

taxation/mechanism-design problem

Principled Argument against Aff. Action in US

• “Color-Blindness” is the ultimate non-discriminatory ideal.• Affirmative action relies on policy maker s NOT being CB:

– AA forces policy makers to take note of individuals’ racial identities– AA encourages and induces people to see selves mainly in racial terms– AA stigmatizes (in racial terms) its beneficiaries– AA fosters backlash and resentment from non-beneficiaries– AA undercuts (in racial terms) incentives of beneficiaries to get skills

• Thus, despite any short-term benefits, AA ensures that the ultimate ideal of a CB society may never be achieved over the longer run.

Arguments in Favor of Affirmative Action• “Color-Blindness” is the wrong goal:

– Non-discrimination important, but enforcing this rule requires color-sightedness, even in the absence of formal AA policies.

– “Blindness constraint” typically applied to public not private actors.– Legacy of racially unjust past will never be overcome with CB policy.

• AA is a temporary policy used to promote transition to full equality– Can actually enhance, not retard, incentives for beneficiaries– Affect s only a few among non-beneficiary groups (the “marginals”)– Much of the stigma for beneficiaries actually reflects latent racism– Resentment reserved for race-based but not (say) gender-based AA– Racial diversity a value in its own right– Standards of ‘merit’ highly subjective, yet treated as if they were not

(consider, e.g., the case of Cornel West vs. Larry Summers at Harvard)• Thus, despite some problems, AA has been a proven way for this

society to begin to move past its history of racial inequality.

This is my view. (see, e.g., my Foreword to “The Shape of the River,” 1999.) But racial AA policies in US under

serious legal/political threat.

Based on paper with Roland Fryer (JEP, 2005) here are some commonly held but dubious beliefs (“myths”) about affirmative action in the US

Discourse on Affirmative Action in the US is encumbered by a number of false beliefs in my view.

(Journal of Economic Perspectives, 2005)

(No, It Can’t! This is a deep point, and a source of much confusion.)

(No, at least with respect to US higher education, they don’t!)

(In principle, the effect can go either way, depending on the details.)

(For the US, we doubt this seriously!)

(See the data on trends in racial inequality to be presented shortly.)

(We think this concern in US is overblown.)

(Wishful thinking in the US context!)

Why Is Affirmative Action So Controversial? An Empirical Study of AA in US Law Schools in the

1990s

Law schools are among the most hotly contested arenas where racial affirmative action is employed. Excellent data exist on lawschool admissions practices. These data reveal the extent of AA and permit some assessment of the policy’s effects.

Based on:

Sander’s

“When Affirmative Action Was White”

Consider now an historical perspective on “Affirmative Action” in the US, based

on the book by Ira Katznelson

Katznelson’s basic argument is that the New Deal coalition inscribed racial inequality at the very heart of the American welfare state.

What was that coalition?

This is a partial list of New Deal-era policies that, wittingly or not, had racially disparate effects

Katznelson Argues that New Deal was Tacit Affirmative Action for WhitesHere are some other areas of social policy that impact on racial inequality

Thus tacit “affirmative action” (for or against Blacks ) can occur in non-racial policy areas (with respect to life insurance, e.g.) when either:

1. The incidence of a policy’s effects varies in a predictable way by race; or,2. The legitimacy/“social meaning” of a policy is affected by the race of its

beneficiaries

Katznelson book/article suggest a broadening of AA in three ways:

1. Take long view (goal should be rectification of historic injustice)2. Focus on jobs not just colleges (only way to affect lives of masses)3. Put AA on sounder footing using Justice Powell’s “strict scrutiny”

doctrine: the narrowly tailored pursuit of compelling public interest(as distinct from “diversity.”

A Key Political Question: Does Katznelson’s call for a revivified effort at affirmative action seem realistic to us in 21st century America?

My answer to this question is a resounding “NO”!

Also relevant here is work of UCSD sociologist John David Skrentny.In two path-breaking books he argues for the centrality of what he calls “the black analogy” in shaping racial/ethnic inequality policies:

1. In the US a minority group has “rights” deserving of protection to the extent its experience comes to be seen as analogous to that of blacks. (E.g., Hispanics get AA coverage but not Slavs!) See The Minority Rights Revolution, Harvard Univ. Press 2002

2. Affirmative Action is de-legitimated to the extent that it is seen as a “black program” (E.g., talk about AA having “undeserving”, “unqualified” beneficiaries is pretty much restricted to blacks!) See The Ironies of Affirmative Action, Univ. Chicago Press 1996

Related work on “social meaning” of racial/ethnic disparities.

Finally: “Beyond Civil Rights”:

What’s a Self-Respecting “Black” Intellectual (Me!) To Do in the Face of Persistent Racial Inequality in the

United States? Evidently, Affirmative Action Has

Failed to Achieve Equality for Blacks In the US Since 1970

Here are the First-Order Social Facts about Racial Inequality in America Today:

(1) African American Social Disadvantage Is a Stubbornly Persistent Reality of 21st Century American Society

(2) Convergence to parity is nowhere in sight (I’ll show).

(3) Dr. King’s ‘Dream’ of Equality Has Yet To Be Realized

(4) But That’s OK Because ‘We Got Us a Black President’?

Educational Attainment

Persistently Lower Rates of College Graduation and Enduring Racial

Achievement Gap

Here Are Some Statistics on Persistent Racial Inequality in the US

Percent of Native-Born, Non-Hispanic Men and Women Aged 25 to 34 Reporting a Four-Year College Education

0%5%

10%15%20%25%30%35%40%45%50%

1968 1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007

Black Men

White Men

0%5%

10%15%20%25%30%35%40%45%50%

1968 1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007

Black Women

White Women

College Men

19681968

19691969

19701970

19711971

19721972

19731973

19741974

19751975

19761976

19771977

19781978

19791979

19801980

19811981

19821982

19831983

19841984

19851985

19861986

19871987

19881988

19891989

19901990

19911991

19921992

19931993

19941994

19951995

19961996

19971997

19981998

19991999

20002000

20012001

20022002

20032003

20042004

20052005

20062006

20072007

Black Men

White Men

0.056

0.145

0.08

0.124

0.06

0.151

0.067

0.17

0.081

0.165

0.08

0.17

0.087

0.183

0.115

0.163

0.116

0.178

0.12

0.187

0.119

0.188

0.138

0.172

0.126

0.182

0.123

0.168

0.129

0.168

0.142

0.158

0.134

0.155

0.137

0.143

0.132

0.152

0.122

0.162

0.131

0.145

0.118

0.161

0.137

0.136

0.119

0.15

0.12

0.143

0.122

0.155

0.106

0.159

0.137

0.148

0.098

0.199

0.108

0.188

0.139

0.16

0.136

0.185

0.167

0.165

0.172

0.149

0.173

0.157

0.155

0.172

0.16

0.167

0.155

0.166

0.158

0.157

0.176

0.148

College Women

0.0580.055

0.0570.068

0.0640.06

0.0650.083

0.0760.088

0.0850.09

0.0780.109

0.0980.094

0.1120.092

0.1110.11

0.110.111

0.1210.098

0.1240.108

0.1120.115

0.1220.113

0.130.114

0.130.123

0.1410.107

0.1420.114

0.1270.131

0.1280.119

0.1450.117

0.1370.129

0.1250.147

0.1180.146

0.1370.127

0.1280.139

0.1240.162

0.150.159

0.1490.169

0.1510.178

0.1670.169

0.1690.182

0.190.169

0.1920.192

0.1740.202

0.2030.174

0.2160.17

0.2140.162

0.1950.203

Black Women

White Women

College Data

Percent of Native Born Non-Hispanic Men and Women Agesd 25 to 34

Reporting a Four Year College Education

WhiteBlackRaceWhiteBlackRace

MenMenDifferenceWomenWomenDifferenceMENWOMEN

196820.15.614.511.35.85.50.0560.1450.0580.055

196920.4812.412.45.76.80.080.1240.0570.068

197021.2615.112.46.460.060.1510.0640.06

197123.66.71714.86.58.30.0670.170.0650.083

197224.68.116.516.47.68.80.0810.1650.0760.088

19732581717.58.590.080.170.0850.09

1974278.718.318.77.810.90.0870.1830.0780.109

197527.811.516.319.29.89.40.1150.1630.0980.094

197629.411.617.820.411.29.20.1160.1780.1120.092

197730.71218.722.111.1110.120.1870.1110.11

197830.711.918.822.11111.10.1190.1880.110.111

197930.913.817.22212.19.80.1380.1720.1210.098

198030.812.618.223.212.410.80.1260.1820.1240.108

198129.112.316.822.711.211.50.1230.1680.1120.115

198229.712.916.823.512.211.30.1290.1680.1220.113

198329.914.215.824.31311.40.1420.1580.130.114

198428.913.415.525.31312.30.1340.1550.130.123

19852813.714.324.914.110.70.1370.1430.1410.107

198628.413.215.225.614.211.40.1320.1520.1420.114

198728.412.216.225.812.713.10.1220.1620.1270.131

198827.713.114.524.712.811.90.1310.1450.1280.119

198927.911.816.126.214.511.70.1180.1610.1450.117

199027.313.713.626.613.712.90.1370.1360.1370.129

199126.911.91527.212.514.70.1190.150.1250.147

199226.31214.326.411.814.60.120.1430.1180.146

199327.712.215.526.513.712.70.1220.1550.1370.127

199426.510.615.926.712.813.90.1060.1590.1280.139

199528.513.714.828.612.416.20.1370.1480.1240.162

199629.79.819.930.81515.90.0980.1990.150.159

199729.610.818.831.814.916.90.1080.1880.1490.169

199829.913.91632.815.117.80.1390.160.1510.178

199932.113.618.533.616.716.90.1360.1850.1670.169

200033.116.716.535.116.918.20.1670.1650.1690.182

200132.117.214.935.91916.90.1720.1490.190.169

20023317.315.738.419.219.20.1730.1570.1920.192

200332.715.517.237.617.420.20.1550.1720.1740.202

200432.61616.737.720.317.40.160.1670.2030.174

20053215.516.638.521.6170.1550.1660.2160.17

200631.615.815.737.621.416.20.1580.1570.2140.162

200732.417.614.839.819.520.30.1760.1480.1950.203

HS Women

19681968

19691969

19701970

19711971

19721972

19731973

19741974

19751975

19761976

19771977

19781978

19791979

19801980

19811981

19821982

19831983

19841984

19851985

19861986

19871987

19881988

19891989

19901990

19911991

19921992

19931993

19941994

19951995

19961996

19971997

19981998

19991999

20002000

20012001

20022002

20032003

20042004

20052005

20062006

20072007

Black Women

White Women

0.5

0.237

0.53

0.2186

0.568

0.1859

0.586

0.2161

0.61

0.2091

0.606

0.232

0.644

0.1972

0.685

0.1519

0.721

0.1318

0.69

0.175

0.725

0.1463

0.731

0.1484

0.757

0.1342

0.756

0.1354

0.79

0.1075

0.798

0.1017

0.81

0.0936

0.806

0.1042

0.821

0.093

0.811

0.1003

0.807

0.1079

0.844

0.0706

0.836

0.0821

0.807

0.1048

0.841

0.0875

0.846

0.0847

0.866

0.0604

0.865

0.0708

0.861

0.0728

0.88

0.0654

0.894

0.0564

0.894

0.0502

0.898

0.0566

0.902

0.0461

0.905

0.0479

0.911

0.0443

0.9

0.0547

0.906

0.0457

0.887

0.0663

0.898

0.0585

HS Men

19681968

19691969

19701970

19711971

19721972

19731973

19741974

19751975

19761976

19771977

19781978

19791979

19801980

19811981

19821982

19831983

19841984

19851985

19861986

19871987

19881988

19891989

19901990

19911991

19921992

19931993

19941994

19951995

19961996

19971997

19981998

19991999

20002000

20012001

20022002

20032003

20042004

20052005

20062006

20072007

Black Men

White Men

0.54

0.2

0.55

0.208

0.518

0.259

0.543

0.279

0.592

0.237

0.626

0.216

0.675

0.179

0.707

0.151

0.712

0.161

0.741

0.137

0.752

0.138

0.736

0.161

0.762

0.138

0.771

0.128

0.799

0.104

0.791

0.111

0.759

0.146

0.79

0.115

0.828

0.074

0.83

0.067

0.804

0.089

0.81

0.088

0.812

0.082

0.837

0.065

0.849

0.066

0.878

0.04

0.86

0.05

0.872

0.052

0.884

0.038

0.882

0.044

0.894

0.04

0.901

0.036

0.903

0.038

0.911

0.03

0.902

0.037

0.917

0.022

0.926

0.015

0.923

0.015

0.892

0.05

0.916

0.026

HS Data

Percent of Native Born Non-Hispanic Men and Women Aged 25 to 34 Reporting

a High School Education

WhiteBlackRaceWhiteBlackRace

MenbMenDifferenceWomenWomenDifferenceMENWOMEN

196873.9542073.75023.70.540.20.50.237

196975.85520.874.95321.860.550.2080.530.2186

197077.751.825.975.456.818.590.5180.2590.5680.1859

197182.154.327.980.258.621.610.5430.2790.5860.2161

19728359.223.781.96120.910.5920.2370.610.2091

197384.262.621.683.860.623.20.6260.2160.6060.232

197485.467.517.984.164.419.720.6750.1790.6440.1972

197585.870.715.183.768.515.190.7070.1510.6850.1519

197687.371.216.185.372.113.180.7120.1610.7210.1318

197787.774.113.786.56917.50.7410.1370.690.175

197888.975.213.887.172.514.630.7520.1380.7250.1463

197989.773.616.18873.114.840.7360.1610.7310.1484

19809076.213.889.175.713.420.7620.1380.7570.1342

198189.977.112.889.275.613.540.7710.1280.7560.1354

198290.379.910.489.77910.750.7990.1040.790.1075

198390.279.111.189.979.810.170.7910.1110.7980.1017

198490.575.914.690.4819.360.7590.1460.810.0936

198590.67911.59180.610.420.790.1150.8060.1042

198690.282.87.491.482.19.30.8280.0740.8210.093

198789.7836.791.281.110.030.830.0670.8110.1003

198889.380.48.991.580.710.790.8040.0890.8070.1079

198989.8818.891.484.47.060.810.0880.8440.0706

199089.581.28.291.883.68.210.8120.0820.8360.0821

199190.183.76.591.280.710.480.8370.0650.8070.1048

199291.584.96.692.984.18.750.8490.0660.8410.0875

199391.887.8493.184.68.470.8780.040.8460.0847

19949186592.686.66.040.860.050.8660.0604

199592.487.25.293.686.57.080.8720.0520.8650.0708

199692.288.43.893.486.17.280.8840.0380.8610.0728

199792.688.24.494.5886.540.8820.0440.880.0654

199893.489.449589.45.640.8940.040.8940.0564

199993.790.13.694.489.45.020.9010.0360.8940.0502

200094.190.33.895.489.85.660.9030.0380.8980.0566

20019491.1394.890.24.610.9110.030.9020.0461

200293.990.23.795.390.54.790.9020.0370.9050.0479

200393.891.72.295.591.14.430.9170.0220.9110.0443

200494.192.61.595.4905.470.9260.0150.90.0547

200593.892.31.595.290.64.570.9230.0150.9060.0457

200694.289.2595.488.76.630.8920.050.8870.0663

200794.291.62.695.789.85.850.9160.0260.8980.0585

College Men

19681968

19691969

19701970

19711971

19721972

19731973

19741974

19751975

19761976

19771977

19781978

19791979

19801980

19811981

19821982

19831983

19841984

19851985

19861986

19871987

19881988

19891989

19901990

19911991

19921992

19931993

19941994

19951995

19961996

19971997

19981998

19991999

20002000

20012001

20022002

20032003

20042004

20052005

20062006

20072007

Black Men

White Men

0.056

0.145

0.08

0.124

0.06

0.151

0.067

0.17

0.081

0.165

0.08

0.17

0.087

0.183

0.115

0.163

0.116

0.178

0.12

0.187

0.119

0.188

0.138

0.172

0.126

0.182

0.123

0.168

0.129

0.168

0.142

0.158

0.134

0.155

0.137

0.143

0.132

0.152

0.122

0.162

0.131

0.145

0.118

0.161

0.137

0.136

0.119

0.15

0.12

0.143

0.122

0.155

0.106

0.159

0.137

0.148

0.098

0.199

0.108

0.188

0.139

0.16

0.136

0.185

0.167

0.165

0.172

0.149

0.173

0.157

0.155

0.172

0.16

0.167

0.155

0.166

0.158

0.157

0.176

0.148

College Women

19681968

19691969

19701970

19711971

19721972

19731973

19741974

19751975

19761976

19771977

19781978

19791979

19801980

19811981

19821982

19831983

19841984

19851985

19861986

19871987

19881988

19891989

19901990

19911991

19921992

19931993

19941994

19951995

19961996

19971997

19981998

19991999

20002000

20012001

20022002

20032003

20042004

20052005

20062006

20072007

Black Women

White Women

0.058

0.055

0.057

0.068

0.064

0.06

0.065

0.083

0.076

0.088

0.085

0.09

0.078

0.109

0.098

0.094

0.112

0.092

0.111

0.11

0.11

0.111

0.121

0.098

0.124

0.108

0.112

0.115

0.122

0.113

0.13

0.114

0.13

0.123

0.141

0.107

0.142

0.114

0.127

0.131

0.128

0.119

0.145

0.117

0.137

0.129

0.125

0.147

0.118

0.146

0.137

0.127

0.128

0.139

0.124

0.162

0.15

0.159

0.149

0.169

0.151

0.178

0.167

0.169

0.169

0.182

0.19

0.169

0.192

0.192

0.174

0.202

0.203

0.174

0.216

0.17

0.214

0.162

0.195

0.203

College Data

Percent of Native Born Non-Hispanic Men and Women Agesd 25 to 34

Reporting a Four Year College Education

WhiteBlackRaceWhiteBlackRace

MenMenDifferenceWomenWomenDifferenceMENWOMEN

196820.15.614.511.35.85.50.0560.1450.0580.055

196920.4812.412.45.76.80.080.1240.0570.068

197021.2615.112.46.460.060.1510.0640.06

197123.66.71714.86.58.30.0670.170.0650.083

197224.68.116.516.47.68.80.0810.1650.0760.088

19732581717.58.590.080.170.0850.09

1974278.718.318.77.810.90.0870.1830.0780.109

197527.811.516.319.29.89.40.1150.1630.0980.094

197629.411.617.820.411.29.20.1160.1780.1120.092

197730.71218.722.111.1110.120.1870.1110.11

197830.711.918.822.11111.10.1190.1880.110.111

197930.913.817.22212.19.80.1380.1720.1210.098

198030.812.618.223.212.410.80.1260.1820.1240.108

198129.112.316.822.711.211.50.1230.1680.1120.115

198229.712.916.823.512.211.30.1290.1680.1220.113

198329.914.215.824.31311.40.1420.1580.130.114

198428.913.415.525.31312.30.1340.1550.130.123

19852813.714.324.914.110.70.1370.1430.1410.107

198628.413.215.225.614.211.40.1320.1520.1420.114

198728.412.216.225.812.713.10.1220.1620.1270.131

198827.713.114.524.712.811.90.1310.1450.1280.119

198927.911.816.126.214.511.70.1180.1610.1450.117

199027.313.713.626.613.712.90.1370.1360.1370.129

199126.911.91527.212.514.70.1190.150.1250.147

199226.31214.326.411.814.60.120.1430.1180.146

199327.712.215.526.513.712.70.1220.1550.1370.127

199426.510.615.926.712.813.90.1060.1590.1280.139

199528.513.714.828.612.416.20.1370.1480.1240.162

199629.79.819.930.81515.90.0980.1990.150.159

199729.610.818.831.814.916.90.1080.1880.1490.169

199829.913.91632.815.117.80.1390.160.1510.178

199932.113.618.533.616.716.90.1360.1850.1670.169

200033.116.716.535.116.918.20.1670.1650.1690.182

200132.117.214.935.91916.90.1720.1490.190.169

20023317.315.738.419.219.20.1730.1570.1920.192

200332.715.517.237.617.420.20.1550.1720.1740.202

200432.61616.737.720.317.40.160.1670.2030.174

20053215.516.638.521.6170.1550.1660.2160.17

200631.615.815.737.621.416.20.1580.1570.2140.162

200732.417.614.839.819.520.30.1760.1480.1950.203

HS Women

19681968

19691969

19701970

19711971

19721972

19731973

19741974

19751975

19761976

19771977

19781978

19791979

19801980

19811981

19821982

19831983

19841984

19851985

19861986

19871987

19881988

19891989

19901990

19911991

19921992

19931993

19941994

19951995

19961996

19971997

19981998

19991999

20002000

20012001

20022002

20032003

20042004

20052005

20062006

20072007

Black Women

White Women

0.5

0.237

0.53

0.2186

0.568

0.1859

0.586

0.2161

0.61

0.2091

0.606

0.232

0.644

0.1972

0.685

0.1519

0.721

0.1318

0.69

0.175

0.725

0.1463

0.731

0.1484

0.757

0.1342

0.756

0.1354

0.79

0.1075

0.798

0.1017

0.81

0.0936

0.806

0.1042

0.821

0.093

0.811

0.1003

0.807

0.1079

0.844

0.0706

0.836

0.0821

0.807

0.1048

0.841

0.0875

0.846

0.0847

0.866

0.0604

0.865

0.0708

0.861

0.0728

0.88

0.0654

0.894

0.0564

0.894

0.0502

0.898

0.0566

0.902

0.0461

0.905

0.0479

0.911

0.0443

0.9

0.0547

0.906

0.0457

0.887

0.0663

0.898

0.0585

HS Men

19681968

19691969

19701970

19711971

19721972

19731973

19741974

19751975

19761976

19771977

19781978

19791979

19801980

19811981

19821982

19831983

19841984

19851985

19861986

19871987

19881988

19891989

19901990

19911991

19921992

19931993

19941994

19951995

19961996

19971997

19981998

19991999

20002000

20012001

20022002

20032003

20042004

20052005

20062006

20072007

Black Men

White Men

0.54

0.2

0.55

0.208

0.518

0.259

0.543

0.279

0.592

0.237

0.626

0.216

0.675

0.179

0.707

0.151

0.712

0.161

0.741

0.137

0.752

0.138

0.736

0.161

0.762

0.138

0.771

0.128

0.799

0.104

0.791

0.111

0.759

0.146

0.79

0.115

0.828

0.074

0.83

0.067

0.804

0.089

0.81

0.088

0.812

0.082

0.837

0.065

0.849

0.066

0.878

0.04

0.86

0.05

0.872

0.052

0.884

0.038

0.882

0.044

0.894

0.04

0.901

0.036

0.903

0.038

0.911

0.03

0.902

0.037

0.917

0.022

0.926

0.015

0.923

0.015

0.892

0.05

0.916

0.026

HS Data

Percent of Native Born Non-Hispanic Men and Women Aged 25 to 34 Reporting

a High School Education

WhiteBlackRaceWhiteBlackRace

MenbMenDifferenceWomenWomenDifferenceMENWOMEN

196873.9542073.75023.70.540.20.50.237

196975.85520.874.95321.860.550.2080.530.2186

197077.751.825.975.456.818.590.5180.2590.5680.1859

197182.154.327.980.258.621.610.5430.2790.5860.2161

19728359.223.781.96120.910.5920.2370.610.2091

197384.262.621.683.860.623.20.6260.2160.6060.232

197485.467.517.984.164.419.720.6750.1790.6440.1972

197585.870.715.183.768.515.190.7070.1510.6850.1519

197687.371.216.185.372.113.180.7120.1610.7210.1318

197787.774.113.786.56917.50.7410.1370.690.175

197888.975.213.887.172.514.630.7520.1380.7250.1463

197989.773.616.18873.114.840.7360.1610.7310.1484

19809076.213.889.175.713.420.7620.1380.7570.1342

198189.977.112.889.275.613.540.7710.1280.7560.1354

198290.379.910.489.77910.750.7990.1040.790.1075

198390.279.111.189.979.810.170.7910.1110.7980.1017

198490.575.914.690.4819.360.7590.1460.810.0936

198590.67911.59180.610.420.790.1150.8060.1042

198690.282.87.491.482.19.30.8280.0740.8210.093

198789.7836.791.281.110.030.830.0670.8110.1003

198889.380.48.991.580.710.790.8040.0890.8070.1079

198989.8818.891.484.47.060.810.0880.8440.0706

199089.581.28.291.883.68.210.8120.0820.8360.0821

199190.183.76.591.280.710.480.8370.0650.8070.1048

199291.584.96.692.984.18.750.8490.0660.8410.0875

199391.887.8493.184.68.470.8780.040.8460.0847

19949186592.686.66.040.860.050.8660.0604

199592.487.25.293.686.57.080.8720.0520.8650.0708

199692.288.43.893.486.17.280.8840.0380.8610.0728

199792.688.24.494.5886.540.8820.0440.880.0654

199893.489.449589.45.640.8940.040.8940.0564

199993.790.13.694.489.45.020.9010.0360.8940.0502

200094.190.33.895.489.85.660.9030.0380.8980.0566

20019491.1394.890.24.610.9110.030.9020.0461

200293.990.23.795.390.54.790.9020.0370.9050.0479

200393.891.72.295.591.14.430.9170.0220.9110.0443

200494.192.61.595.4905.470.9260.0150.90.0547

200593.892.31.595.290.64.570.9230.0150.9060.0457

200694.289.2595.488.76.630.8920.050.8870.0663

200794.291.62.695.789.85.850.9160.0260.8980.0585

Employment, Earnings and Family incomes

Lower Earnings and Employment for Men, Hugely Disparate Resources for Raising Families and Persistent Racial

Poverty Rate Gap

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

1968 1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007

White Men

Black Men

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

1968 1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007

White Women

Black Women

White Women

Black Women

Percent of Native-Born, Non-Hispanic Men and WomenAged 25 to 59 Employed; 1968 to 2007

Women

19681968

19691969

19701970

19711971

19721972

19731973

19741974

19751975

19761976

19771977

19781978

19791979

19801980

19811981

19821982

19831983

19841984

19851985

19861986

19871987

19881988

19891989

19901990

19911991

19921992

19931993

19941994

19951995

19961996

19971997

19981998

19991999

20002000

20012001

20022002

20032003

20042004

20052005

20062006

20072007

White Women

Black Women

White Women

Black Women

0.5292

-0.094

0.5331

-0.0892

0.5449

-0.0929

0.5281

-0.0785

0.5205

-0.0587

0.524

-0.0585

0.5272

-0.0458

0.5168

-0.0386

0.5498

-0.0603

0.5408

-0.027

0.5617

-0.0222

0.5719

-0.0171

0.569

0.0044

0.5635

0.0193

0.5524

0.0302

0.5533

0.0305

0.5801

0.024

0.5888

0.0347

0.608

0.0246

0.6083

0.0371

0.6278

0.0349

0.6344

0.0365

0.6332

0.0459

0.6213

0.0587

0.6162

0.0682

0.6187

0.0652

0.6242

0.0818

0.6419

0.069

0.6541

0.0588

0.6629

0.062

0.7032

0.0178

0.7098

0.0163

0.7217

0.0092

0.7116

0.0164

0.679

0.039

0.6747

0.043

0.6823

0.0274

0.6763

0.0347

0.6699

0.037

0.6971

0.0128

Men

19681968

19691969

19701970

19711971

19721972

19731973

19741974

19751975

19761976

19771977

19781978

19791979

19801980

19811981

19821982

19831983

19841984

19851985

19861986

19871987

19881988

19891989

19901990

19911991

19921992

19931993

19941994

19951995

19961996

19971997

19981998

19991999

20002000

20012001

20022002

20032003

20042004

20052005

20062006

20072007

White Men

Black Men

0.8503

0.0611

0.8474

0.0635

0.8183

0.0853

0.8093

0.0785

0.7956

0.094

0.8088

0.081

0.7861

0.1022

0.7082

0.1408

0.7011

0.1562

0.7498

0.1118

0.77

0.0964

0.7424

0.1327

0.7453

0.1156

0.7159

0.1425

0.6965

0.1402

0.6599

0.1615

0.6986

0.146

0.7023

0.1545

0.7417

0.1082

0.7309

0.1237

0.7153

0.1486

0.7285

0.139

0.7377

0.1261

0.7121

0.1361

0.6911

0.1498

0.6948

0.1404

0.6895

0.1564

0.7238

0.1321

0.6837

0.1759

0.7185

0.1439

0.7276

0.1367

0.7271

0.1394

0.7593

0.1021

0.733

0.1258

0.71

0.1298

0.6807

0.1541

0.6833

0.1452

0.6895

0.1441

0.6831

0.1536

0.6977

0.1442

Data

Percent of Native Born Non-Hispanic White and Black Men Aged 25 to 59

Employed

WhiteBlackRace

MenMendifferenceMENWOMEN

196891.1485.036.110.85030.06110.43520.5292-0.094

196991.0984.746.350.84740.06350.44390.5331-0.0892

197090.3681.838.530.81830.08530.4520.5449-0.0929

197188.7880.937.850.80930.07850.44960.5281-0.0785

197288.9679.569.40.79560.0940.46180.5205-0.0587

197388.9880.888.10.80880.0810.46550.524-0.0585

197488.8378.6110.220.78610.10220.48140.5272-0.0458

197584.970.8214.080.70820.14080.47820.5168-0.0386

197685.7370.1115.620.70110.15620.48950.5498-0.0603

197786.1674.9811.180.74980.11180.51380.5408-0.027

197886.64779.640.770.09640.53950.5617-0.0222

197987.5174.2413.270.74240.13270.55480.5719-0.0171

198086.0974.5311.560.74530.11560.57340.5690.0044

198185.8471.5914.250.71590.14250.58280.56350.0193

198283.6769.6514.020.69650.14020.58260.55240.0302

198382.1465.9916.150.65990.16150.58380.55330.0305

198484.4669.8614.60.69860.1460.60410.58010.024

198585.6870.2315.450.70230.15450.62350.58880.0347

198684.9974.1710.820.74170.10820.63260.6080.0246

198785.4673.0912.370.73090.12370.64540.60830.0371

198886.3971.5314.860.71530.14860.66270.62780.0349

198986.7572.8513.90.72850.1390.67090.63440.0365

199086.3873.7712.610.73770.12610.67910.63320.0459

199184.8271.2113.610.71210.13610.680.62130.0587

199284.0969.1114.980.69110.14980.68440.61620.0682

199383.5269.4814.040.69480.14040.68390.61870.0652

199484.5968.9515.640.68950.15640.7060.62420.0818

199585.5972.3813.210.72380.13210.71090.64190.069

199685.9668.3717.590.68370.17590.71290.65410.0588

199786.2471.8514.390.71850.14390.72490.66290.062

199886.4372.7613.670.72760.13670.7210.70320.0178

199986.6572.7113.940.72710.13940.72610.70980.0163

200086.1475.9310.210.75930.10210.73090.72170.0092

200185.8873.312.580.7330.12580.7280.71160.0164

200283.987112.980.710.12980.7180.6790.039

200383.4868.0715.410.68070.15410.71770.67470.043

200482.8568.3314.520.68330.14520.70970.68230.0274

200583.3668.9514.410.68950.14410.7110.67630.0347

200683.6768.3115.360.68310.15360.70690.66990.037

200784.1969.7714.420.69770.14420.70990.69710.0128

Source: U. S., Bureau of the Census, Public Use Microdata Files from the March

Current Population Survey

WhiteBlackRace

WomenWomenDifference

196843.5252.92-9.4

196944.3953.31-8.92

197045.254.49-9.29

197144.9652.81-7.85

197246.1852.05-5.87

197346.5552.4-5.85

197448.1452.72-4.58

197547.8251.68-3.86

197648.9554.98-6.03

197751.3854.08-2.7

197853.9556.17-2.22

197955.4857.19-1.71

198057.3456.90.44

198158.2856.351.93

198258.2655.243.02

198358.3855.333.05

198460.4158.012.4

198562.3558.883.47

198663.2660.82.46

198764.5460.833.71

198866.2762.783.49

198967.0963.443.65

199067.9163.324.59

19916862.135.87

199268.4461.626.82

199368.3961.876.52

199470.662.428.18

199571.0964.196.9

199671.2965.415.88

199772.4966.296.2

199872.170.321.78

199972.6170.981.63

200073.0972.170.92

200172.871.161.64

200271.867.93.9

200371.7767.474.3

200470.9768.232.74

200571.167.633.47

200670.6966.993.7

200770.9969.711.28

Women

19681968

19691969

19701970

19711971

19721972

19731973

19741974

19751975

19761976

19771977

19781978

19791979

19801980

19811981

19821982

19831983

19841984

19851985

19861986

19871987

19881988

19891989

19901990

19911991

19921992

19931993

19941994

19951995

19961996

19971997

19981998

19991999

20002000

20012001

20022002

20032003

20042004

20052005

20062006

20072007

White Women

Black Women

White Women

Black Women

0.5292

-0.094

0.5331

-0.0892

0.5449

-0.0929

0.5281

-0.0785

0.5205

-0.0587

0.524

-0.0585

0.5272

-0.0458

0.5168

-0.0386

0.5498

-0.0603

0.5408

-0.027

0.5617

-0.0222

0.5719

-0.0171

0.569

0.0044

0.5635

0.0193

0.5524

0.0302

0.5533

0.0305

0.5801

0.024

0.5888

0.0347

0.608

0.0246

0.6083

0.0371

0.6278

0.0349

0.6344

0.0365

0.6332

0.0459

0.6213

0.0587

0.6162

0.0682

0.6187

0.0652

0.6242

0.0818

0.6419

0.069

0.6541

0.0588

0.6629

0.062

0.7032

0.0178

0.7098

0.0163

0.7217

0.0092

0.7116

0.0164

0.679

0.039

0.6747

0.043

0.6823

0.0274

0.6763

0.0347

0.6699

0.037

0.6971

0.0128

Men

19681968

19691969

19701970

19711971

19721972

19731973

19741974

19751975

19761976

19771977

19781978

19791979

19801980

19811981

19821982

19831983

19841984

19851985

19861986

19871987

19881988

19891989

19901990

19911991

19921992

19931993

19941994

19951995

19961996

19971997

19981998

19991999

20002000

20012001

20022002

20032003

20042004

20052005

20062006

20072007

White Men

Black Men

0.8503

0.0611

0.8474

0.0635

0.8183

0.0853

0.8093

0.0785

0.7956

0.094

0.8088

0.081

0.7861

0.1022

0.7082

0.1408

0.7011

0.1562

0.7498

0.1118

0.77

0.0964

0.7424

0.1327

0.7453

0.1156

0.7159

0.1425

0.6965

0.1402

0.6599

0.1615

0.6986

0.146

0.7023

0.1545

0.7417

0.1082

0.7309

0.1237

0.7153

0.1486

0.7285

0.139

0.7377

0.1261

0.7121

0.1361

0.6911

0.1498

0.6948

0.1404

0.6895

0.1564

0.7238

0.1321

0.6837

0.1759

0.7185

0.1439

0.7276

0.1367

0.7271

0.1394

0.7593

0.1021

0.733

0.1258

0.71

0.1298

0.6807

0.1541

0.6833

0.1452

0.6895

0.1441

0.6831

0.1536

0.6977

0.1442

Data

Percent of Native Born Non-Hispanic White and Black Men Aged 25 to 59

Employed

WhiteBlackRace

MenMendifferenceMENWOMEN

196891.1485.036.110.85030.06110.43520.5292-0.094

196991.0984.746.350.84740.06350.44390.5331-0.0892

197090.3681.838.530.81830.08530.4520.5449-0.0929

197188.7880.937.850.80930.07850.44960.5281-0.0785

197288.9679.569.40.79560.0940.46180.5205-0.0587

197388.9880.888.10.80880.0810.46550.524-0.0585

197488.8378.6110.220.78610.10220.48140.5272-0.0458

197584.970.8214.080.70820.14080.47820.5168-0.0386

197685.7370.1115.620.70110.15620.48950.5498-0.0603

197786.1674.9811.180.74980.11180.51380.5408-0.027

197886.64779.640.770.09640.53950.5617-0.0222

197987.5174.2413.270.74240.13270.55480.5719-0.0171

198086.0974.5311.560.74530.11560.57340.5690.0044

198185.8471.5914.250.71590.14250.58280.56350.0193

198283.6769.6514.020.69650.14020.58260.55240.0302

198382.1465.9916.150.65990.16150.58380.55330.0305

198484.4669.8614.60.69860.1460.60410.58010.024

198585.6870.2315.450.70230.15450.62350.58880.0347

198684.9974.1710.820.74170.10820.63260.6080.0246

198785.4673.0912.370.73090.12370.64540.60830.0371

198886.3971.5314.860.71530.14860.66270.62780.0349

198986.7572.8513.90.72850.1390.67090.63440.0365

199086.3873.7712.610.73770.12610.67910.63320.0459

199184.8271.2113.610.71210.13610.680.62130.0587

199284.0969.1114.980.69110.14980.68440.61620.0682

199383.5269.4814.040.69480.14040.68390.61870.0652

199484.5968.9515.640.68950.15640.7060.62420.0818

199585.5972.3813.210.72380.13210.71090.64190.069

199685.9668.3717.590.68370.17590.71290.65410.0588

199786.2471.8514.390.71850.14390.72490.66290.062

199886.4372.7613.670.72760.13670.7210.70320.0178

199986.6572.7113.940.72710.13940.72610.70980.0163

200086.1475.9310.210.75930.10210.73090.72170.0092

200185.8873.312.580.7330.12580.7280.71160.0164

200283.987112.980.710.12980.7180.6790.039

200383.4868.0715.410.68070.15410.71770.67470.043

200482.8568.3314.520.68330.14520.70970.68230.0274

200583.3668.9514.410.68950.14410.7110.67630.0347

200683.6768.3115.360.68310.15360.70690.66990.037

200784.1969.7714.420.69770.14420.70990.69710.0128

Source: U. S., Bureau of the Census, Public Use Microdata Files from the March

Current Population Survey

WhiteBlackRace

WomenWomenDifference

196843.5252.92-9.4

196944.3953.31-8.92

197045.254.49-9.29

197144.9652.81-7.85

197246.1852.05-5.87

197346.5552.4-5.85

197448.1452.72-4.58

197547.8251.68-3.86

197648.9554.98-6.03

197751.3854.08-2.7

197853.9556.17-2.22

197955.4857.19-1.71

198057.3456.90.44

198158.2856.351.93

198258.2655.243.02

198358.3855.333.05

198460.4158.012.4

198562.3558.883.47

198663.2660.82.46

198764.5460.833.71

198866.2762.783.49

198967.0963.443.65

199067.9163.324.59

19916862.135.87

199268.4461.626.82

199368.3961.876.52

199470.662.428.18

199571.0964.196.9

199671.2965.415.88

199772.4966.296.2

199872.170.321.78

199972.6170.981.63

200073.0972.170.92

200172.871.161.64

200271.867.93.9

200371.7767.474.3

200470.9768.232.74

200571.167.633.47

200670.6966.993.7

200770.9969.711.28

Median Wage and Salary Earnings for Native-Born Non-Hispanics Reporting Earnings

$10,000

$15,000

$20,000

$25,000

$30,000

$35,000

$40,000

$45,000

$50,000

$55,000

$60,000

1968 1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007

White Men

Black Men

Black Women

White Women

Chart1

1968196819681968

1969196919691969

1970197019701970

1971197119711971

1972197219721972

1973197319731973

1974197419741974

1975197519751975

1976197619761976

1977197719771977

1978197819781978

1979197919791979

1980198019801980

1981198119811981

1982198219821982

1983198319831983

1984198419841984

1985198519851985

1986198619861986

1987198719871987

1988198819881988

1989198919891989

1990199019901990

1991199119911991

1992199219921992

1993199319931993

1994199419941994

1995199519951995

1996199619961996

1997199719971997

1998199819981998

1999199919991999

2000200020002000

2001200120012001

2002200220022002

2003200320032003

2004200420042004

2005200520052005

2006200620062006

2007200720072007

White Men

Black Men

Black Women

White Women

42286.2

26456.44

18195.88

11949.8

44211.25

28594.65

18390.75

12469.55

45963.36

29397.94

19124.35

13865.83

46581.76

29905.92

19594.24

15329.28

47928.48

30017.92

20092.96

15991.04

49095.71

32325.74

19866.18

17428.44

47069.4

31214.4

19194

16090.2

46219.25

30965.55

18714.85

16235.45

45543.68

31515.12

18873.4

18309.2

46641.96

30998.88

19299.06

18837.36

47719.08

30817.38

19388.46

19223.1

45840.08

31505.76

19433.7

19224.92

44266.32

29055.6

19303.2

18169.2

43356.48

27442.08

19316.16

18324.36

43129

28083.3

19562.85

18603.95

42194.88

27137.76

20866.56

20835.36

43090

28032

21292

20166

45266.22

27944.47

21390.19

21243.51

45558.45

29716.47

22772.61

20969.55

45616.48

29547.7

23184.98

20818.98

45552.5

28906.5

23721.25

21171.5

45173.5

29363.61

24193.29

21334.25

44572.47

28737.66

23927.91

22374.48

42710.48

27626

24373.2

22676.88

42970.32

26765.8

25087.48

22251.8

42958.63

27264.38

25768.6

21615.88

42086.8

28011.2

25309.2

21133

42260.64

28625.28

24924.72

21802.16

42345.6

27832.2

25667.4

22511.28

43267.89

30996.12

25872.24

23305.14

44517.31

31781.75

26734.77

24189.69

45911

31368.28

28569.6

24289.12

46875.6

33656.4

28399.2

25284

46859.67

33439.77

29320.2

26033.67

46100.05

34527.6

29966.7

27616.1

46412.49

32970.01

30184.56

27207.01

46275.9

33056.1

30831.9

27366.9

46693

31847.7

29780.7

26550.88

46358.24

30965.92

30905.15

25817.98

46049

32013

30064

26025

Sheet1

Median Earnings for non-Hispanic, native born whites and blacks aged 25 to 59 who

reported wage or salary earnings

YearCurrent DollarsConstant DollarsRaceBlack as %

WhiteBlackDifferenceof white

WhiteBlackMenMenMENWOMEN

MenMen

1968709544395.9642286264561583062.6%42286264561819611950

1969782550615.6544211285951561764.7%44211285951839112470

1970849654345.4145963293981656564.0%45963293981912413866

1971909858415.1246582299061667664.2%46582299061959415329

1972966360524.9647928300181791162.6%47928300182009315991

19731051369224.6749096323261677065.8%49096323261986617428

19741120774324.247069312141585566.3%47069312141919416090

19751200580433.8546219309661525467.0%46219309661871516235

19761251286583.6445544315151402969.2%45544315151887318309

19771363890643.4246642309991564366.5%46642309991929918837

19781500696913.1847719308171690264.6%47719308171938819223

197916028110162.8645840315061433468.7%45840315061943419225

198017566115302.5244266290561521165.6%44266290561930318169

198119016120362.2843356274421591463.3%43356274421931618324

198220060130622.1543129280831504665.1%43129280831956318604

198320286130472.0842195271381505764.3%42195271382086720835

19842154514016243090280321505865.1%43090280322129220166

198523454144791.9345266279441732261.7%45266279442139021244

198624105157231.8945558297161584265.2%45558297162277320970

198725064162351.8245616295481606964.8%45616295482318520819

198826030165181.7545553289071664663.5%45553289072372121172

198927050175831.6745174293641581065.0%45174293642419321334

199028033180741.5944572287381583564.5%44572287382392822374

199128099181751.5242710276261508464.7%42710276262437322677

199229034180851.4842970267661620562.3%42970267662508722252

199330041190661.4342959272641569463.5%42959272642576921616

199430062200081.442087280111407666.6%42087280112530921133

199531074210481.3642261286251363567.7%42261286252492521802

199632080210851.3242346278321451365.7%42346278322566722511

199733541240281.2943268309961227271.6%43268309962587223305

199835053250251.2744517317821273671.4%44517317822673524190

199937025252971.2445911313681454368.3%45911313682857024289

200039063280471.246876336561321971.8%46876336562839925284

200140051285811.1746860334401342071.4%46860334402932026034

200240087300241.1546100345281157274.9%46100345282996727616

200341073291771.1346412329701344271.0%46412329703018527207

200442069300511.146276330561322071.4%46276330563083227367

200544050300451.0646693318481484568.2%46693318482978126551

200645008300641.0346358309661539266.8%46358309663090525818

2007`4604932013146049320131403669.5%46049320133006426025

Sheet2

Sheet3

Median Income of Households Headed by Native-Born Non-Hispanics(shown in constant 2007 Dollars)

$10,000

$15,000

$20,000

$25,000

$30,000

$35,000

$40,000

$45,000

$50,000

$55,000

$60,000

1968 1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007

Whites

Blacks

HH Income

19681968

19691969

19701970

19711971

19721972

19731973

19741974

19751975

19761976

19771977

19781978

19791979

19801980

19811981

19821982

19831983

19841984

19851985

19861986

19871987

19881988

19891989

19901990

19911991

19921992

19931993

19941994

19951995

19961996

19971997

19981998

19991999

20002000

20012001

20022002

20032003

20042004

20052005

20062006

20072007

Whites

Blacks

25264.44

18708.44

26628.45

18758

28321.35

18799.75

27842.56

19763.2

27458.56

20569.12

27389.55

21617.43

26653.2

20218.8

25983.65

19146.05

27030.64

18378.36

26963.28

19487.16

26524.38

19887.72

26640.9

19144.84

25416.72

19116.72

23969.64

19530.48

24056.35

19868.15

24974.56

19745.44

24788

19870

25574.43

21102.62

28068.39

19948.95

27401.92

21603.4

27471.5

22121.75

27119.13

22493.23

28573.89

20946.66

28402.72

20374.08

28041.56

20073.24

26596.57

21359.91

26318.6

21417.2

27764.4

19971.6

29054.52

20268.6

29855.76

20553.57

31450.28

20190.46

31045.88

22080.68

32995.2

20412

34825.05

19391.58

32976.25

21071.45

31609.49

21512.94

31480.9

21332.3

30938.22

21066.44

30771.25

21044.96

30894

21675

Data

Median Income of Households Headed by Non-Hispanic, Native Born Blacks and White

YearWhiteBlackInflationMedian Incomes inRace

MedianMedianAdjjustmentConstant DollarsDifferenceBlack as

Actual $Actual $WhiteBlack% of white

1968737842395.9643973252641870857.5%

1969803347135.6545386266281875858.7%

1970871052355.4147121283211880060.1%

1971929854385.1247606278431976358.5%

1972968355364.9648028274592056957.2%

19731049458654.6749007273902161755.9%

19741116063464.246872266532021956.9%

19751172267493.8545130259841914657.6%

19761247574263.6445409270311837859.5%

19771358278843.4246450269631948758.0%

19781459583413.1846412265241988857.1%

19791600993152.8645786266411914558.2%

198017672100862.5244533254171911757.1%

198119079105132.2843500239701953055.1%

198220430111892.1543925240561986854.8%

198321500120072.0844720249751974555.8%

19842232912394244658247881987055.5%

198524185132511.9346677255742110354.8%

198625406148511.8948017280681994958.5%

198726926150561.8249005274022160355.9%

198828339156981.7549593274722212255.4%

198929708162391.6749612271192249354.7%

199031145179711.5949521285742094757.7%

199132090186861.5248777284032037458.2%

199232510189471.4848115280422007358.3%

199333536185991.4347956265972136055.5%

199434097187991.447736263192141755.1%

199535100204151.3647736277641997258.2%

199637366220111.3249323290552026958.9%

199739077231441.2950409298562055459.2%

199840662247641.2751641314502019060.9%

199942844250371.2453127310462208158.4%

200044506274961.253407329952041261.8%

200146339297651.1754217348251939264.2%

200246998286751.1554048329762107161.0%

200347011279731.1353122316092151359.5%

200448012286191.152813314812133259.6%

200549061291871.0652005309382106659.5%

200650307298751.0351816307712104559.4%

20075256930894152569308942167558.8%

Sheet2

Sheet3

Percent of Native-Born Non-Hispanic Children Under Age 18 Living Below the Poverty Line; 1968 to 2007

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

1968 1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007

ImpoverishedBlack Children

Impoverished White Children

Older Poverty

19681968

19691969

19701970

19711971

19721972

19731973

19741974

19751975

19761976

19771977

19781978

19791979

19801980

19811981

19821982

19831983

19841984

19851985

19861986

19871987

19881988

19891989

19901990

19911991

19921992

19931993

19941994

19951995

19961996

19971997

19981998

19991999

20002000

20012001

20022002

20032003

20042004

20052005

20062006

20072007

Impoverished BlackAdults Aged 65+

Impoverished WhiteAdults Aged 65+

0.2611

0.2468

0.2309

0.246

0.2333

0.2681

0.2139

0.2662

0.1881

0.2074

0.1543

0.2443

0.1351

0.2398

0.1332

0.2298

0.1288

0.2316

0.1276

0.2192

0.1164

0.2478

0.1176

0.2222

0.1272

0.2318

0.1272

0.2562

0.1243

0.2683

0.1171

0.2669

0.1145

0.2483

0.1007

0.2153

0.1018

0.2092

0.1012

0.2076

0.0988

0.225

0.0932

0.2294

0.0897

0.2188

0.0932

0.2443

0.0968

0.2401

0.1029

0.2289

0.0999

0.1829

0.0948

0.1848

0.0813

0.1753

0.0838

0.1745

0.0787

0.1829

0.0769

0.1761

0.0738

0.1562

0.0785

0.1571

0.0773

0.1418

0.0817

0.1562

0.079

0.1641

0.0725

0.1658

0.0771

0.159

0.069

0.1512

Child Poverty

19681968

19691969

19701970

19711971

19721972

19731973

19741974

19751975

19761976

19771977

19781978

19791979

19801980

19811981

19821982

19831983

19841984

19851985

19861986

19871987

19881988

19891989

19901990

19911991

19921992

19931993

19941994

19951995

19961996

19971997

19981998

19991999

20002000

20012001

20022002

20032003

20042004

20052005

20062006

20072007

ImpoverishedBlack Children

Impoverished White Children

0.1065

0.347

0.1082

0.324

0.0995

0.2979

0.0857

0.3364

0.0896

0.3178

0.0798

0.3532

0.0797

0.3278

0.0945

0.3152

0.1115

0.326

0.1012

0.3329

0.1006

0.3357

0.0975

0.3265

0.1051

0.3182

0.1265

0.3108

0.1406

0.3412

0.1545

0.3634

0.1577

0.351

0.1486

0.3604

0.1408

0.333

0.1406

0.3303

0.1186

0.3333

0.1106

0.3278

0.1144

0.3256

0.124

0.3275

0.1316

0.33

0.1326

0.3389

0.1374

0.3288

0.1272

0.3221

0.1168

0.3094

0.117

0.2853

0.1189

0.2596

0.1108

0.2647

0.0991

0.2425

0.0977

0.2217

0.0995

0.2109

0.0989

0.2334

0.1036

0.2441

0.1097

0.2344

0.1059

0.2495

0.1044

0.2357

Child Data

Poverty Race for Non-Hispanic Native Born White and Black Children Under Age 18

PercentPercent

ImpoverishedImpoverishedRace

YearWhite ChildrenBlack ChildrenDifference

196810.6545.3534.70.10650.3470.4535

196910.8243.2232.40.10820.3240.4322

19709.9539.7429.790.09950.29790.3974

19718.5742.2133.640.08570.33640.4221

19728.9640.7431.780.08960.31780.4074

19737.9843.335.320.07980.35320.433

19747.9740.7532.780.07970.32780.4075

19759.4540.9731.520.09450.31520.4097

197611.1543.7532.60.11150.3260.4375

197710.1243.4133.290.10120.33290.4341

197810.0643.6333.570.10060.33570.4363

19799.7542.432.650.09750.32650.424

198010.5142.3331.820.10510.31820.4233

198112.6543.7331.080.12650.31080.4373

198214.0648.1834.120.14060.34120.4818

198315.4551.7936.340.15450.36340.5179

198415.7750.8735.10.15770.3510.5087

198514.8650.936.040.14860.36040.509

198614.0847.3833.30.14080.3330.4738

198714.0647.0933.030.14060.33030.4709

198811.8645.1933.330.11860.33330.4519

198911.0643.8432.780.11060.32780.4384

199011.444432.560.11440.32560.44

199112.445.1532.750.1240.32750.4515

199213.1646.16330.13160.330.4616

199313.2647.1533.890.13260.33890.4715

199413.7446.6232.880.13740.32880.4662

199512.7244.9332.210.12720.32210.4493

199611.6842.6230.940.11680.30940.4262

199711.740.2328.530.1170.28530.4023

199811.8937.8525.960.11890.25960.3785

199911.0837.5526.470.11080.26470.3755

20009.9134.1624.250.09910.24250.3416

20019.7731.9422.170.09770.22170.3194

20029.9531.0421.090.09950.21090.3104

20039.8933.2323.340.09890.23340.3323

200410.3634.7724.410.10360.24410.3477

200510.9734.4123.440.10970.23440.3441

200610.5935.5424.950.10590.24950.3554

200710.4434.0123.570.10440.23570.3401

Source: Public Use Microdata files from March Current Population Surveys

Old Folks Data

Poverty Rate for Non-Hispanic Native Born Persons Age 65 and Over

Poverty Rate forPo verty Rage forRacial

Whites Age 65 and overBlacks Ag 65 and ovrDifference

196826.1150.7924.680.26110.2468

196923.0947.6924.60.23090.246

197023.3350.1426.810.23330.2681

197121.3948.0126.620.21390.2662

197218.8139.5520.740.18810.2074

197315.4339.8624.430.15430.2443

197413.5137.4923.980.13510.2398

197513.3236.322.980.13320.2298

197612.8836.0423.160.12880.2316

197712.7634.6821.920.12760.2192

197811.6436.4224.780.11640.2478

197911.7633.9822.220.11760.2222

198012.7235.923.180.12720.2318

198112.7238.3425.620.12720.2562

198212.4339.2626.830.12430.2683

198311.7138.426.690.11710.2669

198411.4536.2824.830.11450.2483

198510.0731.621.530.10070.2153

198610.1831.120.920.10180.2092

198710.1230.8820.760.10120.2076

19889.8832.3822.50.09880.225

19899.3232.2622.940.09320.2294

19908.9730.8521.880.08970.2188

19919.3233.7524.430.09320.2443

19929.6833.6924.010.09680.2401

199310.2933.1822.890.10290.2289

19949.9928.2818.290.09990.1829

19959.4827.9618.480.09480.1848

19968.1325.6617.530.08130.1753

19978.3825.8317.450.08380.1745

19987.8726.1618.290.07870.1829

19997.6925.317.610.07690.1761

20007.382315.620.07380.1562

20017.8523.5615.710.07850.1571

20027.7321.9114.180.07730.1418

20038.1723.7915.620.08170.1562

20047.924.3116.410.0790.1641

20057.2523.8316.580.07250.1658

20067.7123.6115.90.07710.159

20076.922.0215.120.0690.1512

Black-White

19681968

19691969

19701970

19711971

19721972

19731973

19741974

19751975

19761976

19771977

19781978

19791979

19801980

19811981

19821982

19831983

19841984

19851985

19861986

19871987

19881988

19891989

19901990

19911991

19921992

19931993

19941994

19951995

19961996

19971997

19981998

19991999

20002000

20012001

20022002

20032003

20042004

20052005

20062006

20072007

ImpoverishedBlacks

Impoverished Whites

0.1023

0.2745

0.0992

0.2475

0.0941

0.2293

0.0844

0.2552

0.0845

0.241

0.0733

0.2638

0.0708

0.2432

0.0782

0.2363

0.0882

0.237

0.0823

0.2449

0.0805

0.2433

0.0788

0.232

0.082

0.2348

0.0934

0.2397

0.1031

0.2568

0.1105

0.2687

0.1116

0.2691

0.1041

0.2583

0.1013

0.2333

0.0974

0.2351

0.0862

0.2366

0.0832

0.231

0.0823

0.2258

0.0876

0.2332

0.0932

0.2339

0.0956

0.2389

0.0984

0.2395

0.0938

0.2229

0.085

0.2132

0.0857

0.2039

0.0857

0.1821

0.0818

0.1836

0.077

0.1675

0.0739

0.157

0.0776

0.1558

0.0809

0.169

0.0825

0.1702

0.087

0.1672

0.0841

0.176

0.0828

0.1651

Black-White Data

Percent of Native Born Non-Hispanics Below Poverty Line: 1968 to 2007

This one shows the percent of native born non-hispanic whites and blacks who lived in impoverished households from 1968 through 2007.

   You might try a vertical axis running from about 5 percent to 40 percent.  You might draw the lower trend line showing white poverty and the upper trend line showing black poverty. If possible, you might label them and then fill in the space in-betwee

   I calculated the difference between the white and black percent in poverty and put those numbers in  the Excel sheet. They are not going to be plotted.WhiteBlacksDifference

Below povertyBelow Poverty

196810.2337.6827.450.10230.27450.3768

19699.9234.6724.750.09920.24750.3467

19709.4132.3422.930.09410.22930.3234

19718.4433.9625.520.08440.25520.3396

19728.4532.5524.10.08450.24100.3255

19737.3333.7126.380.07330.26380.3371

19747.0831.424.320.07080.24320.3140

19757.8231.4523.630.07820.23630.3145

19768.8232.5223.70.08820.23700.3252

19778.2332.7224.490.08230.24490.3272

19788.0532.3824.330.08050.24330.3238

19797.8831.0823.20.07880.23200.3108

19808.231.6823.480.08200.23480.3168

19819.3433.3123.970.09340.23970.3331

198210.3135.9925.680.10310.25680.3599

198311.0537.9226.870.11050.26870.3792

198411.1638.0726.910.11160.26910.3807

198510.4136.2425.830.10410.25830.3624

198610.1333.4623.330.10130.23330.3346

19879.7433.2523.510.09740.23510.3325

19888.6232.2823.660.08620.23660.3228

19898.3231.4223.10.08320.23100.3142

19908.2330.8122.580.08230.22580.3081

19918.7632.0823.320.08760.23320.3208

19929.3232.7123.390.09320.23390.3271

19939.5633.4523.890.09560.23890.3345

19949.8433.7923.950.09840.23950.3379

19959.3831.6722.290.09380.22290.3167

19968.529.8221.320.08500.21320.2982

19978.5728.9620.390.08570.20390.2896

19988.5726.7818.210.08570.18210.2678

19998.1826.5418.360.08180.18360.2654

20007.724.4516.750.07700.16750.2445

20017.3923.0915.70.07390.15700.2309

20027.7623.3415.580.07760.15580.2334

20038.0924.9916.90.08090.16900.2499

20048.2525.2717.020.08250.17020.2527

20058.725.4216.720.08700.16720.2542

20068.4126.0117.60.08410.17600.2601

20078.2824.7916.510.08280.16510.2479

One Other Indicator Of African American’s subordinate social status:

A Huge Racial Assets Gap

Percent of Native-Born Non-Hispanic Households Owning their Residence

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Black Owners

White Owners

HOME OWNERSHIP

Chart1

19761976

19771977

19781978

19791979

19801980

19811981

19821982

19831983

19841984

19851985

19861986

19871987

19881988

19891989

19901990

19911991

19921992

19931993

19941994

19951995

19961996

19971997

19981998

19991999

20002000

20012001

20022002

20032003

20042004

20052005

20062006

20072007

Black Owners

White Owners

0.443

0.245

0.442

0.246

0.446

0.243

0.483

0.23

0.489

0.228

0.48

0.238

0.474

0.24

0.456

0.234

0.459

0.23

0.444

0.246

0.447

0.237

0.458

0.229

0.429

0.263

0.42

0.274

0.426

0.269

0.426

0.27

0.426

0.27

0.426

0.278

0.436

0.268

0.427

0.285

0.446

0.277

0.468

0.256

0.477

0.252

0.472

0.265

0.484

0.259

0.496

0.253

0.501

0.252

0.492

0.265

0.502

0.261

0.504

0.263

0.485

0.275

0.494

0.261

Homeownership

Percent of Native Born Non-Hispanic Households Owning their Residence

WhiteBlackRaceBlack as %

OwnersOwnersDifferenceof White

197668.944.324.564.40%0.4430.245

197768.744.224.664.30%0.4420.246

197868.944.624.364.70%0.4460.243

197971.348.32367.70%0.4830.23

198071.648.922.868.20%0.4890.228

198171.84823.866.90%0.480.238

198271.447.42466.40%0.4740.24

19836945.623.466.00%0.4560.234

198468.945.92366.60%0.4590.23

19856944.424.664.30%0.4440.246

198668.444.723.765.40%0.4470.237

198768.745.822.966.70%0.4580.229

198869.242.926.362.00%0.4290.263

198969.44227.460.50%0.420.274

199069.542.626.961.30%0.4260.269

199169.642.62761.20%0.4260.27

199269.742.62761.20%0.4260.27

199370.442.627.860.40%0.4260.278

199470.443.626.861.90%0.4360.268

199571.242.728.559.90%0.4270.285

199672.344.627.761.70%0.4460.277

199772.446.825.664.60%0.4680.256

199872.947.725.265.40%0.4770.252

199973.747.226.564.00%0.4720.265

200074.248.425.965.20%0.4840.259

200174.949.625.366.20%0.4960.253

200275.450.125.266.50%0.5010.252

200375.749.226.565.00%0.4920.265

200476.250.226.165.80%0.5020.261

200576.650.426.365.70%0.5040.263

20067648.527.563.80%0.4850.275

200775.549.426.165.40%0.4940.261

Then There’s The Incarceration Explosion – Both Reflecting and

Locking-in Racial Inequality

Let’s Look at the Numbers: US Imprisonment Trends -- 1970-2010

(1) Dwarfs other Countries in the West

(2) Unprecedented in US History

(3) Wildly Disparate by Race and Class

Berkeley Sociologist Loic Wacquant: “This is not ‘Mass Incarceration’ but instead, ‘Hyper-Incarceration,’ with a class/race nexus: the poorly educated

and non-white are at much higher risk of being locked-up: I.e., imprisonment is an integral part of our nation’s larger

social policy framework

The Prison Intersects with Families and Communities.Note Incarceration’s Huge Impact of Black Children.

-.50

.5Po

licy

Popu

latio

n R

elat

ive

to 1

990

1990 1995 2000y ear

Receiv ing Cash Assistance Incarcerated

The New Poverty Governance: Change in Numbers Incarcerated and Receiving Cash Aid:1990-2000

Source: Schram and Soss, 2005

PresenterPresentation NotesSource: Sanford Schram and Joseph Soss, “Coloring the terms of membership: Reinventing the divided citizenry in an era of neo-liberal paternalism” (unpublished paper, Bryn Mawr College, 2005)

Despite 40 years of AA, prisons are the primary venue for the government’s engagement with the lives of African American men in the US today

What does all this reveal about the true character of American social inequality?

Prisons more prominent than schools, unions, military or social agencies for poor black men…

Affirmative Action Policies in the US:�An Introductory Overview�Slide Number 2Slide Number 3Goals of AA PolicySlide Number 5Slide Number 6Further (Technical) Questions about AA Policy (to be addressed in some of the papers to come…)Some of My Papers on Affirmative ActionPrincipled Argument against Aff. Action in USArguments in Favor of Affirmative ActionBased on paper with Roland Fryer (JEP, 2005) here are some commonly held but dubious beliefs (“myths”) about affirmative action in the USSlide Number 12Slide Number 13Slide Number 14Slide Number 15Slide Number 16Slide Number 17Slide Number 18Why Is Affirmative Action So Controversial? An Empirical Study of AA in US Law Schools in the 1990sSlide Number 20Slide Number 21Slide Number 22Slide Number 23Slide Number 24Slide Number 25“When Affirmative Action Was White”Slide Number 27Slide Number 28Slide Number 29Slide Number 30Finally: “Beyond Civil Rights”:� �What’s a Self-Respecting “Black” Intellectual (Me!) To Do in the Face of Persistent Racial Inequality in the United States? �Evidently, Affirmative Action Has Failed to Achieve Equality for Blacks In the US Since 1970�Here are the First-Order Social Facts about Racial Inequality in America Today: ��(1) African American Social Disadvantage Is a Stubbornly Persistent Reality of 21st Century American Society ��(2) Convergence to parity is nowhere in sight (I’ll show).��(3) Dr. King’s ‘Dream’ of Equality Has Yet To Be Realized��(4) But That’s OK Because ‘We Got Us a Black President’?Educational AttainmentSlide Number 34Slide Number 35Employment, Earnings and Family incomesSlide Number 37Slide Number 38Slide Number 39Slide Number 40One Other Indicator Of African American’s subordinate social status:�A Huge Racial Assets Gap Slide Number 42Slide Number 43Then There’s The Incarceration Explosion – Both Reflecting and Locking-in Racial InequalityLet’s Look at the Numbers: US Imprisonment Trends -- 1970-2010��(1) Dwarfs other Countries in the West��(2) Unprecedented in US History��(3) Wildly Disparate by Race and Class�Berkeley Sociologist Loic Wacquant: “This is not ‘Mass Incarceration’ but instead, ‘Hyper-Incarceration,’ with a class/race nexus: the poorly educated and non-white are at much higher risk of being locked-up: I.e., imprisonment is an integral part of our nation’s larger social policy frameworkSlide Number 47Slide Number 48Slide Number 49Slide Number 50Slide Number 51The New Poverty Governance: Change in Numbers Incarcerated and Receiving Cash Aid:1990-2000Despite 40 years of AA, prisons are the primary venue for the government’s engagement with the lives of African American men in the US today