AdventistEducation THE JOURNAL OFcircle.adventist.org/files/jae/JAE_v68n2.pdfGeneral Conference of...

AdventistEducationTHE JOURNAL OF

Website: http://education.gc.adventist.org/jae/ December 2005/January 2006

Adventist Early

Childhood Education

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2 JOURNAL OF ADVENTIST EDUCATION | DECEMBER 2005/JANUARY 2006

ContentsD E C E M B E R 2 0 0 5 / J A N UA RY 2 0 0 6 VO L . 6 8 N O. 2

Photo and art credits: Cover, J. Nettis, H. Armstrong Roberts; pp. 4,6, 12, 13, 25, 32, Shutterstock; p. 26, skjoldphotographs.com; pp. 5,9, 10, 16, 27, 28, 34, 35, 45, Brand X; pp. 14, 29, 35, 39, 43, H. Arm-strong Roberts; pp. 18-21, Ron Wheeler; p. 31, D. Logan, H. Arm-strong Roberts; pp. 44, 47, 49, 50, Jim Sherwood.

4 MIND, BRAIN, AND EARLY CHILDHOOD BY LINDA BRYANT CAVINESS

12 ADVENTIST EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATIONBY CHRISTINE L. GILLAN

18 SO YOU WANT TO START A CHILD-CARE CENTER! BY MARILYN BEACH

25 THE IMPORTANCE OF IMAGINA-TION AND PLAY: A NEURO-COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE BY LINDA BRYANT CAVINESS

29 SKILLS FOR SCHOOL READINESS AND LIFE

32 HELPING PRESCHOOL CHILDREN BECOME READERS: TIPS FOR PARENTSBY ANN S. EPSTEIN

37 GUIDANCE TECHNIQUES THAT WORK

44 THE CHILD-CENTERED KINDER-GARTEN: A POSITION PAPER BY JOAN MOYER

3 GUEST EDITORIAL

F E AT U R E S

D E PA RT M E N T S

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THE JOURNAL OFAdventist Education

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THE JOURNAL OF ADVENTIST EDUCATION publishesarticles concerned with a variety of topics pertinent toAdventist education. Opinions expressed by our writersdo not necessarily represent the views of the staff or theofficial position of the Department of Education of theGeneral Conference of Seventh-day Adventists.

THE JOURNAL OF ADVENTIST EDUCATION (ISSN0021-8480) is published bimonthly, October throughMay, plus a single summer issue for June, July, August,and September by the Department of Education, Gen-eral Conference of Seventh-day Adventists, 12501 OldColumbia Pike, Silver Spring, MD 20904-6600. TELE-PHONE (301) 680-5075; FAX (301) 622-9627; E-mail:[email protected]. Subscription price, U.S.$18.25. Add $1.00 for postage outside the U.S. Singlecopy, U.S. $3.75. Periodical postage paid at SilverSpring, Maryland, and additional mailing office. Pleasesend all changes of address to P.O. Box 5, Keene, TX76059, including both old and new address. Address alleditorial and advertising correspondence to the Editor.Copyright 2005 General Conference of SDA, POST-MASTER: Send address changes to THE JOURNAL OFADVENTIST EDUCATION, P.O. Box 5, Keene, TX76059.

The true test of civilization is, not the census, nor the size ofthe cities, nor the crops, but the kind of [person] that thecountry turns out” (Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1870).This is anawesome responsibility for parents and educators.To nurturea mind is to mold the future.

This issue of the JOURNAL looks at education’s endeavors to setyoung children on a course for success. It considers a number of issuesrelating to early child development, such as: the current move towarduniversal preschool, the need to ensure safe learning environments, andwholistic development in formal and informal preschool settings.

Even a cursory review of educational literature reveals the impor-tance of focusing on early child development.Too many youngsters are not performing wellon high-stakes tests. Politicians and educators struggle with how to produce well-educatedcitizens from an increasingly diverse population. Dire warnings are issued about at-risk 3-year-olds falling behind academically, never to catch up. Many view universal preschool asa potential solution to these problems.

Meanwhile, kindergarten teachers demand more classroom time to advance students toexpected levels of proficiency. Preschool dropout rates top dropout rates at all other gradelevels.And child development specialists warn that a toxic society is taking its toll on chil-dren’s brains.

Perhaps now more vulnerable than ever, children need advocates. Overworked parents,inadequate or unconnected caregivers, lack of discipline, irregular routines, sensory over-load, pressure to learn before developmentally ready—these influences and more can robchildren of foundational strengths they need to thrive.

This issue provides information and perspective to help educators and parents as theyprepare children for formal academics—when the time is right. Many of our readers are in-volved in preschool/kindergarten programs—directly or indirectly.Whatever your role, wehave tried to provide current, relevant information to help guide early childcare and edu-cation. Some of the articles included here may be shared with parents trying to determinethe best educational setting for their children.

Philosophically, this issue was prepared with the assumption that the mother is the bestcaregiver (the father, of course, also plays an important role), and that children should notbe rushed into academics prematurely. Despite reports in the popular press, science does notconclusively support the idea that formal preschool is best for optimal child development.However, the authors are aware that societal pressures and family circumstances often leadparents to choose the next best options.

How should Adventist educators respond to growing demand for Christian preschools?When the mother is unable or unwilling to act as primary caretaker, other types of caremust be considered. In this issue, we have tried to provide information to aid in these situ-ations, as well as to promote the importance of maintaining respect and support for moreideal nurture of children. Because of this dual aim, the reader may sense a divided focus.

Ultimately, the most important thing to keep in mind is the welfare of the youngermembers of the family of God.The church, through its educational system, as well as fam-ily and children’s ministries, has a moral responsibility to support and help parents, especiallythose who cannot or do not want to provide care themselves. This means a number ofthings, potentially, such as offering parenting classes, information about child development,preschools, kindergartens, etc.Also, in locations that mandate preschool enrollment by a cer-tain age, the church may want to consider offering a religious alternative to secular care.

Guest Editorial

JOURNAL OF ADVENTIST EDUCATION | DECEMBER 2005/JANUARY 2006 3

Early Childhood Education

LINDA B. CAVINESS

Continued on page 51

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MIND,BRAIN,AND

EARLYCHILDHOOD


In California where I live, tel-evision, radio, and newspa-pers all promote the “FirstFive” initiative, which seeksto convince the public thatpreschool is vital for everychild’s optimal development.Other educational systems

have a similar focus.The messageconveyed is that without preschool,children:

• are less likely to graduate fromhigh school, much less go on to col-lege;

• will likely trail behind and bevictimized because they were de-prived of early formalized learning;and

• will overwhelm the school sys-tem as it struggles to bring deficientchildren up to levels other childrenattained in preschool.

These are legitimateconcerns, but many believethis emphasis represents a

skewed frame of reference. Currentlifestyles do create the need for uni-versal preschools; however, societaltrends do not always align with whatis best for children. Parents and edu-cators would do well to consider thistopic from a broad perspective beforeconcluding that preschool is the bestoption for children.

Recent research conducted underthe guidance of Walter S. Gilliam, apsychologist and associate researchscientist at Yale University ChildStudy Center, indicates that threetimes as many children are expelledfrom preschool as from grades K-12.Why so many expulsions? Gilliam’sstudy, titled Pre-kindergartners LeftBehind: Expulsion Rates in State Pre-kindergarten Systems, reports behavioras the main cause.“Behavioral prob-lems can seriously derail a youngchild’s first educational experiences.Preschoolers are just learning to so-cialize and follow directions, andmany young children resort to dis-ruptive behaviors, including kickingand biting,” Gilliam says.“These 3-and 4-year-olds are barely out of dia-pers. . . .They are being viewed as ed-ucational failures well before kinder-

garten,” Gilliam continued.1

These research findingssuggest a barrage of relatedBY LINDA BRYANT CAVINESS

Parents and edu-cators would dowell to consider. . .a broad perspec-tive before con-cluding that pre-school is the bestoption for chil-dren.



questions. Can universal preschoolsprovide the individualized attentionand socialization necessary for 3- to5-year-olds? What happens emotion-ally to those designated as troublemak-ers—and to their victims? What arethe implications of placing youngchildren in an academic environment

for which they are unready? Willthese children suffer long-lasting neg-ative consequences from being ex-pelled from preschool? Will theseearly stressors affect their later learn-ing and development? These ques-tions are seminal as we consider insti-tutionalizing 3- and 4-year-olds.

This article considersthe rationale for formalpreschool instruction aswell as other ways to pre-pare children for K-12schooling. Four questionsseem pertinent:

• Why is there somuch emphasis on univer-sal preschool?

• What are the con-cerns about early child-hood learning?

• What does currentresearch suggest about thebest caregivers for pre-schoolers?

• Does learning forpreschoolers happen bestin a formal setting?

Rationale for UniversalPreschool

Societal trends seem tonecessitate preschool pro-grams. Preschool can bean attractive option whenboth parents work outsidethe home or when a sin-gle parent must work andcannot afford a babysitter.

Preschool benefits im-migrant families, also.These parents often worklong hours to establish thefamily in a new setting.This leaves little if anyquality time to preparechildren for school. Pre-school helps children fromthese families to accultur-ate and to master a newlanguage.

Children from chaoticand impoverished homesoften begin kindergartenand first grade at a disad-vantage.Trying to nurture

and educate children well preparedfor school as well as those who areunready stresses school systems al-ready under pressure to meet man-dated standards for academic achieve-ment.

Consequently, preschool seemsthe logical way to “level the playing


field” to ensure that all children areready for first grade. Attack and elimi-nate the problem during the earliest andmost impressionable years seems to bethe motto of those who seek to re-quire universal preschool.This posi-tion assumes that emphasis on intel-lectual development offers a magiccure. However, another view deservesconsideration.

Another PerspectiveResearch suggests that during the

first five years of life, there are criticalperiods for psychological, physi-ological, sociological, emotional, andspiritual development. Enriched envi-ronments during these years are es-pecially important. But can formalpreschool programs offer optimal nur-ture and care for the whole child—body, mind, and spirit?

The idea that more is better—more years in school, more and ear-lier academics, more homework—may not prove to be true in the longrun. In fact, research on the brainsuggests that this unbalanced empha-sis may even be counterproductive.

As reported in Carla Hannaford’sSmart Moves,2 experiments in variousschools have documented that lesscan be better.When these schools de-emphasized academic seatwork andincluded more physical education inthe curriculum—as much as one-third of the school day—academicscores went up, rather than down.School morale soared, as did students’desire to learn.

The brain wants to be in chargeof its own learning, according to Case

Western Reserve University’s JamesZull in The Art of Changing the Brain.3

Putting too much emphasis on ex-trinsic motivation and force-feedingfacts does not match the brain’s pre-ferred way of functioning.The hu-man brain is constantly learning onits own.To guide that learning, theeducator should honor ways the brainprefers to learn. For preschool chil-dren, the best learning opportunitiesare created in play-full environments.

What is needed, as we consider

the roles of preschool and kinder-garten, is a balanced perspective. Un-fortunately, educators tend to valueintellectual prowess over physical andspiritual development.When budgetcuts are necessary, physical educationand aesthetic programming are usu-ally the first to go.

Ellen White’s definition of trueeducation—the harmonious develop-ment of physical, mental, and spiritualpowers in preparation for service tohumankind—points to a quite dif-


Can universalpreschools providethe individualizedattention and so-cialization neces-sary for 3- to 5-year-olds?


ferent philosophy. Her counsel com-mending this integral balance isvalidated repeatedly by current neu-roscience research.4 The September2005 issue of Educational Leadershipcites much of this research in an issueentirely devoted to the whole child.

Mind, body, and spirit functiontogether.To try to separate them is il-logical and impossible.To achieve abalanced education, we must findways to integrate children’s intellec-tual, physical, emotional, social, andspiritual development.

As we consider the educationalneeds of preschoolers, we shouldevaluate our assumptions, practices,and innovations. For education to betruly brain-body-spirit and learner-friendly, it must focus on the wholechild.Any initiative that values men-tal, physical, or spiritual function overthe full integration of all three is in-complete and harmful.

Who Should Care for Children? A number of researchers have in-

vestigated the best environment foryoung children. Relevant factors theycite include: attachment, self-realiza-tion, and neurological issues (stages ofdevelopment, the role of emotion,neural development, etc.). Currentmedia promotions for preschool,however, rarely even mention theseimportant issues.

Trust. During the first six orseven years of life, patterns form in achild’s brain that largely determinewhat kind of person he or she willbecome.This early imprinting is opti-mized in loving environments thatbond caregiver and child. George-town University’s Karl Pribram andClaremont Graduate School’s PaulZak5 describe research on beneficialoxytocin levels produced in bothmother and child when they are syn-chronized in spirit.The body systems(immune, respiration, digestion, andcardiac) all function better when atrusting relationship exists betweenchildren and parents—especially themother.This sets the stage for optimallearning.

Emotion. Emotion is based on

neurochemistry.6 The caretaker’sopinion of a child affects his or herperformance and self-concept. If thecaretaker perceives a child as a behav-ior problem or a troublemaker, thechild detects this and reacts nega-tively. Preschool teachers, who inter-act with many children each day andhave different children in class everyyear, will have difficulty forminglong-term bonding relationships withmultiple children.

Neuroscience helps explain whysustained levels of negative emotioncompromise brain function and effi-ciency and how positive emotionshelp children thrive.Whether pre-schools provide the optimal environ-ment for emotional and academic de-velopment is a question parents andeducators must con-sider.

Heart/Brain Con-nections. The more welearn about heart-brainconnections, the morewe realize how muchthe heart is involved inlearning! Earl Bakken,inventor of the firstwearable heart pace-maker and author ofmore than 100 scien-tific articles on heart-brain connections, explains that moreconnectors extend from the heart tothe brain than from the brain to theheart.According to Bakken, the hearthas a profound effect on the brainand cognition.7

Research reveals that the heartcontains neuron-like structures simi-lar to those in the brain, though ingreatly reduced numbers.8 Thus, theheart can store memories. In fact, theheart can be described as “having amind of its own.”As a sensory organ,it is a major player in cognition. Re-cent research on heart-brain connec-tions may provide new insight re-garding biblical statements about theheart. Perhaps “As a man thinketh inhis heart, so is he” (Proverbs 23:7,KJV) is more literal than previouslythought.

The child is uniquely linked to

the brain and heart of the mother.Ellen White suggests that when themother experiences an intimate rela-tionship with God, she is empoweredto nurture her child.9 The father, too,has a vital role in nurturing the grow-ing child.10

If circumstances prevent sustainedinteraction between parent and child,the heart/brain can adapt; but the bestsituation for young children is lovingnurture in their own home, especiallywhen parents are attuned to the heartand mind of God and to that of thechild. If some other case is a must,parents should ensure that there is atrusting relationship between thechild, parents, and teacher, in a fam-ily-like situation or in a developmen-tally sound Christian preschool.

Developing Mind. PsychiatristDaniel Siegel, in his book, The Devel-oping Mind, says,“Interpersonal expe-riences directly influence how wementally construct reality.This shap-ing process occurs throughout life,but is most crucial during the earlyyears of childhood. Patterns of rela-tionships and emotional communica-tion directly affect the developmentof the brain. . . . Studies of humansubjects reveal that different patternsof child-parent attachment are associ-ated with differing physiological re-sponses, ways of seeing the world, andinterpersonal relationship patterns.The communication of emotion maybe the primary means by which theseattachment experiences shape the de-veloping mind. Research suggests thatemotion serves as a central organizingprocess within the brain. In this way,


Attack and eliminate theproblem during the earli-est and most impression-able years seems to bethe motto of those whoseek to require universalpreschool.


an individual’s abilities to organizeemotions—a product, in part, of ear-lier attachment relationships—directlyshapes the ability of the mind to inte-grate experience and to adapt to fu-ture stressors.”11

As a proponent of child nurtureby parents, Ellen White wrote 100years ago:“The little ones should beeducated in childlike simplicity.Theyshould be trained to be content withthe small, helpful duties and thepleasures and experiences natural totheir years. . . . Children should notbe forced into a precocious maturity,but as long as possible should retainthe freshness and grace of their earlyyears.The more quiet and simple thelife of the child—the more free fromartificial excitement and the more inharmony with nature—the more fa-vorable it is to physical and mentalvigor and to spiritual strength.”12

Quality of Parental NurtureIs simply being at home with a

parent enough to ensure a well-ad-justed and academically successfulchild? Not necessarily.The quality oftime is also important.Appropriateat-home nurture requires discipline, aregular routine, varied educationalexperiences with real-life applica-tions, academics appropriate to thechild’s interests and age, abundantphysical activity in fresh air and sun-shine, proper nutrition and water in-take, adequate rest, social relationshipswith other adults and children, a bal-anced lifestyle, and consistent model-ing of trust in God on the part of thecaregiver.All this takes time andcommitment. In today’s world, manyparents have to work and cannot in-vest this kind of time and attention intheir children.When the ideal is notattainable, parents must find caregiverswho will provide these advantages.

In Reclaiming Our Children, PeterR. Breggin warns:“A meaningfulparent-child relationship—where par-ents give unconditional love and gen-uine attention to the child—is thesingle most important factor in pro-viding a child with a secure, emo-tionally stable life. Conversely, the loss

or absence of beneficial relationshipswith significant adults is the singlemost important source of suffering ina child’s life.”13

Concerns About Hothousing Children

Current research highlights signif-icant concerns regarding the qualityof learning in formal preschool set-tings.A major concern is preschooland kindergarten programs that aredevelopmentally inappropriate for thechildren they serve.

About 20 years ago, experts beganto express alarm about the pressure

for children to learn formal academ-ics at younger and younger ages. Irv-ing Sigel of the Educational TestingService in Princeton, New Jersey,coined the term hothousing to de-scribe these efforts—attempts toteach children to read or do math be-fore being enrolled in grade school.14

More recently, research on brainfunction has intensified this concern.Though the brain is highly adaptive,pressuring children to perform aca-demically before they are develop-mentally ready can lead to neurosesand other complications later in life.

In their 1998 book Magic Trees of

Developmentally Appropriate Practicein Early Childhood Programs

For 3-year-olds: allow and encourage• Play, alone and with friends;• Exploration, indoors and out, with active running, jumping, chas-

ing, tricycling, or catching balls, and hands-on activities like using con-struction sets, art materials, puzzles, and so on;

• Experimentation with blocks, sand, water, bubbles, seeds, and otherobjects in the environment;

• Language and musical skills through conversation, stories, songs,rhymes, and instruments.

For 4-year-olds, expand the list above to include:• Field trips to zoos, puppet shows, etc.;• Learning centers in a classroom where a child can choose between

puzzles, books, math games, science games, blocks, recordings, art, anddress-up and dramatic role playing;

• Simple problem solving in areas like math, science, social studies,and health; using tools, wood, water, measuring devices, clay, blocks,cooking ingredients, and so on;

• More development of language, music, and art abilities throughhearing and looking at stories and poems, play-acting, drawing, copyingletters, singing, and playing instruments.

For 5-year-olds, expand the list above to include: • Theme learning, such as taking a topic of interest to local chil-

dren—like the ocean in coastal towns, or the prairie in Midwesternschools—then working reading, writing, math, science, social studies,art, and music activities around this topic._________________________________________________________

Adapted from Marian Diamond and Janet Hopson (1998). Magic Trees of the Mind:How to Nurture Your Child’s Intelligence, Creativity, and Healthy Emotions From BirthThrough Adolescence. New York: Penguin Putnam. Original source: National Associa-tion for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) in Washington, D.C.: Develop-mentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children From BirthThrough Age 8.



the Mind: How to Nurture Your Child’sIntelligence, Creativity, and HealthyEmotions From Birth Through Adoles-cence, University of California Berke-ley’s Marian Diamond and JanetHopson cite numerous authorities’concerns over hothousing children.David Elkind, a professor of childstudies at Tufts University, in hisbooks The Hurried Child and Misedu-cation: Preschoolers at Risk, warns par-ents and educators about the dangershe sees in teaching academic subjectsto young children. Over the shortterm, he says, young children stressedby educational pressure tend to showfatigue, decreased appetite, loweredeffectiveness at tasks, and psychoso-matic ailments.

Over the long term, says Elkind,these children may show less interestin learning, less ability to work inde-pendently to judge their own prog-ress, and the tendency to worry andcompare their intelligence with otherchildren’s.Although some parents fer-vently believe that their children’s po-

tential is wasted by letting them playuntil they reach school age, Elkindinsists that exposing them to anythingother than self-directed activities canbe harmful and dangerous.15

Jane Healy relates school readinessto brain development:“Since myelinformation enables more efficientbrain use, making demands on unde-veloped areas may be a real mistake.We have very little information onways to speed the growth of myelin;although it is age-related, the sched-ule varies widely among individuals,and it is unclear how much—or if—the process can be accelerated. Itseems evident that our efforts tostimulate learning must be temperedby patience until the child’s mentaltransmission systems are equal to thetask or we risk frustration, inferiorskill development, and an abiding dis-taste and incompetence for the activ-ity.We may even be programming inbad habits and negative motivation ata neurophysiological level.”16

In 1890, when educational envi-

ronments were far more primitivethan today, Ellen White offered simi-lar advice:“Many children have beenruined for life by urging the intellectand neglecting to strengthen thephysical powers. . . .Their minds weretaxed with lessons when they shouldnot have been called out, but kept


Research suggeststhat during thefirst five years oflife, there are criti-cal periods forpsychological,physiological, soci-ological, emo-tional, and spiri-tual development.


back until the physical constitutionwas strong enough to endure mentaleffort. Small children should be asfree as lambs to run out-of-doors.They should be allowed the most fa-vorable opportunity to lay the foun-dation for a sound constitution.”17

Religious Education in Early Childhood

No responsibility assumed by hu-man beings is more important thanthe care and nurture of children—they are our future. In the busyness ofdaily life, it is easy for parents to losesight of children’s seminal needs—forroutine, structure and discipline; forsynchrony in spirit with parents andcaregivers; for nurturing strengths andstrengthening weaknesses; for ade-quate sleep, nutrition, and physical ac-tivity; and most importantly, for aconsistent example of God-likeness.No more sacred privilege is affordedto parents and teachers than to re-store the image of God in childrenand to introduce them to God’s planfor their lives.

Six years ago, I began a researchstudy to compare brain science re-search with Ellen G.White’s educa-tional counsels.Again and again, I wasamazed at how closely they aligned.Even though neuroscience favors anaturalistic perspective, many re-searchers have concluded that emo-tion, love, and a positive spirit arecritical to mental and physical health.

Similarly, a major emphasis inEllen White’s writings is the harmo-nious development of physical, men-tal, and spiritual powers in prepara-tion for service to humanity—andthroughout eternity. Science’s reitera-tion of Ellen White’s emphasis is an-other reminder that parents and edu-cators must address the needs of thewhole child.

Spiritual nurture is as vital asphysical and mental development.Failure to provide this nurture notonly represents unfaithfulness to God,it is a form of child abuse. By offer-ing developmentally appropriate reli-gious training, the Christian pre-school can enhance human potential

and prepare children for the kingdomof heaven. If they offer a wholisticprogram that combines physical,emotional, mental and spiritual train-ing, they can rightfully market them-selves as offering care that is superiorto that of secular preschools.

When children are young and im-pressionable, lessons in spirituality arevitally important. During these years,the brain is patterned in indelibleways that determine the child’s char-acter.Through neglect of balanced

training and nurture, we skew chil-dren’s development in ways that willrequire much effort and pain to over-come. One of the most valuable giftsthat we as loving parents and educa-tors can give to children is spiritualnurture. Children crave the love oftheir parents and teachers.Wise care-givers will seek God’s guidancethrough prayer and study in order toprovide developmentally appropriateand theologically sound training forthe children in their care.



SummarySocietal trends have created the

need for non-parental care for youngchildren.This has led to recommen-dations for universal preschool atten-dance.The goal of such programs isto prevent academic deficiencies—system-wide as well as in specificgroups of children—and to providecare and nurture for children whoseparents are unable to provide full-time care. Enriched environmentsduring preschool years do seem tohelp students from deprived back-grounds to succeed in primary schooland can stimulate creativity in giftedchildren.

However, many preschool pro-grams are developmentally inappro-priate and even harmful.They ware-house children and force-feed themacademics before their brains areready. Preschools with large enroll-ments and a few ill-trained and badlypaid teachers cannot individualizetheir offerings to meet the needs ofeach child, and some do not recog-nize the need to do so.

Such preschools are not the bestchoice for child nurture during theearliest years.Young children needloving nurture from consistent, God-fearing caregivers with whom thechild has developed a long-termbond.Along with emotional nurture,children need opportunities for cre-ative expression, abundant physicalactivity, and stress-free environments.Preschools that place undue emphasison academic development can causemore harm than good.They are un-likely to address children’s wholisticdevelopmental needs.

Parents are often “taken in” by thehype about the need for universalpreschool. Churches and schools canmake a significant contribution to thepresent and the future of their com-munities if they seek ways to helpparents understand and fulfill their re-sponsibility to provide a nurturingclimate for their children.When chil-dren cannot be cared for at home,Adventist schools can offer develop-mentally appropriate and lovingChristian preschool care.

Addressing the problem of lowacademic achievement and schooldropouts is important, but it requiresmore than mandates for formalizedpreschool education. It would bebetter achieved by helping familiesunderstand the way children developand how to provide quality care.Education at its best nurtures theuniqueness of each individual.Though well intended, bureaucracydoes not excel in individualization.Adventist educators do well to keepin mind the sacredness of individualhuman potential, especially duringchildren’s most impressionableyears.✐

_________________

Linda Bryant Cavi-ness, Ph.D., is an asso-ciate professor in the Schoolof Education at La SierraUniversity (LSU) inRiverside, California. Herdoctoral studies focused onleadership and educational

brain science; her Master’s study emphasized lan-guage and literacy. She is actively involved inpromoting the International Mind, Brain, andEducation Society—an organization created tohelp educators understand the implications ofbrain science research. Currently, she also is devel-oping a Master’s- and doctoral-level program inmind, brain, and education at LSU in collabora-tion with other local organizations and educa-tional institutions. Dr. Caviness speaks often onthe importance of pedagogy that honors the wholechild. Her teaching experience includes all levelsfrom preschool to postgraduate level. She remainsactive as a teacher-education program reviewerwith California Commission on Teacher Creden-tialing. E-mail: [email protected].______________________________

REFERENCES

1.William S. Gilliam,“Pre-KindergartnersLeft Behind: Expulsion Rates in State Prekinder-garten Systems,” Yale Medical News (May 17,2005). Retrieved September 14, 2005, fromhttp://www.fcd-us.org/PDFs/ExpulsionNews-Release.pdf.

2. Carla Hannaford, Smart Moves (Arlington,

Va.: Great Ocean Publishers, Inc., 1995).3. James E. Zull, The Art of Changing the Brain

(Sterling,Va.: Stylus Publications, LLC, 2002).4. Ellen G.White, Education (Mountain View,

Calif.: Pacific Press Publ.Assn., 1903), p. 13; LindaBryant Caviness, Educational Brain Research asCompared With E. G.White’s Counsels to Educators(Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI Dissertations, 2001), pp.408-426. Dissertation #3019334.Available bycalling (800) 521-0600.

5. Karl Pribram and D. Rozman, Early Child-hood Development and Learning:What New Researchon the Heart and Brain Tells Us About Our YoungestChildren. Paper presented at the White HouseConference on Early Childhood Developmentand Learning, San Francisco, Calif., April 17,1997; Paul J. Zak and S. Knack,“Trust andGrowth,” Economic Journal 111:470 (April 2001),p. 295.

6. Candace B. Pert, Molecules of Emotion(New York: Scribner, 1997).

7. Interview with Earl Bakken by the author,February 2005.

8. J.Andrew Armour and Jeffery Ardell, Neu-rocardiology (New York: Oxford University Press,1994).

9. Collective data on this dynamic relation-ship is discussed and summarized in Caviness,Educational Brain Research as Compared With E. G.White’s Counsels to Educators, pp. 224-276, 306-318.

10. Ellen G.White, Child Guidance (Washing-ton, D.C.: Review and Herald Publ.Assn., 1923),pp. 24, 63.

11. Daniel J. Siegel, The Developing Mind(New York: Guilford Publications, Inc., 1999), p.4.

12.White, Education, p. 107.13. Peter R. Breggin, Reclaiming Our Children

(New York: Harper Collins Publishers—PerseusBooks, 2000), p. 48.

14. Cited in Marian C. Diamond and JanetHopson, Magic Trees of the Mind: How to NurtureYour Child’s Intelligence, Creativity, and HealthyEmotions From Birth Through Adolescence (NewYork: Penguin Putnam, 1998), p. 161.

15. Ibid., p. 167.16. Jane M. Healy, Endangered Minds (New

York: Simon & Schuster—Touchstone, 1990), pp.75, 76. Myelin is a white fatty substance thatcoats the axon of the neuron and speeds infor-mation transfer. Not all neurons require myelina-tion for efficient function, but many do. Lack ofmyelination can be a serious problem.

17. From Ellen G.White,“Christian Temper-ance and Bible Hygiene” (1890), pp. 81-84,reprinted in Fundamentals of Christian Education(Nashville,Tenn.: Southern Publ.Assn., 1923), p.146.


The idea that more is better—moreyears in school, more and earlieracademics, more homework—may notprove to be true in the long run.


Small children shouldbe left as free aslambs, to run out ofdoors, to be free andhappy, and should beallowed the most fa-vorable opportunities

to lay the foundation for sound con-stitutions.”1 For more than 100 years,this statement has been the authorita-tive counsel for Seventh-day Advent-ist parents and educators. Early child-hood education and group care(ECEC) have not been part of theconventional Adventist paradigm.Many times, the question has beenasked:“Are we working in oppositionto biblical and Spirit of Prophecycounsel when we promote the opera-tion of ECEC programs?”

Although I am an early childhoodeducator and coordinator for theearly childhood education and caredivision of a union conference, I stillconcur with the traditional Adventistbelief that young children, prior toentrance into formal schooling,should be in the home, taught andcared for by loving parents.

Empirical Backing for AdventistTraditions

As with other traditional Advent-ist teachings, empirical research con-sistently authenticates the wisdom ofour heritage. Both past and currentresearch reveal that children who stayat home between birth and 8 years ofage, cared for and taught by a lovingand attentive mother and father, aremore successful and balanced in allareas of life than those children whodo not have the same early environ-ment.2

According to David Elkind, pro-fessor of child development at TuftsUniversity,“children who receive aca-demic instruction too early—gener-


ADVENTISTEARLY

CHILDHOODEDUCATIO

BY CHRISTINE L. GILLAN


ally before age six orseven—are often putat risk. . . taught thewrong things at thewrong time. . . , ” per-manently damagingchildren’s belief in theirabilities, reducing their“natural eagerness tolearn,” and blocking their“natural gifts and talents.”3

Edward Zigler, co-founderof Head Start and currentSterling Professor Emeritusof Psychology at Yale Uni-versity, concurs:“There is alarge body of evidence indi-

cating that there is little if anything tobe gained by exposing middle-classchildren to early education.”4

Rebecca Marcon, a developmentalpsychologist and a professor of psy-chology at the University of NorthFlorida, has concluded from researchthat “[c]hildren’s… long-term prog-ress may be slowed by . . . [introduc-ing] formalized learning experiencestoo early for most children’s develop-mental status. Pushing children toosoon may actually backfire whenchildren move into the later elemen-tary school grades and are required tothink more independently and takeon greater responsibility for theirown learning process.”5

Recent research on the effects oftime spent in childcare demonstratesthat smaller care settings are muchmore beneficial for the young childthan larger, institutionalized set-tings—regardless of the adult/childratio.According to empirical research,home-based and faith-based centersdo indeed provide higher-quality careand nurture, which in turn enhanceschildren’s social, emotional, and aca-demic success.6

In other words, no research sup-ports the assumption that enrollingmiddle-class and upper-class childrenin preschool will increase their aca-demic, emotional, and social skills. In

fact, it may produce negative out-comes.

Society Versus FamilyUnfortunately, for the vast major-

ity of children, the ideal scenario ofcare by one or both parents in thehome is not a reality. Over the pastcentury, diverse sociological and po-litical factors have had a huge impacton families and child-raising.Theseinclude increased mobility and immi-gration, nuclear families, high divorcerates, teenage pregnancy and singleparenthood, societal disdain for“women’s work,” better-educatedmothers with demanding careers,anti-family legislation and taxation,wars and natural disasters, the highcost of living, the change from an in-dustrial to a service economy, promis-cuity, the increasing gap between richand poor, and over-indulgence inpleasure-seeking behaviors.

These trends have led to the dis-integration of the traditional familystructure and made it more difficultfor people to care for their childrenat home.Although childcare advo-cates see these trends as creating a de-mand for universal early childhoodeducation, Public Agenda found that“parents of young children believethat having a full-time parental pres-ence at home is what’s best for veryyoung children and it is what most


ODTION

Many times, thequestion has beenasked: “Are weworking in oppo-sition to biblicaland Spirit ofProphecy counselwhen we promotethe operation ofECEC programs?”


would prefer for their own family.”7

Without question, the intact homewhere family members can providelove, training, and protection duringthe earliest years remains the idealeducational environment.

The Early Childhood EducationFrenzy

Although a child’s formative yearsare the responsibility of the parentsand extended family, the reality of so-cietal trends has placed a heavy bur-den upon schools and social struc-tures. Politicians, corporations, teacherunions, and professional organizationshave seized upon the results of threestudies purporting to show profoundand long-term benefits from qualityearly childhood education. However,the results of these studies cannot begeneralized to all American families,as the demographics of the partici-pants were not representative of thelarger population.8

In addition, the environmentswere not representative, as they in-cluded home visits, individualized ed-ucation activities, and teacher/childratios of 1:5.All three studies con-centrated on severely disadvantagedminority children, some at risk forretarded mental performance. Fur-thermore, the studies have not beenreplicated with a broader cross-sec-

tion of young children.9

As a result of these over-publi-cized studies, the changing socialstructure of families, working parents,parental concern about their chil-dren’s perceived academic deficien-cies, language barriers, behavioral dis-turbances, test scores, and socializationskills,“experts” have convinced manyparents that they need to enroll theiryoung children in out-of-home carefor early educational opportunities.10

Benefits of Early Learning Environ-ments

Both public and private entitieshave responded by recommending re-liable, high-quality, safe, and instruc-tive care for young children.Theterm “developmentally appropriatepractice” (DAP) has become a clichesignifying the necessity to provideboth education and care.

A developmentally appropriatepreschool environment can provide


In order to helpmeet the needs ofsociety, Seventh-day Adventistshave a responsibil-ity to offer appro-priate instructionand to lead chil-dren to Christ.



long-term benefits if the program isnot overly academic. Developmentalappropriateness has two dimensions:age and individualization. Experts inchild development have produced aframework that teachers can use toshape the learning environment andplan appropriate experiences.Theseprograms seek to promote physical,emotional, social, and cognitive devel-opment that is appropriate for the ageof the child.

Individual appropriateness focuseson enhancing children’s abilitieswhile also challenging their interests,understanding, and critical-thinkingskills. Factors to be considered in-clude the child’s individual patternand timing of growth, personality,learning style, coping skills, and fam-ily background.

The benefits of DAP have beenverified repeatedly by developmentalpsychologists and educational re-searchers. Many of these were enu-merated by Marcon in her 2002quasi-experimental follow-up study:11

• A positive classroom climate thatis conducive to children’s healthyemotional development;

• Lower levels of exhibited stressand greater motivation to learn;

• Increased comprehension andverbal skills, greater creativity, andhigher levels of cognitive functioning;

• Higher achievement scoresthroughout their primary grade years;and

• Smoother transitions from pri-mary to later elementary grades withacademic gains holding constant.

The preschool teacher’s role iscritical—he or she must plan, ob-serve, and guide learning through di-rect instruction, environmental sup-port, appropriate materials, andthoughtful questioning strategies.“Without a nurturing, playful, re-sponsive environment, an academicfocus may diminish children’s engage-ment and motivation. But a ‘child-centered’ environment that lacks in-tellectual challenges also falls short ofwhat curious young learners de-serve.”12 Young children’s academicaptitude can be significantly shaped if

the teacher focuses and individualizesthe environment and activities in theareas of organization, coordination,cooperation, and independence.

Adventist Early Childhood Education

How do the studies cited aboverelate to Adventist preschools? It willbe helpful to review the goals of Ad-ventist education at this point. EllenWhite wrote that “the purpose of ed-ucation is to qualify [children] forusefulness in this life and for the fu-ture life in the kingdom of God.”13

Elaborating on this, the North Amer-ican Division (NAD) Office of Edu-

cation published this philosophystatement in their Journey to Excel-lence document:

“Adventist education seeks to de-velop a life of faith in God and re-spect for the dignity of all human be-ings; to build character akin to thatof the Creator; to nurture thinkersrather than mere reflectors of others’thoughts; to promote loving servicerather than selfish ambition; to ensuremaximum development of each indi-vidual’s potential; and to embrace allthat is true, good, and beautiful.”14

The Pacific Union ConferenceEducation Code provides more de-tail:“The primary aim of Seventh-day Adventist education is to provideopportunity for students to acceptChrist as their Savior, to allow theHoly Spirit to transform their lives,and to fulfill the commission ofpreaching the gospel to all the world.Seventh-day Adventist education hasa two-fold mission.The school’s pri-mary role is to educate and to spiri-tually strengthen Seventh-day Ad-ventist youth. In addition, the schoolis to serve as a mission outreach tothe community.”15

ResponsibilityIn order to help meet the needs

of society and to fulfill the gospelcommission, Seventh-day Adventistshave a responsibility to offer appro-priate instruction and to lead childrento Christ.We have been counseledthat “as soon as the child is capable offorming an idea and reasoning, hiseducation should begin.”16 Long ago,the Adventist Church recognized theneed to support families in trainingyoung children to become “useful, re-spected, and beloved members of so-ciety here, and give them a moral fit-ness for the society of the pure andholy hereafter.”17 Hence,Adventists

instituted programs such as Sabbathschool, church schools,Vacation BibleSchool,Adventurers, and Pathfinders.

In 1904, Mrs.White expresseddeep concern for young childrenwho were not being properly disci-plined and trained within their homeenvironments. Such children, she be-lieved, were not provided with theproper foundation for the future.18

On January 14 of that year, Mrs.White met with the church schoolboard at Elmshaven, Sanitarium, Cali-fornia. She acknowledged that “chil-dren surrounded by these unfortunateconditions are indeed to be pitied. Ifnot afforded an opportunity forproper training outside the home,they are debarred from many privi-leges that, by right, every child shouldenjoy. . . God desires us to deal withthese problems sensibly.”19 “[H]ere is awork that must be done for the fami-lies. . . .They will learn in school thatwhich they frequently do not learnout of school, except by associa-tion.”20

When board members questionedher previous statement about theneed for children to be as “free as

A developmentally appropriate pre-school environment can provide long-term benefits if the program is notoverly academic.


lambs,” she answered:“God wants usall to have common sense, and Hewants us to reason from commonsense. Circumstances alter conditions.Circumstances change the relation ofthings.”21

In these comments, Mrs.Whitewas referring to the care and educa-tional needs of children between theages of 7 and 10 years. However, thephilosophy applies to younger childrenas well:The church must be ever vig-ilant to assist in the upbringing andtraining of its youngest members. Inthe 21st century, lifestyle choices andever-increasing economic demandshave placed families in peril. Usingbiblical principles, mature membersmust provide guidance and counselfor the less mature as they “hand oneanother along.”22 In addition, thechurch needs to help its young fami-lies who are struggling to provide thetype of home environment most suit-able for the indoctrination of biblicalvalues and principles.

This does not mean that every

Seventh-day Adventist church and/orschool should operate a childcareprogram. However, it does mean thatcongregations should assist theirstruggling members, being willing toteach and care for them, and seekingto serve them.23

Mrs.White encouraged thechurch to “carry a burden for thelambs of the flock. Let the childrenbe educated and trained to do servicefor God, for they are the Lord’s her-itage.”24 “[C]hildren who have beenrightly educated. . . will in their sim-plicity. . . do a work in the proclama-

tion of the truth which the olderworkers cannot do.”25

A Call to ActionMatthew 19:14 and Luke 18:16

(KJV) both record Jesus saying “sufferthe little children to come unto meand forbid them not.”This impliesthat every child deserves to learnabout Him.Thus, He placed a long-ing within the hearts of certain indi-viduals (myself included) to pick upthe seemingly impossible task of car-ing for and guiding young children toHimself.


Recent research on the effects oftime spent in childcare demonstratesthat smaller care settings are muchmore beneficial for the young childthan larger, institutionalized set-tings—regardless of the adult/childratio.



“Christ’s method alone will givetrue success in reaching the people .. . . He showed His sympathy forthem, ministered to their needs, andwon their confidence.Then He badethem, ‘Follow Me.’”26 This is whereChrist-centered early childhood edu-cation and care must begin.To lov-ingly care for another person’s childprovides a sacred opportunity tobuild strong bonds of trust and confi-dence between teacher and parent.Through this medium, the gospel ofJesus Christ is taught and lived in thehope that the children’s parents willheed the call of Christ.Through thefaithful work of Adventist teachersand administrators with impression-able children, the gospel of JesusChrist is being taught and lived in aneffort to “train up [the children] inthe way [they] should go” (Proverbs6:22).

This is the mission of Adventistearly childhood education and carecenters.

Church Administration RespondsFor many years, ECEC profes-

sionals within the Seventh-day Ad-ventist Church have faithfully lookedafter the “little lambs of the flock”—and those of anyone else willing toentrust their children to our care andtraining. Recently, church administra-tors have also demonstrated a moreactive interest in assuming responsi-bility for training the young.

In June 2005, the North Ameri-can Division (NAD) union presidentsand division officers voted to ask theNAD Office of Education to take re-sponsibility for the development andsupervision of all early childhood ed-ucation and care programs.27

For those of us within the ECECfield, this is the beginning of an ex-citing time in Adventist history! TheLord is working to preserve the fam-ily unit, and we have the privilege ofbeing His instruments through ourECEC centers.We hope to bothshare with and learn from what otherchurch organizations have done inthis area.

We have a lot of organizational

work ahead of us, but what a blessingit is to participate in the great com-mission of Matthew 28:19, 20:“Goye therefore, and teach all nations,baptizing them in the name of theFather, and of the Son, and of theHoly Ghost:Teaching them to ob-serve all things whatsoever I havecommanded you: and, lo, I am withyou alway, even unto the end of theworld.Amen” (KJV). ✐

________________

Christine L. Gillan isCoordinator for the EarlyChildhood Education andCare Division of the Of-fice of Education, PacificUnion Conference of Sev-enth-day Adventists inWestlake Village, Califor-

nia. She holds an M.A. in special education fromthe University of the Pacific, Stockton, Califor-nia; an Ed.S. from La Sierra University (LSU),Riverside, California; and is completing anEd.D. in Educational Administration and Lead-ership, also from LSU. Ms. Gillan earned herundergraduate degree in early childhood educationat Pacific Union College,Angwin, California.From 1993-2001, she was the administrator forKiddie Kollege, the child development center atUnion College in Lincoln, Nebraska, and leadconsultant for Child Care Problems and Solu-tions. During this time, she was also president ofthe Nebraska Association for the Advancement ofChild Care Services (NAACCS), a nonprofittraining and certification organization. Ms.Gillan is a member in the National Associationfor the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)and Editor of the Adventist Child Care NetworkNewsletter._______________________________________

REFERENCES

1. Ellen G.White, Testimonies for the Church(Mountain View, Calif.: Pacific Press Publ.Assn.,1948), vol. 3, p. 147.

2. L. Lippman, Indicators of Children, Family,and Community Connections (Office of the Assis-tant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, U.S.Department of Health and Human Services,2005).

3. David Elkind,“Miseducation: Preschoolersat Risk.” In Darcy Olsen and Jennifer Martin,eds., Assessing Proposals for Preschool and Kinder-garten: Essential Information for Parents,Taxpayers,and Policymakers (Phoenix,Ariz.: Goldwater Insti-tute, 1997), p. 6.

4. Edward Zigler,“Formal Schooling forFour-Year-Olds? No,” In Sharon L. Kagan and

Edward F. Zigler, eds., Early Schooling:The Na-tional Debate (New Haven, Conn.:Yale UniversityPress, 1987), p. 28.

5. Rebecca Marcon,“Moving Up theGrades: Relationship Between Model and LaterSchool Success,” Early Childhood Research andPractice 4:1 (2002). Retrieved July 9, 2004, from:http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v4n1/marcon.html.

6.“Type of Child Care and Children’s De-velopment at 54 Months,” Early Childhood Re-search Quarterly (February 2004), pp. 19, 203-230.

7. Public Agenda,“Necessary Compromises:How Parents, Employers, and Children’s Advo-cates View Child Care Today.” In Darcy Olsenand Jennifer Martin, eds., Assessing Proposals forPreschool and Kindergarten: Essential Information forParents,Taxpayers and Policymakers (Phoenix,Ariz.:Goldwater Institute, 2000), p. 3.

8. Darcy Ann Olsen, Universal Preschool Is NoGolden Ticket:Why Government Should Not Enterthe Preschool Business; Cato Policy Analysis No.333 (February 9, 1999). Retrieved November2005 from http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa-333es.html.

9. For further information on these studies,please view the following Websites: http://www.highscope. org/Research/perryProject/perrymain.htm; http://www.fpg.unc.edu/~abc/;and http://www.waisman.wisc.edu/cls/Chicago.htm.

10. Mercury News Editorial (April 28,2004). Retrieved May 11, 2004, from: http://www.mercuurynews. com.

11. Marcon,“Moving Up the Grades.”12. M. Hyson,“Putting Early Academics in

Their Place,” Educational Leadership 60:7 (2003),pp. 20-23.

13. Ellen G.White, Manuscript Releases (SilverSpring, Md.: Ellen G.White Estate, 1981), vol. 2,p. 218.

14. North American Division Office of Edu-cation, Journey to Excellence (2004), paragraph 4.

15. Pacific Union Conference EducationCode (2001), pp. 8, 29.

16.White, Manuscript Releases, vol. 7, p. 6.17. _____, The Adventist Home (Washington,

D.C.: Review and Herald Publ.Assn., 1980), p.306.

18. _____, Selected Messages (Washington,D.C.: Review and Herald Publ.Assn., 1958),Book 3, p. 215.

19. Ibid.20. Ibid., p. 216.21. Ibid., p. 217.22. Robert Coles, Lives of Moral Leadership

(New York: Random House, 2000).23. Max DePree, Leadership Is an Art (New

York: Bantam Dell Publ. Group, 1989).24.White, Testimonies, vol. 6, p. 203.25. Ibid., p. 202.26. _____, The Ministry of Healing (Mountain

View, Calif.: Pacific Press Publ.Assn., 1905), p.202.

27. Personal Communication, Gerald Koval-ski,Vice-President for Education, North Ameri-can Division of Seventh-day Adventists, SilverSpring, Md., June 2, 2005.


WHY? The answer to this one-wordquestion will influence everythingyou do.Why are you thinking ofstarting a center? Will it be an out-reach to the community? Will itprovide a Seventh-day Adventistenvironment for the children of the

congregation? Are you looking for a feeder program forthe church school? Or are you hoping to establish amoney-maker to support the school or another ministryof the church?

If you are looking for a money raiser, try somethingelse. Doing early childhood education right will costmoney, not make it. Unless the church or school (here-after referred to as the “parent organization”) has a clearidea of the commitment it must make in time and re-sources, there will be misunderstandings that will producehurt and angry feelings, monetary loss, and a failure to es-tablish a credible and permanent center.

Each of the other reasons cited above are valid ones;but the parent organization must bevery clear about the purpose of thechildcare center.Whatever reason a

group chooses for starting a center, it has a moral impera-tive to make that location the very best possible environ-ment for children.A Christian school or church can dono less and maintain its integrity.

Until fairly recently, churches operated preschools asan outreach ministry.Wives of professionals volunteeredtheir time for half days as staff. Most churches that nowoperate centers do so full-time, and the volunteer workeris rare.

Historically,Adventists have opposed out-of-homecare for young children.Admittedly, a Christian homewith competent, devoted parents is the best place foryoung children, but where are people to turn when theycannot provide full-time care? If they entrust their chil-dren to you, this is an enormous and sacred responsibility.

What Steps Should You Take?Commit to Operating a Quality Center

1. A quality center regards the safety of children, both physi-cal and emotional, as its paramount responsibility. Administra-

tors’ familiarity with acceptedhealth and safety practices will helpensure wise decisions about the fa-


BY MARILYN BEACH

SO YOU WANT TO START A

C H I L DCA R EC E N T E R !


cility and its personnel. Health and safety issues will varyaccording to culture and locale, but there is a core of gen-erally accepted practices to safeguard children in groupcare.They include:

• Someone trained in first aid and cardio-pulmonaryresuscitation (CPR) should be present at the center at alltimes.

• Because frequent hand washing is the most effectiveway of preventing the spread of disease, employees shouldwash their hands when they arrive at the center, and bothemployees and children should wash before and after han-dling food, and after wiping noses, attending to toiletingtasks, and handling animals.The staff should teach andmodel proper hand-washing technique.

• Surfaces used for meals should be wiped down with

a solution of one part bleach to 10parts water after being used for otherpurposes. Diapering areas need to bewiped down with bleach solution be-tween each use.

• Bathrooms must be cleaned andsanitized daily.

• All substances marked “poison” or“keep out of the reach of children”must be stored in a locked cupboard.

• Areas should be straightened upbetween activities that require differentconfigurations of space. For example,teachers and children should work to-gether to put things away betweenfree-choice activity time and meal-time, and between mealtime and nap-time.The teachers should remain alertto remove hazards in the pathways tothe bathroom, playground, and eatingarea.

• Children should be screenedupon arrival to detect contagious ill-nesses or infections. Parents must benotified if one of the children at thecenter has an infectious disease.

• An area separate from other chil-dren, but still within the visual super-vision of an adult, should be providedfor sick children until they can bepicked up from the center.

• Children must be under adult su-pervision at all times.

• Each meal served at a centershould contain one-third of the dailyrequired nutrients for a child.The ad-ministrator should ask parents abouttheir children’s food allergies, and thisinformation should be posted at thecenter.

• Each snack should include twofood groups, with drinks being 100 percent juice.

• Outdoor play equipment, such as swings, slides, andclimbing structures should have 7-11 inches of cushioningmaterial underneath and at varying distances around thestructure, depending upon the use, to prevent injuriesfrom falls.

• Playground equipment should be regularly inspectedto ensure that it is free from cracks, splinters, protrudingscrews, and sharp corners. Climbing equipment, swings,and slides must be firmly anchored.

• Play equipment should be placed far enough apartfor children to circulate without risk of collisions.

• Children should be signed in and out of group careonly by an authorized adult (see section on legal issues).

• The center should have a system for reporting in-


Whatever reason a group chooses forstarting a center, it has a moral imper-ative to make that location the verybest possible environment for children.



juries and illnesses to parents.• Each child should have an emer-

gency card with contact information andsigned consent for treatment.

2. A quality center employs professionallytrained staff who love children and promotetheir optimal physical, cognitive, emotional,and spiritual development.

3. A quality center uses a developmentallyappropriate curriculum. It resists the currentpolitical push for formal academics.Young children need to use their sensesto explore and manipulate their environ-ment. Because preschoolers learn best bydoing, not by hearing or seeing, the curriculum shouldprovide hands-on experiences that employ these methods.More abstract activities, such as workbooks and symbolrecognition, should be reserved until children’s eyes andbrain are ready to learn in that manner, usually aroundGrade 1. Finally, 2- to 4-year-olds learn best by workingwith the familiar; therefore, the curriculum should vary bylocality, with adaptations to fit geography and culture.

The parent organization must be willing to follow theadvice of people who are knowledgeable about quality

childcare programs.The National Associ-ation for the Education of Young Chil-dren has a document outlining standardsfor early childhood programs and cur-riculum1 and guidelines for appropriatecurriculum.2 The American PublicHealth Association, in cooperation withthe American Academy of Pediatrics, hasan excellent and comprehensive bookabout safety, health, and nutrition.3

Decide Who the Center Will Hire.Will the center have an all-Adventist

staff? Many centers hire non-AdventistChristians or even non-Christians.To avoid conflicts withthe values and beliefs of the parent organization, it ishighly recommended that all staff be members of the Sev-enth-day Adventist Church.

The center should employ only people with appropri-ate academic training in early childhood education. Even

A quality centerregards thesafety of chil-dren, bothphysical andemotional, asits paramountresponsibility.


the aides should have completed sometraining in this area. Every applicantshould undergo a background checkbefore being hired. Check your localgovernment agencies’ licensing require-ments.4

Write a Mission Statement. A helpful first step is to write a mis-

sion statement, as this will give directionto everything that follows.A core reasonfor operating a Seventh-day AdventistChild Development Center (CDC) is toprovide a safe place for children to liveand grow. It should, as closely as possible,model itself after a high-quality Seventh-day Adventist Christian home.

Contact the Local Licensing Agency.In many locations, centers must meet specific licensure

requirements.Talking to the appropriate agency can savemuch time. For example, I know of one organization thatwanted to start a center, but did not have the requiredsquare footage for a playground. Finding this out beforethey began to renovate their building saved them timeand money.Another organization built a center and hadalready chosen paint and carpeting before contacting thelicensing agency, only to discover that the facility could

not be licensed without extensive re-modeling.The building now houses ajunior high school, and plans for a child-care center have been abandoned.

Contact Your Local Conference.Some conferences have financial and

legal protocols that must be followed inestablishing a center.Talk to them beforetrying to open a center. Keeping the con-ference informed of your plans will makethe process go more smoothly.

Form a Feasibility Committee. This group should look at space, fi-

nances, potential personnel, needs of thecommunity, and church members’ atti-tudes about establishing a center.Thecommittee should develop a survey in-

strument and poll the parents of potential enrollees.Thequestionnaire in the book, When Churches Mind the Chil-dren,5 can be used as a guideline.

Survey the Neighborhood. The community may not need another childcare cen-

ter; there may be a greater need for after-school or infantcare. Contact centers within a five-mile radius to see ifthey are operating at capacity or have many openings.

This will help you decide what type of centerto operate.

Investigate Funding Options. Who will actually operate the center? The

best plan is for the director to report directly toa church or school board (or a subcommittee ofone of these groups), rather than to a pastor orprincipal. Sometimes the interests of the centerwill conflict with other programs of the parentorganization, so the center should have a groupof people willing to champion its needs.

Some churches operate centers with localcontrol and support. Schools often operate cen-ters as an extension of their program.A fewconferences in the United States assume respon-sibility for childcare centers, giving guidance aswell as administrative and financial support.Some centers, especially outside of the UnitedStates, are partially funded by governments.

Some centers are stand-alone programs, butmost are connected with a parent organization;a few are operated by a constituency ofchurches. Some churches rent space to private,for-profit programs.

Renting space to a privately operated grouphas pros and cons.The advantage is a steady in-come with minimum effort by the landlord.The


A quality centeremploys profes-sionally trainedstaff who lovechildren andpromote theiroptimal physi-cal, cognitive,emotional, andspiritual devel-opment.


disadvantage is the likelihood of philo-sophical conflict and legal risk. If a con-gregation or its officers become in-volved with the operation of a center towhich the church rents space, it auto-matically becomes liable for the actionsof the center.Another possible disadvantage:The centerwill be identified as Adventist because of its locationwhen, in fact, it may be diametrically opposed to thepractice and philosophy of the parent organization. Rent-ing to a church member does not ensure that he or shewill not subcontract or sell the business to someone whomay be unaware of or hostile to the values and beliefs ofthe Seventh-day Adventist Church.When renting to anorganization or individual, consult with a lawyer first toascertain your level of risk.

Plan for the Use of Space. Will the center will have its own rooms or share the

space? It is possible for a Sabbath school and a childcarecenter to coexist, but this arrangement often causes diffi-culties. Providing separate locked storage areas for eachprogram solves the problem of unauthorized or uninten-tional use of supplies. Since the room configuration willbe different for the two programs, the childcare adminis-trators and Sabbath school leaders must work out in ad-vance who sets up the room for each program and whenthis is to be done, as well as who chooses the room deco-rations.As petty as it seems, centers have closed because ofsquabbles over bulletin boards.

Different local agencies may have varying require-ments for the physical space of a center.At minimum,each room must be on the ground floor, have two exits,running water, and toilets. Bathrooms must have child-sized sinks with stools or steps provided for each.Thenumber of children that can be accommodated dependson the unencumbered square footage of the room.

Create Budgets. Both a start-up budget and an operation budget are

necessary.The operation budget should reflect the likeli-hood that the center will start with a few children andthen grow. It should indicate where money will comefrom until the center’s finances have stabilized.

Investigate the types and amounts of subsidies. Mostparent organizations provide in-kind subsidies, such asspace and utilities. Some provide custodial service.Tele-phone, room, and equipment repair are usually the re-sponsibility of the center. Building maintenance is usuallyhandled by the parent organization.

A financial subsidy also will be needed, with a largeramount of money allocated for the first two years. Mostcenters take about this long to reach their enrollment ca-pacity. It may take longer, depending on location. Byquerying existing centers and governmental regulatingagencies, you will be able to obtain an accurate estimate of

what is normal for your area. I visited anew center that had been open for sixdays and had a waiting list.A localchurch had just closed its center, and itsdirector and children all moved to theAdventist center.The same director

later established a beautiful childcare center in anothertown that took two years to reach its licensed capacity.

Be as realistic as possible in estimating costs and in-come.This will prevent unpleasant surprises later on.When estimating the cost of equipment for the center,take into account the cost of institutional-grade furnitureand toys.Avoid the temptation to furnish a center withdonated, outgrown home equipment and items fromgarage sales. Poorly constructed, aging equipment can be-come a hazard and will need to be replaced.

Buy tables (not desks) with adjustable legs to accom-modate the different-sized children. Check with the con-ference to see if they can get you a discount on equip-ment, or try to acquire good-quality equipment from acenter that is closing.6

Write a Proposal. The proposal should contain as much information as

you can obtain on possible enrollment, costs, income,space to be used, type of program, hours of operation,ages of children to be served, personnel to be hired, andthe impact on the parent organization.

Choose a Name.The name should indicate the focus of the program.

The name of the parent organization can be included—for instance, _______________ Children’s Center, or______________ Child Development Center.Thesenames imply that the program focuses on children andtheir nurture.The term Day Care Center has acquired neg-ative connotations and should be avoided. It implies cus-todial rather than nurturing care. If a less-obvious title isused, such as “Children’s Discovery Center,” be sure thename does not already belong to a center or a chain ofcenters.

Present Your Proposal to the Parent Organization. To succeed, the proposed center needs not only ap-

proval, but also commitment by the members of the par-ent organization’s constituency.This is a good time toupdate the local conference on your plans and progress.Once you have obtained constituency support, it is timeto

Create an Implementation Committee. This committee can act as the board of the center.

Whether or not it answers to the board of the parentorganization, the tasks are complex enough that it isprudent to choose a group of people with the sole re-sponsibility of getting the center up and going.This


A quality centeruses a develop-mentally appro-priate curriculum.


committee will be charged withpreparing the facility, obtaining neces-sary agency and building code ap-provals, setting up financial records,hiring a director, advertising the cen-ter, and providing finances to equipand prepare the center.

Hire a Director.The director should come on board

two months before the center’s pro-jected opening date. It is his or her re-sponsibility to create forms7 and lists ofneeded equipment and supplies, set upthe room(s), and hire staff. However,the director will need help in market-ing the center.

The committee needs to decide whether all staff mustbe members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. (Thiswill, of course, depend upon the rules of the country inwhich the center is located.) To have an all-Adventist staffhas distinct advantages: (1) there is harmony of purposeand philosophy; (2) depending on the organizationalstructure, there is a cleaner legal situation; and (3) finan-cially, the staff can be linked with the fiscal procedures ofthe parent organization.

The biggest problem is finding qualified church mem-bers to work at the center. It may be necessary to identifypeople with potential and train them. In the UnitedStates, this is not difficult or expensive. Most communitycolleges offer the training at a minimal cost.

The committee and director should select a develop-mentally appropriate curriculum for the center. See otherarticles in this issue for resources and recommendations.

Obtain the Backing of the School Board or Local Con-gregation.

If the group with financial responsibility for a center isnot solidly behind the endeavor, it will fail.The only ex-ception is when a foundation or an individual bankrollsthe program. Be sure to determine the stability of theircommitment, as well. People pass away, move on, orchange their minds.This can be devastating to a center.

Investigate Local Requirements. In most places, local governmental agencies set the

standards of the centers in its territory. In California, forexample, all centers must be licensed and must complywith minimum health and safety standards.The state alsoregulates the qualifications of directors and staff.

Determine Whether Help Is Available From the Confer-ence.

Some conferences, including Southeastern CaliforniaConference (SECC), provide oversight of their child-development centers (CDCs). Identifying its program as

“Preschool through 12,” the SECCeducation board has approved a man-ual codifying the operation of thesecenters.The center staff are conferenceemployees; their wage scale is based onexperience, education, and certifica-tion. Staff members thus earn retire-ment credit and are entitled to healthand tuition benefits. Directors have aseparate pay scale and receive an ad-ministrative budget based on the sizeof their center. Personnel from theSECC office of education sit on theboards of the centers, and assist in re-cruiting and hiring employees.Theconference sponsors occasional work-shops and seminars for childcare em-

ployees and subsidizes the centers whose remuneration iscommensurate with the training and experience of theteachers.

When the conference began supervising centers in1986, childcare teachers with comparable qualificationswere receiving 49 percent of the pay of elementary teach-ers. Currently, the conference pays center staff 85 percentof the elementary teacher pay scale.The goal is to payCDC teachers with equivalent experience and certifica-tion the same as elementary and academy teachers.

Become Conversant With Legal Issues.Like other institutions in society, childcare centers are

vulnerable to legal action by disgruntled clients.Angryparents can cause considerable grief and inconvenience.Even a frivolous lawsuit can cost the center a great deal ofmoney in legal fees.

A center can protect itself against litigation in severalways:

1. Be scrupulous about following laws and regulations.Thisone safeguard will prevent most lawsuits.

2. Keep good documentation.This includes (a) records ofimmunizations, (b) daily sign-in and sign-out sheets thatshow who brought and picked up each child, and at whattime, (c) a list of persons authorized to pick up each child(including copies of custody and restraining orders limit-ing who can pick up a child); (d) up-to-date lists of work,home, and cell phone numbers for parents and guardians;(e) incident reports on any injury sustained while a childis at the center (minor incidents can be reported verballyto the parent, but keep a written report of all injuries inthe child’s file).

3. If there is any chance a staff member could be accused ofmistreating a child, contact the police. In many cases, a policereport of an incident will absolve the center of responsi-bility and prevent a lawsuit.

4. Notify the local authorities if you suspect a child in yourcare has been sexually or physically abused.

5. Invite a lawyer to serve on the board or keep one on re-


The best plan isfor the director toreport directly toa church or schoolboard (or a sub-committee of oneof these groups),rather than to apastor or princi-pal.


tainer.Your conference can offer helpful advice and assis-tance regarding legal issues if you keep them informedfrom the start of planning.

Obtain Insurance.Every child-care center needs insurance that covers

property, liability, injuries, and accidents.The local schoolor church may be able to include the center in its cover-age. Contact the conference for advice. In the UnitedStates, most child-care centers obtain some or all of theirinsurance from Adventist Risk Management, which hasoperational requirements to minimize hazards and risk.8

Time FrameDoes starting a center sound like a complicated and

lengthy process? It is. It can take from two months tomore than a year.

More Questions?What you have just read may raise more questions.

This article is not the definitive document on centers, butonly an introduction to the subject. It is only fair, in clos-ing, to answer one of the most frequently asked questions:

Why can’t a childcare center make money? You say that isn’tpossible, but I know of centers that do make money.

I said that quality centers won’t make money. If youpay teachers minimum wage, have a high ratio of childrento adults, and scrimp on equipment and supplies, you maymake money; but you will be able to hire only marginallyqualified teachers, and you will have high staff turnover,neither of which is good for children.

Remember, a center is open for 11 or more hours aday. Most localities limit the number of children per adult.The highest ratio permitted throughout most of the U.S.is 12 children to 1 adult for 2- to 5-year-olds and 4 to 1for infants. National accreditation standards do not allowmore than 10:1 for older preschool children and 3:1 forinfants.

I don’t know of any church school in session up toseven hours a day with as many as 25-30 students in aclassroom that is not subsidized. How, then, could a centerwith smaller ratios that is open longer hours with morestaff members be expected to be self-sufficient?

Putting together a center sounds like a lot of work. It is.It sounds as if you are trying to discourage us from trying.

I’m not. I am just trying to provide a realistic view ofwhat is involved to so that your organization will go intothe process with its eyes open and not be disillusioned.

It is possible to establish and operate a quality Chris-tian center that is uniquely Adventist—provided the par-ent organization is willing to give ongoing resources andsupport to make it happen.The many good centers al-ready in existence prove that it is possible.

A well-run, quality Adventist center can provide a safe,nurturing place for young children and help supplementparental efforts to maintain a full-time loving, caring envi-

ronment in which their most precious possessions, theirchildren, can grow and thrive emotionally, intellectually,and spiritually. ✐

________________________________

Marilyn Beach is a semi-retired Early ChildhoodSpecialist who has spent the majority of her careerteaching both young children and teachers of youngchildren. She has a Ph.D. in Early Childhood Edu-cation from Claremont Graduate University and hastaught in public and church schools at every levelfrom preschool to graduate school. She served as As-sociate Superintendent of Education in the South-

eastern California Conference for 16 years.A passionate advocate for chil-dren, Dr. Beach continues to teach on a part-time basis at La SierraUniversity in Riverside, California, and to serve as a consultant for child-development centers in California._____________________________________________________

NOTES AND REFERENCES

1. National Association for the Education of Young Children,“EarlyChildhood Program Standards: Draft” (Washington, D.C., 2005).

2. Sue Bredekamp and Carol Copple, eds., Developmentally AppropriatePractice in Early Childhood Education Programs (Washington, D.C.: NAEYC,1997).

3. Safety Performance Standards: Guidelines of Out-of-Home Child CarePrograms (Washington D.C.:American Public Health Association andAmerican Academy of Pediatrics, 1992).

4. States and countries differ as to which agency has this responsibility.In many places in the U.S., it is the county Health and Human Services orthe state department of education. In others, it is the department of socialservices. Because of the wide variation, make your initial contact with thelocal social services agency or county department of education, or ask alocal center for advice.

5. Eileen Lindner, When Churches Mind the Children (Ypsilanti, Mich.:High/Scope Press, 2004).

6.Two reliable sources for equipment and supplies are ConstructivePlaythings and Lakeshore Learning Materials. Both have comprehensivecatalogues, and at least one of them has two lists of equipment needed tostart a center: a basic list, and items to add as a center grows: ConstructivePlaythings, 13201 Arrington Road, Grandview, MO 64030 (http://www.cptoys.com); and Lake Shore Learning Materials, 2695 E. DominguezStreet, Carson, CA 90895 (http://www.lakeshorelearning. com).

7. See Kathleen Pullan Watkins and Lucius Durant, The Complete Bookof Forms for Managing the Early Childhood Program (West Nyack, N.Y.: Cen-ter for Applied Research in Education, 1990): forms, checklists, and work-sheets for program administration;Wendy Biasetto, The Ultimate Guide toForms for Early Childhood Programs: Hundreds of Forms Prepared by NationallyAccredited Programs (Aurora, Colo.: Learning Expo Publishing, 1995): hun-dreds of forms used in NAEYC accredited early-childhood programs, plussample handbooks for parents and staff; and Dorothy June Sciarra andAnne G. Dorsey, Opening and Operating an Early Childhood Center (CliftonPark, N.Y.:Thomson Delmar Learning, 2003): http://www.EarlyChildEd.delmar.com; and Rebecca Graff, Pre-school Director’s Survival Guide (WestNyack, N.Y.: Center for Applied Research in Education).

8. Personnel in Adventist Risk Management suggest that anyone in-terested in operating a childcare center should check the following Web-sites: http://www.daycarestarterkit.com; http://www.PCDIcourses.com(Free Info Kit,“Learn How to Run a Child Day Care”).You can alsocontact your conference office or Gary Hile,ARM Risk Control Director([email protected] or 301-680-6852). In addition to the state ap-proval process, U.S. applicants will need to fulfill the requirement in theNorth American Division Working Policy - P50: (GC WP S60) relating to(1) Property; (2) General Liability; (3) Student Accident; (4) EmployersPractices Liability; and (5) Sexual Misconduct and Molestation.




Imagination plays a vitalrole in learning.Asthey grow, childrengradually come tolearn the difference be-tween reality and fan-

tasy.Throughout this dy-namic process, play is a keyelement, as it promotes cog-nitive development. Bothparents and educators some-times have difficulty under-standing how children de-velop in this regard.

This article approaches the topic of imagination andplay from a neuro-psychological perspective. It includesinsights from several authors who have done extensive re-search on the subject.

Marian Diamond and Janet Hopson1 say that imagina-tion and play encourage preschoolers to develop “inven-tiveness and the lifelong creativity into which it canblossom. Parents sometimes inadvertently damage theirchildren’s development by misunderstanding and discour-aging two perfectly normal phenomena: a child’s imagi-nary friendships and her private (although often audible)conversations with herself.”

Yale University’s Jerome Singer suggests that pre-schoolerswith imag-inary play-

mates are “more independ-ent, cooperative with teach-ers and peers, generally hap-pier, and less aggressive thantheir peers, and have a richervocabulary.”2 It’s not unusualfor children to chatter in“private speech” to an imagi-nary character or friend.

Jane Healy lauds the roleof imagination in reading de-velopment. She talks about“the importance of wordswithout pictures” in helping

children involve themselves in abstract thinking.3 Refer-ring to research done by Wells and his associates, Healystates,“the most powerful predictor of [children’s] schoolachievement was the amount of time spent listening tointeresting stories,”4 a form of play for the mind.

Healy describes “[t]he development of language andsymbolic play” as the beginning of abstract thought. Untilabout age 6 or 7, children’s “work” is to develop the basisfor abstract thought, to master their physical environment,and learn to use language.5 Thus, children’s play and workare synonymous!

“Patterns are the key to intelligence,”6 Healy is con-vinced.Autistic children cannot play as other children do.

They seemunable to“make

The Importance of

ImaginationandPlay

A Neuro-Cognitive Perspective

B Y L I N D A B R Y A N T C A V I N E S S



meaningful connections out of expe-rience, so that the world seems to bea terrifying jumble of sights, sounds,and feelings.”7

“For children with these difficul-ties,” Healy further explains,“we arenot sure how much can be done tochange things at these fundamentalneural levels, but while the brain isstill developing rapidly before agefour or five, it is wise to focus onhelping the child make physical andmental connections through lots ofself-organizing play activities ratherthan emphasizing specific bits of in-formation.”8

Healy says neurological researchshows that formal school can be in-appropriate and harmful for pre-school children if it robs them oftime to play freely:“Because of im-maturity in parietal lobe areas thatconnect sight, sound, touch, and bodyawareness, it is still difficult to com-bine processes from more than onemodality, such as in looking at a letterform and saying a sound to go withit, or hearing a numeral and writingit.”9

Diamond cites research10 support-ing the idea of allowing children tobe free to play up until kindergartenage. However, she also cautions that“there is a balance to be achievedbetween too much unguided play,leaving a child unprepared to learnacademic skills, and too much book-learning too early, leaving them po-tentially less creative and less com-fortable in school.And we think it isup to parents to find the right bal-ance for their children.”11 When chil-dren attend preschool, teachers alsomust make these determinations.

Even after children enter school,play is still an important part oflearning.Vivian Gussin Paley, authorof Wally’s Stories, documents experi-ences with her kindergartners thatmade her aware of the importance ofplay as children process new informa-tion. Paley explains how lessons shethought she had taught superbly ac-tually registered in distorted ways inher students’ thinking.12 By allowingthem to act out their perceptions, shewas able to understand how theyprocessed the new concepts she pre-sented in the classroom.These drama-tizations became a useful tool for herand a vehicle for helping her studentslearn to reflect on their own thoughtprocesses.

Paley comments:“A wide varietyof thinking emerges [during conver-sations, stories, and playacting], asmorality, science, and society sharethe stage with fantasy. If magicalthinking seems most conspicuous, itis because it is the common footpathfrom which new trails are explored. Ihave learned not to resist this magic

Marian Diamondand Janet Hopsonsay that imagina-tion and play en-courage preschool-ers to develop“inventiveness andthe lifelong cre-ativity into whichit can blossom.”



but to seek it out as a legitimate partof ‘real’ school.

“Wally’s Stories follows a group offive-year-olds through their kinder-garten year.The scene is the class-room, and the teacher is thestage manager. . . .The childrenare scriptwriters and actors whoknow what kindergartners wantto say.”13

Listening to her students’conversations as they engaged inplayacting enabled Paley to un-derstand and reflect on theirimagined reality.This allowedher to adjust her instruction toaccommodate their cognitiveprocessing.

Carla Hannaford agrees withPaley about the value of make-believe and play:“The value ofmake-believe cannot be stressedenough.The child can take itsworld, and through play and fa-miliarity organize it into moreand more complex mental andemotional patterns.The timefrom ages two to five is a crucialstage for children’s cognitive de-velopment as they learn toprocess information and expandit into creativity. Interactivecommunication and play, whenchildren are learning from eachother’s imagination, accelerates theprocess.”14

Paley warns, however, that with-out monitoring and guidance, dis-torted thinking can occur. Children’splaytime offers a valuable opportunityfor the teacher to get into the headsof his or her students—not to intrudeand control, but to connect withtheir realities and to discover whatthey know.The teacher can gentlymodify children’s misperceptionsthrough questions and comments, andmodel and define new knowledge sothat it aligns with children’s reasoningand understanding. By using theseprocesses, Paley was able to help herstudents modify their misperceptions.For example, she posed key questionsand used their responses to guidethem into rethinking their positionsand ideas.

Chief of the Laboratory of BrainEvolution and Behavior at the Na-tional Institute of Mental Health inWashington, D.C., Paul MacLean “tiesthe process of imaginative develop-ment to the development of play.”15

Using McLean’s research, Hannafordconcludes that play becomes theessence of creativity and high-levelreasoning. She stresses the value ofintrinsic motivation in the play envi-ronment and cautions that even onthe playground, extrinsic motivation(teacher direction) often threatens totake over.“The marvelous changesunfold naturally [in playtime], andhappily do not require adult supervi-sion and meddling. Unfortunately,however, these days there seems to beless time and opportunity for childrento simply play. Even playgroups seemto be organized and structured.There

appears to be an assumption thatchildren need to be entertained andtheir play orchestrated. I see it a lot inorganized sports for children.Adultsare in charge and competition is the

goal. Rarely do you just see chil-dren initiate ‘pick up’ games thatwere routine when I was achild.”16

In playtime and in other as-pects of learning, the concept oftime, though abstract, helps topromote creativity.17 As childrenplayact, they have interestingways of using time and space toconstruct knowledge. For exam-ple, they may say something like“Pretend it’s raining.What willhappen to our [pretend] housewhen the rain comes? We’d bet-ter hurry and make a shelter!”

Through the use of imagina-tion and creativity, children’sbrains construct meaning and ac-quire skills that are vitally impor-tant for them to make sense offuture experiences.Trying toforce this development can havedevastating effects.An examplefrom nature may help to illustratethe importance of timing.

Yesterday, while reading inour family room, I glancedthrough the ceiling-to-floor win-

dows that offer a panoramic view ofGlendale and Burbank, California,beyond our patio. Hanging from theeaves of the house is a drooping pot-ted fern, a reminder of our horticul-tural neglect while traveling lastmonth.A family of birds has madethis planter its home. During the pastweek or so, the baby birds, except forone, have taken flight.

Occasionally the fledgling flaps itswings, hinting that flight is soon tocome. However, it continues toclutch the edge of the fern pot.About every 20-30 minutes, themother bird returns with a morsel offood for energy and encouragement.But still, the tiny bird clings to secu-rity.

Finally, after occasional gentle en-couragements and beckoning, themother leaves the baby to decide for

Jane Healy laudsthe role of imagi-nation in readingdevelopment.


itself what to do and when to do it.And then the tiny bird tests its

wings. Successfully, it alights on adownhill limb.

I may have read more into thisnature lesson than actually was there,but perhaps this was a lesson on theimportance of intrinsic motivation. Ilike to think so.The baby bird tookflight when the timing was right andall systems were “go.”

Hannaford describes play as anopportunity for learning to take placein a wholistic way—involving alllearning systems. She explains:“Playat the simplest physical level as well asthe furthest reaches of the intellect,depends on a balance of all the ele-ments of our humanity [mental, phys-ical, emotional/social]. . .When theemotions are brought into dynamicequilibrium with reason, insight, ac-tion and even survival, learning be-comes a rational, creative process. Ifany part of the brain processing is leftout of the learning process, integra-

tion of patterning and appropriate ac-tion are limited.When dynamic equi-librium is lost, learning and creativitysuffer.”18

Educators often lament the dropin creativity they observe betweenkindergarten and third grade. Is thisinevitable? Or does the emphasis onearly skills development and extrinsicmotivation conspire to diminish cre-ativity at a time when children arepassing through critical periods ofneural patterning and networking?Are educators unknowingly truncat-ing human potential during prime-time development?

Both extrinsic and intrinsic moti-vation belong in the classroom.Tofunction well in society, childrenneed the skills that develop under ex-trinsic motivation.They also need thecreativity that blooms when intrinsicmotivation is nurtured.To neglect ei-ther during the most critical pattern-ing times in brain development is aserious matter.

It is our privilege as teachers tonurture the “child of the pure un-clouded brow and dreaming eyes ofwonder,” as Lewis Carroll put it inThrough the Looking-Glass.19 But, evenmore precious is the awesome re-sponsibility of partnering with Godto unleash human potential and cre-ative expression.We must ask for di-vine guidance as we seek to meet thisimportant challenge. ✐

_______________

Linda Bryant Cavi-ness, Ph.D., resides inGlendale, California,with her husband, Larry,a church administrator.She is mother of threeand grandmother of two.In addition to work as an

Associate Professor of Education at La SierraUniversity, she enjoys research and writing abouteducation and neuroscience.______________________________

REFERENCES

1. Marion C. Diamond and Janet Hopson,Magic Trees of the Mind: How to Nurture Your Child’sIntelligence, Creativity, and Healthy Emotions FromBirth Through Adolescence (New York: Penguin Put-nam, 1998), p. 182.

2. Cited in ibid.3. Jane M. Healy, Endangered Minds (New

York: Simon & Schuster 1990), pp. 91, 92.4. Ibid, p. 92.5. _______,Your Child’s Growing Mind (New

York: Doubleday, 1994), p. 48.6. Ibid., p. 49.7. Ibid.8. Ibid.9. Ibid.10. Rescorla, Hyson, & Hirsh-Pasek, 1991;

Sigel, 1987, cited in Diamond and Hopson, pp.161, 162.

11. Diamond and Hopson, p. 168.12.Vivian Gussin Paley, Wally’s Stories (Cam-

bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981).13. Ibid., pp. 4, 5.14. Carla Hannaford, Smart Moves (Arlington,

Va.: Great Ocean Publishers, Inc., 1995), p. 64.15. Ibid., pp. 31, 32.16. Ibid., p. 64.17. Joan P. Isenberg and Mary R. Jalongo.

Major Trends and Issues in Early Childhood Educa-tion: Challenges, Controversies, and Insights (NewYork:Teachers College Press, 1997).

18. Hannaford, Smart Moves, p. 66.19. Lewis Carroll, The Works of Louis Carroll

(Sroboda, Prague: Hamlyn Publishing Group,Ltd.: 1968), p. 113.


Children’s playtime offers a valuableopportunity for the teacher to get intothe heads of his or her students—notto intrude and control, but to connectwith their realities and to discoverwhat they know.



school readiness are independence, compassion, trust, cre-ativity, self-control, and perseverance. Our role as teachersis to create an environment where children can developthese traits.

IndependenceChildren begin learning independence as toddlers.

They insist on doing things themselves one minute andwail in frustration the next.They say “no” and “mine” andresist taking a nap even when they can barely hold theireves open.

Ideally by kindergarten, children are able to take someresponsibility for their own success and failure.They dis-cover that their actions have consequences and that theycan influence those consequences by their actions.Theylearn to internalize motivation and don’t have to rely on

rewards and praise to feel success.Theywant to practice self-reliance and showthat they don’t want or need the con-stant protection and supervision ofadults.

Encourage independence in the fol-lowing ways:

• Give toddlers reasonable choices.“Do you want to read this book or thatone?”

• Allow 18-month-old Jennie to usea spoon at mealtime but stand ready to help if she getsfrustrated.

• Provide 3- and 4-year-olds with peanut butter, crack-ers, and plastic knives and let them prepare their ownsnack.

• Set up learning centers and let children choose activ-ities within them. In the math center, for example, theymight sort items by size, fit geometric shapes into a puz-zle, or string beads in a pattern.

CompassionInfants and toddlers regard themselves as the center of

the universe.They are unable to understand the needs ofothers and can express only their own.

Ideally by kindergarten, children begin to empathize—

SKILLSFOR SCHOOL READINESS

AND LIFEQuizYes No

❑ ❑ 1. Children are ready for school when they know the letters of the alphabet and can sound out words.

❑ ❑ 2. Children entering kindergarten must know how to count to 20.

❑ ❑ 3. Children who are curious and creative will have lots of problems in school.

❑ ❑ 4. Children cannot be responsible for their own clothes, work, and lunch money in kindergarten.

❑ ❑ 5. Knowing how to make friends is less im-portant in school success than knowing how to write your name.

❑ ❑ 6. Children cannot develop compassion until they reach high school.

If you answered yes to any of thesequestions, you may need to re-thinkyour ideas about school readiness.

Too often early care and educationteachers feel pushed to focus on aca-demics.They may decide to drill lettersand numbers.They may make flashcards and worksheets.They may order videos and com-puter programs that promise school readiness.

Let’s take a step back and consider the skills childrenreally need to succeed in school.Will 5-year-old Timmysucceed if he can count to 20 by rote on the first day ofkindergarten? Or will he stand a better chance of successif he comes with a sense of self-confidence and trust? Ifhe feels curious and creative? It he gets along well withothers? If he has self-control and can finish what he starts?If he loves learning?

The truth is that if Timmy has the attitudes and behav-iors that foster learning, he will likely learn what he needsto learn in every grade level. More than that, he will likelylearn how to succeed in life.

The attitudes and behaviors children most need for



to put themselves in another’s place. Children begin torecognize the strengths and weaknesses of other people—and to share their sorrow or pride.

Encourage the development of compassion in the fol-lowing ways:

• Talk about feelings. Give a name to pain, fear, anger,and joy, for example.

• Identify and encourage kindnesses, such as whenAbby tries to console Abbot when he scrapes his knee.

• Make pet care more than routine by talking aboutfeeling hungry, thirsty, or dirty.

• Encourage cooperative rather than competitive activ-ities. Instead of challenging children to a foot race, plan anobstacle course that requires children to help each othersqueeze through a cardboard box, for example.

Trust When infants and toddlers have consistent, loving care,

they develop basic trust.They feel they are importantmembers of the family or group and learn they can relyon adults for help in unfamiliar situations. Coupled with adesire for independence, trust enables children to feel theprotection and support of adults as they explore, discover,

and interpret the environment.Ideally by kindergarten, children can understand the

give-and-take of social situations.They are comfortablewith the rules or “ways of doing” that keep them safe.They rely on our consistency to know what is expectedof them and are eager to do things the right way.

Encourage the development of trust in the followingways:

• When a baby cries, respond as soon as possible.• Follow daily routines for eating, play, and naps.• Establish simple rules and enforce them consistently.• Treat children fairly, with respect and consideration.• Provide supervision to prevent biting, bullying, cruel

teasing, and other violent behavior.

CreativityBabies are born curious.They reach for objects and

explore them with their mouths and hands.As toddlers,they get into everything and climb into interesting spaces.

Ideally by kindergarten, children are eager to work onand solve their own problems—in art and constructionprojects, computations, and social interactions.They ap-proach ideas and tasks with initiative, playfulness, and in-ventive thinking.They ask lots of questions.

Encourage creativity in the following ways:• Provide clay, paints, blocks, and other unstructured

materials.Allow children time to explore the materialwithout the need to make an object or paint a picture.

• Focus on the process, not the product.Avoid asking“What is it?” Rather say things like “Looks like you reallyenjoyed doing that” or “You worked hard on that.”

• Ask open-ended questions. Instead of “Did you likethe story?” ask “What did you like best about the story?”

• Notice and appreciate children’s ideas.“Yes, Juan.Wecould take apart that old clock and see if we could makeit work.”

• Avoid rote learning and modeled projects that mini-mize individuality.

Self-ControlToddlers have little self-control. Ricky, for example,

sees a truck and wants it. However, he does not have theintellectual or social skills to consider that Heddy is al-ready playing with it and that he needs to wait for histurn.

Ideally by kindergarten, children understand and ac-cept the need for rules—for their own sake and the sakeof others in community.They are learning the art of com-promise and negotiation and can often see an event fromsomeone else’s point of view. Kindergarten children areusually able to identify their own property and respect thebelongings of their peers.They are also able to take re-sponsibility for simple tasks, having the self-control to stayfocused, and follow through on a commitment.

Encourage self-control in the following ways:• Model self-restraint.“I feel like eating a big bowl of

Readiness for Life

Traits children need for school readiness extendthroughout life.

Independence. We act independently when wemake informed, competent decisions based on experi-ence, information, and balanced judgment.We are will-ing to take reasonable risks, and look beyond “how wealways do it” to improve a public or personal situation.

Compassion. Compassion enables us to recognizethe humanity—and dignity—of all people. It is thecharacteristic that drives charity, volunteer work, toler-ance, and mutual respect.

Trust.Trust allows us to accept our own worth, feelsecure with friends, and have a positive, open outlook.We trust when we know the rules, want to abide bythem, and expect consequences to certain behaviors.

Creativity. Creativity enables us to think throughmental challenges and use negotiation techniques tosolve social conflicts. It involves flexibility—not beinglocked into a routine for its own sake—and an eager-ness to search for new answers and solutions.

Self-control. Self-control refers to the ability tothink about a behavior and decide whether to act ornot. Self-control enables us to be patient with ourselvesand others.

Perseverance and resilience. We persevere byovercoming obstacles and solving problems.These qual-ities help us get to the bottom of the list—getting re-ports written, sweaters knit, cars manufactured, kitchenscleaned, and grass cut.



ice cream right now, but I know I would feel too stuffedto move.”

• Offer children choices.• Consistently enforce simple rules.• Offer to help children identify and deal with their

frustrations.“Your face looks really angry, Jacob. Shall wetake some deep breaths before we talk about the prob-lem?”

• Be clear about appropriate and inappropriate ways toexpress anger.“You can stamp your feet, Hannah, but Ican’t let you use your feet to kick Hank.”

Perseverance and Resilience Toddlers learn to walk only after lots of trials and

tumbles. Determination to succeed helps them ignorebumps and falls, and find success.When preschoolers digcanals in the sand, they learn cause and effect—whatworks and doesn’t work.

Ideally by kindergarten, children have experience withproblem-solving, brainstorming, and evaluating decisions.They can often use these skills to evaluate what wentwrong with a project—and find the courage and determi-

nation to try again.Encourage perseverance and resilience in the following

ways:• Encourage children to finish projects they begin—

work a puzzle, build a structure, paint a picture, or play agame before quitting.

• Let children extend their projects over time—ablock construction or multi-piece puzzle, for example,could take several days.

• Provide storage space for unfinished art projects.• Avoid the temptation to do something for, rather

than with, a child.• Teach negotiation skills.“Cole and Bryan, how can

you both play with the trike without fighting?”Independence, compassion, trust, creativity, self-con-

trol, and perseverance—these attitudes are the real signsof school readiness.These are also the attitudes childrenneed to grow into successful, competent adults.With thesequalities, they will find satisfying jobs, form loving fami-lies, and be respected in society. ✐______________________________________________Reprinted with permission, Texas Child Care Quarterly, ©Texas Workforce Commission, Fall 2002.



Parents and otherfamily members laythe foundation forreading and writinglong before childrenenter school.To helppreschoolers begin

to develop these skills at home, par-ents need to provide two things:

• Experiences with language—having conversations, playing gameswith language and sounds;

• Experiences with print—readingto children, giving children tools forreading and writing.

Learning to read and write shouldbe pleasurable; it does not require te-dious drills or forced memorization.When learning is fun, children de-velop good attitudes toward school-ing as they master valuable skills. Be-low are 12 things parents can do tomake learning enjoyable and mean-ingful.These ideas build on children's

natural desire to communicate andcan easily be included in family rou-tines.

1. Have daily conversations withchildren.

Listening and speaking are thefoundation of reading and writing.When parents converse with chil-dren, they should listen patiently, evenif it means waiting for children toform their thoughts and words.Adultpatience creates a climate in whichchildren feel free to talk.

Children like to talk about them-selves, their interests, and their feel-ings. If parents talk about the things

children care about, children will beeager and natural speakers.There aremany things parents can do withtheir children to encourage conversa-tion, for example:

• Looking at pictures in the fam-ily photo album and talking aboutthe people and celebrations;

• Joining children’s pretend play,letting the child be the leader;

• Providing materials and sharingthe child’s favorite activities, such asdrawing, building with blocks, racingtoy cars, or baking cookies;

• Attending sporting events, goingfor walks, digging in the yard, makinga snow fort, or collecting bugs.

B Y A N N S . E P S T E I N

HELPING PRESCHOOL

CHILDREN BECOME

READERS:TIPS FOR

PARENTS



To help the conversation along,parents can make encouraging com-ments (“I see you made a red cir-cle!”) and repeat the child’s remarks(“You’re happy because Kyla invitedyou to her party?”).An occasionalopen-ended question is fine, espe-cially to seek information (“Whatare you going to serve at your teaparty?”). However, too many ques-tions tend to stifle conversation.

Conversation sets the stage forhaving fun with language. Singingsongs, telling stories, reciting rhymes,and moving to rhythmic chants allhelp children develop phonologicalawareness—the ability to perceive thesounds of language. For example, therepeated words in “Row, Row, RowYour Boat” help make children awareof the sounds that make up thesewords. Nursery rhymes like “Eensy,Weensy Spider” call attention towords with the same ending sound, asdoes encouraging children to makeup new endings to familiar rhymes:“Jack be nimble, Jack be red, Jackjump over the _____.”

When parents point out the indi-vidual sounds in words, they promotephonemic awareness.A phoneme isthe smallest unit of sound in the lan-guage. It can be the sound made by asingle letter, such as /s/, or a lettercombination, such as /sh/. Phonemicawareness is knowing that words are

made up of sequences of these indi-vidual sounds. Phonics, the next stepin learning to read, is knowingsound-letter relationships. For exam-ple, a parent might say “Mommy andmuffin . . . those both start with the/m/ sound, that’s the letter m.” If achild asks how to spell dog, a parentcan say,“It starts with the sound /d/,and the letter d looks like this.” Par-ents and children can also play gameswith alliteration, that is, with wordsthat start with the same sound. Forexample, a parent can put three ob-jects that start with the /b/ sound ina bag (such as a ball, block, and bar-rette) and the child can find some-thing else that begins with b to putin the bag. Guessing games are alsofun:“I’m thinking of something inthe refrigerator that starts with the/g/ sound—gggg.What do you thinkit is?”

2. Keep lots of printed materialsand writing materials in the home.

Homes should be filled with in-teresting things to read, including il-lustrated storybooks, nonfictionbooks, homemade books, magazines,photo albums, newspapers, catalogs,seed packets, greeting cards, flyers,takeout menus, manuals, junk mail,maps, and so on. Children, like adults,need variety.

Parents should also keep on handmany different types of writing mate-rials, including crayons, markers,chalk, pens and pencils, paper in dif-ferent sizes and colors, stationery,stamps and ink pads, wooden andplastic letters for tracing and copying.Tools for making books, such as tape,scissors, staplers, a hole punch, andstring, will also encourage writing.

Reading and writing supplies donot need to be expensive. Parents canreuse and recycle materials or buychildren’s books at yard sales, resaleshops, and used-book sales at the li-brary.They can also add their ownprinting around the house, such as la-bels for things the child uses everyday (“toy box” or “dishes”). Readingand writing materials should beplaced where children can easily seeand reach them; for example, on lowshelves or in baskets and crates.

3. Set up a reading and writingspace for children.

To convey the importance ofreading and writing, parents can setup a special space for these activities.It may be a quiet place or somewhereclose to the center of action, what-ever is most inviting for the child andwill keep his or her attention.Thisspace should include materials thatbelong to the child alone and do nothave to be shared with adults orother children in the household.Thiswill encourage the child to think ofthe area as his or her own play orwork space. Parents can offer thechild a choice of spending quiet timein this special area instead of taking anap. Or, they can set aside anotherregular time each day when the childcan choose to go to this area.

12 Things You Can Do to Help YourPreschooler Become a Reader

1. Have daily conversations with your child.2. Keep lots of print and writing materials in your home.3. Set up a reading and writing space for your child.4. Let your child see you read and write.5. Read with your child every day.6. Point out reading and writing in everyday activities.7. Make a message board.8. Encourage your child to “read.”9. Display your child’s writing.10. Make a bank or file of words your child likes to write.11. Go to the library with your child.12. Use television and technology wisely.___________________________________________________________Reprinted with permission from High/Scope ReSource, Summer 2002,Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 4-6 ©2002 High/Scope Educational Research Foundation.

When learning isfun, children de-velop good atti-tudes towardschooling as theymaster valuableskills.



4. Let children observe parentsreading and writing.

Young children imitate their par-ents, so modeling reading and writingat home is very important.Whenparents pick up a newspaper or bookinstead of turning on the television,they send a powerful message aboutthe pleasure as well as the usefulnessof reading.At the dinner table, par-ents can briefly describe somethinginteresting they have read, or mentionsome reading and writing they did atwork that day. Children should seetheir parents writing, whether theyare paying bills or writing an e-mailmessage to a friend. If a child wantsto know something, a parent mightsay,“Let’s look that up in the diction-ary [or in the encyclopedia or on theInternet].”This shows children that

written sources provide informationand that answering questions can bean adventure.

5. Read with children every day.Parents should set aside a regular

time each day to read with their chil-dren.This might be at bedtime, afterschool, early in the morning—what-ever works in the family schedule.They should read in a comfortableplace, without a lot of distractions,where they can snuggle or sit side byside with their child. Children shouldbe able to see and touch the bookwhile parents read to them. Readingwith children will be most beneficialif parents follow these simple tech-niques:

• Be familiar with the book. If thebook is new, parents should try to

read it themselves beforehand.• Read slowly but naturally. Pro-

nouncing the words carefully helps tobuild children’s vocabulary.

• Read with interest.An expres-sive voice shows interest and engagesthe child.

• Use different voices.This helpschildren differentiate the charactersand their qualities.

• Use a finger to follow thewords.This shows the connection be-tween spoken and written words.Children will learn to associatesounds with specific letters and lettercombinations.

• Stop reading to talk about thebook. Children want to talk aboutthe pictures, story, and characters. If abook is familiar, they might predictwhat will happen next or imagine



different events and endings.• Extend the reading. Reading is

enriched when children represent theevents or characters through drawingand play-acting. Other ideas includevisiting places and doing things thatappear in the book or making up sto-ries and games that build on thebook’s ideas.

There should be a variety ofbooks to choose from and the childshould make the choice, even if it isoften the same book. Repetitionhelps children understand the formsof written language and begin to rec-ognize familiar words and letters.Here are some guidelines to help par-ents choose storybooks for theiryoung child’s library:

• Illustrations.Are the drawings,paintings, or photographs visuallypleasing? Do the people represent avariety of races, ages, and abilities?

• Storyline. Is it written in the lan-guage the child speaks? Will the ac-tivities and messages make sense tothe child? Will it encourage discus-sion?

• Child interest.Will the child becurious about the characters andwhat happens to them? Will the childlook at the book alone, even when an

adult is not available for reading? • Adult interest. Is it a book the

parent wants to read and talk aboutwith the child? Is the parent preparedto answer whatever questions thechild may have about the book?

6. Call children’s attention to read-ing and writing in everyday activi-ties.

Children are curious about thedaily activities adults view as com-monplace.Their natural interest pro-vides many opportunities for parentsto call attention to reading and writ-ing.These opportunities includemaking grocery lists and findingmatching coupons; pointing out let-ters and words on signs and buildingswhile riding in the car or taking awalk; looking up addresses and phonenumbers before going places or mak-ing calls; reading maps; reading teamnames and scores aloud at sporting

events; looking at the weather reportin the newspaper; reading menus atrestaurants or making up menus athome; writing and illustrating chil-dren’s favorite recipes; labeling pic-tures in the family photo album;writing thank-you notes; reading thetelevision guide and making a list ofthe shows the family will watch;writing and mailing fan letters tochildren’s favorite performers andathletes.

7. Make a message board. A message board lets children

know the family’s plans for the day.This can be especially important onweekends, when routines may vary.The message board can be a dry-erase board, a chalk board, or just apad of paper.The board should behung at the child’s eye level for easyvisibility and so the child can add hisor her own messages. Each day, theparent and child can draw a few sim-ple pictures and label them with easywords. For example, a picture of aswing on one line and a grocery cartwith the word store on the next linewould indicate they were going tothe playground and then the super-market. Parents should encouragechildren to predict what will happenbased on the picture and word mes-sages.At the same time they arelearning to read, children are learningabout sequences, an important con-cept in math.

8. Encourage children to “read.” Young children “read” in many

ways. Before they read actual words,children pretend to read.They followthe pictures in a familiar book, tellthe story from memory, or make uptheir own narrative.With lots of ex-posure to books, they come to un-derstand basic print concepts, such asturning pages from front to back,reading from top to bottom, and fol-lowing lines from left to right. Parentscan promote children’s early readingin several ways.They can encourageyoung children to read to them, toother family members, even to dollsand stuffed animals.As children begin

Listening andspeaking are thefoundation ofreading and writ-ing.



to write, parents can ask them to readtheir words. If a child asks the parentto take dictation, either the parent orchild can read back the words. It isimportant for parents to write downthe child’s exact words.This estab-lishes the direct connection betweenspoken and written language.

9. Display children’s writing.Parents should display all the dif-

ferent forms of children’s writing, in-cluding scribble letters and wordsbased on word sounds (for example,bg for big).They can also take photosof and display temporary writing (forexample, made with sticks in the mudor sand on a tray).Writing should bemounted at the child’s eye level so itcan be easily seen. It can be attachedwith tape, pins, clips, or any otherhousehold fasteners. Display surfacesinclude the refrigerator, a wall, a bul-letin board, a bookcase, the side of adresser, the front of a kitchen cabinet;sticky notes can be stuck to the com-puter, papers hung from a mobile,and so on. If other family memberscomment on the writing, childrenwill have a sense of its importanceand of their accomplishment.

10. Make a word bank or wordfile.

A word bank is an illustrated dic-tionary or file of words a child usesin talking, reading, and writing. It or-ganizes the words that are importantto the child.A word bank can be cre-ated with an old recipe box and in-dex cards, or with a looseleaf note-book. Each word is put on a separatecard or page, written in large andclear letters. Next to the word, theparent or child draws a picture orpastes a photo or magazine picturethat illustrates it.The cards or pagesare then placed in alphabetical order.A word bank should be kept in aplace where the child can easily reachit and look up words on his or herown.Whenever the child asks forhelp writing or spelling a word, theparent can refer the child to the ex-isting list or help the child add a newentry to the word bank.

11. Take children to the library. Libraries offer books and other

reading materials, usually at no cost.Parents should find out where thenearest public library is located or ifit sends a bookmobile to their neigh-borhood.Their child’s preschool ordaycare center may also have a lend-ing library. Library visits should occurfrequently, preferably on a regularschedule.A child should have his orher own library card and a tote bagto carry and store books.

Children can check out books,magazines, cassette tapes, and CDswith stories, information, poems, andsongs.They should pick the itemsthat interest them. Parents can pointout something they think is interest-ing, but in the end, the child shouldmake the choice. Children shouldalso be the judge of whether a bookis too easy or too hard. Reading orre-reading easy books can build achild’s confidence. On the otherhand, if a difficult book is interestingenough, the child may be up to thechallenge of reading it. If a book isboring or too difficult, a child willsimply set it aside and pick up some-thing of greater interest.

Many libraries also have regularstory hours and other events foryoung children. Sometimes they haveexhibits; for example, an art show bya local artist. Looking at the exhibittogether and talking about it is an-other good way for parents to helpdevelop their child’s language skills.

12. Use television and technologywisely.

Young children learn best by do-ing, not by watching.Television andcomputers can play a part in earlylearning but should not replace activeexploration and social interaction.Viewing should be limited to one ortwo programs a day. Parents should

look for shows that help develop theintellectual and social skills childrenneed when they enter school, andthey should watch and talk aboutthese programs with their child. Ifthe family has a computer, parentsshould buy software designed foryoung children. Drawing and writingprograms that allow children to cre-ate and read their own pictures,words, and stories are more interest-ing and promote a wider range ofskills than programs limited to mem-orization and practice.

Finally, parents should rememberthat they are not alone in helpingtheir child along the path to literacy.They can talk to their child’s teacher,the librarian, and other parents.Theycan share the books and activitiestheir family enjoys and get others’ideas on how to support children’slearning at home.With a parent’s en-couragement, a child will enterschool ready to learn how to readand write.With a parent’s example, achild will become an adult who readsfor information and pleasure.

To learn more about how parentscan help young children becomereaders and writers, and prepare themfor school, see the following materialspublished by High/Scope Press:

• Helping Your Preschool Child Be-come a Reader (Ann Epstein, $4.95)

• You and Your Child ParentNewsletter Series—12 newsletters ontopics important to parents

• All About High/Scope—10 factsheets for parents, policymakers, andpractitioners

• The Essential Parent Workshop Re-source (Michelle Graves, 2000,$25.95). ✐

_____________________________

Dr. Ann S. Epstein is Director of the EarlyChildhood Division of High/Scope EducationalResearch Foundation,Ypsilanti, Michigan.Thisarticle is reprinted with permission from High/Scope ReSource, Summer 2002,Vol. 21, No.1, pp. 4-6. © 2002 High/Scope EducationalResearch Foundation.To order resource materialsor for more information, contact High/Scope bye-mail at: [email protected] or visit their Web-site: http://www.highscope.org.

Reading and writ-ing supplies donot need to be expensive.



Guidance Techniques That Work

Focus on “Do’s” Instead of “Don’ts.”Listen to how you speak to children. If you hear the words don’t, stop, or quit before your directions to children, try

to rephrase your words to tell children what to do instead of what not to do.Telling children what not to do doesn’tgive them any information on the correct way to behave.Translating your “don’ts” into “do’s” gives children clear guid-ance on what you expect.

• Stop running in the hall. Walk in the hall, please. You can run when we go outdoors.• Don’t squeeze the kitten. Pat the kitten gently with your hand flat and loose.• Quit whining. Tell me about the problem with words.• Don’t climb on that counter. In our classroom, feet stay on the floor.

What’s the most challenging aspect of caring for chil-

dren? Many caregivers and teachers say “discipline.”

Actually, the word discipline is off target. Guidance is a

more accurate term. As caregivers and teachers, we

guide children’s behavior.We teach them acceptable be-

havior and guide them to develop self-control.The goal

is that children learn to make good decisions about

how to act in specific situations.

Here are some tried-and-true guidance techniques

that help children achieve that goal.

Don’ts Do’s



Build Confidence.Help children feel that they are capable, worthwhile, and able to do things. Feeling dignity and confidence enables

children to try new things and approach new experiences with confidence. Ridicule, sarcasm, and belittling commentsdestroy confidence. Guide children with constructive, clear, and supportive words.

Change the Environment to Promote Behavior Changes.

Change the Environment to Promote Behavior Changes.Wise caregivers look for the causes of misbehavior.Are there squabbles over too few toys? Are children climbing

because materials are out of reach? Are children whiny and cranky because meals and naptimes are too late? Considerchanges in the environment that can make you less irritated and the children less frustrated.

• Toddler Hannah spills Hannah uses a tall, narrow Hannah uses a heavy, broad-bottomed her milk—every day. plastic cup. cup.

• Carlos and Sam fight There are 10 cardboard There are 40 blocks in a variety of shapes.over blocks. stacking blocks.

• Milton can’t find his There is one jumbled shelf unit Each child has a labeled hook and cubby shoes. for children’s items. for storing personal items.

• Jenny spills paint. Can’t you do anything right? It’s hard to walk without spilling. Next time, put a paper towel under the can to catch the spills.

• Harry has trouble If you’d just listen to me. On the playground, we have gravel,pedaling his tricycle. grass, and the path. Decide which is

best for riding your bike.

• Four-year-old Jose has You are such a baby. Shame on Accidents sometimes happen. Getwet his pants. you. your dry clothes and go to the

bathroom to change. I’ll make sureyou have time to finish your paintingwhen you get done.

• May’s block tower topples. I told you it wouldn’t work. Constructing tall towers is really hard.What do you think you could do tomake your building sturdier?

Example Destructive comment Constuctive guidance

Example Old environment New environment



Offer Choices—and Be Ready to Accept the Decision.Caregivers know that offering choices helps children develop independence. But conflicts can arise when you are

unwilling or unable to accept the choice a child makes. In general, it’s best to offer two options. If there is no choice,state your expectations simply and concretely.

Work With Children, Not Against Them.Make sure your expectations are appropriate to the ages and developmental levels of the children in your care.

When 3-year-old Alyssa flushes the toilet five times in a row, ask yourself: Is this misbehavior, or is this normal behav-ior? She may be trying to satisfy her curiosity.

Remember that infants and toddlers learn through their senses—from things that they can hear, taste, touch, smell,and see. Preschoolers follow their curiosity, need hands-on activities, and use their imagination for learning and discov-ery.You can minimize conflicts with children by anticipating their behaviors and preparing the environment to be safeand ready for exploration. Keep your expectations clear and reasonable—and share them with the children.

• At lunchtime What do you want to drink? (Too many options, many of which may not be acceptable.)

• Going outside It’s cold today. Do you wantyour coat? (Child could say “No.”)

• Billy is wandering What do you want to do? aimlessly in the (Child could say “Go home,” orclassroom. “Go outside.”)

Would you like milk or water with yoursandwich? (Either choice is acceptable.)

Let’s get our coats and go for a walk. (Nochoice.)

Billy, you look like you need somethingto do. Would you rather paint at the easelor feed the fish?

• Infants and toddlers Infants and toddlers explore with Baby-proof the environment and puttheir fingers and mouths. dangerous, fragile, and breakable

objects out of reach.

• Preschoolers Preschoolers want to know how Offer concrete, hand-on activities withthings work. real objects that teach children about

their world, like magnifying glasses,keys, and magnets.

• School-agers School-age children can think Plan opportunities for pretend play,abstractly and are learning about board games, and word games.symbols.

Example Invites conflict Builds independence

Age group Anticipate Prepare



Use Mistakes as Teaching Tools.Treat mistakes, errors, and accidents as steps to learning—everyone makes them as they try new things. Share some

of your mistakes—“Oops, I mixed too much water into the paint. Next time, I better measure more carefully.” In doingso, you help children know that adults too have accidents and can still learn. Build a learning environment that discour-ages failure and promotes success.

Give Children Limits—and Security.Everyone needs to have boundaries defined.You, for example, rely on speed-limit signs, price tags, and recipes to

guide some of your activities. Children need to know limits and, within those limits, need the freedom to practicemaking appropriate decisions.They need adults to help draw the line between not enough and too much decision-making freedom.

Children also must know behavior limits will be enforced consistently—what’s OK today will be OK tomorrow.Look at your own behavior for mixed messages. Did you have children finger paint with pudding yesterday and thenget frustrated at lunch today when children smeared the pudding on the table?

Set behavioral limits to reflect the safety of children, the safety and well-being of others, and the protection of com-munity property. Rules that are few, enforceable, and essential give children the freedom and responsibility to makegood behavioral choices. Evaluate limits—or rules—regularly.Ask: Is the rule still necessary, or have the children out-grown it? Is the rule for my convenience alone? Does the rule restrict experimentation or keep a child from tryingnew things? Can the rule be enforced? Make sure you understand the reason for the rule—the children will surely askfor it.

• After a water table activity, Fuss about the mess and Anticipate the mess by covering the the floor is slippery and children’s carelessness—without floor under the table with newspaper, children’s clothes are wet. offering solutions. having towels nearby, and providing

smocks.

• Yetta has a hard time completing Make Yetta sit in one place to Accommodate Yetta’s needs by a puzzle or another project. “finish what you have started.” letting her finish the puzzle on the

floor or stand to paint.

• The toddler room floor is Leave the disorder until naptime Arrange furniture and materials so covered with toys, making “since it will just get messy again” that there is always a clear path for Ben and Laurie reluctant to and the children can crawl to new walkers.practice walking. what they want.

• On the playground, you No climbing above that branch. I know you want to go higher. I’ll be monitor 5-year-olds climbing here if you feel like you’re getting intothe old oak tree. trouble.

• In the classroom, you use a Because I say so. We have this rule so that every child timer to remind children to has a chance to play with the train.give up a place at a favorite Would you like to read the train book activity. while you wait?

• At naptime, you help children Go to sleep. Close your eyes Sometimes it’s hard to sleep. Would settle on their mats. right now and quit wiggling. you like to choose a book to look at

during rest time?

Example Encourages failure Promotes success

Example Invites conflict Offers security and reassurance



Use Logical Consequences.Respond to inappropriate behavior with logical consequences—the natural result of a particular behavior.A logical

consequence for an adult, for example, may be a stomach ache after eating spicy food. For a child, a logical conse-quence may be feeling cold after going outside without a sweater.

This kind of learning goes on all the time. In some cases, we can set up a logical consequence if one doesn’t occurnaturally. If a 3-year-old spills milk, for example, one logical consequence is to have the child help with cleanup.Theconsequence is not punishment and it always relates to the original behavior. It’s not logical, therefore, to deny time inthe art center to a child who spills milk—the two things don’t relate to each other.

The consequence must also be reasonable. If a child’s behavior poses danger—picking up broken glass or runninginto the street, for example—stop it immediately.Avoid extremes. If 9-year-old Josh breaks a baseball bat by swinging itagainst a brick wall, don’t say “You can never play baseball here again.” Show children that you trust them to changeand learn.“Here’s a glove for you to practice catching.You can try batting later this afternoon.”

For a logical consequence to be effective, you must respond immediately. Make it clear that it’s the behavior—notthe child—that is objectionable

Set an Example.Children learn by watching you.They observe your interactions with children and other adults and are likely to

model their behavior on yours. For example, if you consistently talk to children rudely in a loud voice, you’re teachingthem that this is the way to treat others. If you tell the director that you are out of glue and then produce a hiddenbottle from the closet, you’ll have a difficult time convincing children that it’s not right to lie.

Instead, show concern for others, work out conflicts, and respect the dignity of others—both adults and children. Inthis way, you model behaviors children need to learn for their social and emotional success.

• At lunchtime You watch the children eat their You sit with the children and model sound lunch while you have a snack of nutritious and social mealtime habits.soda and chips.

• On the playground You scream across the yard to tell You wave to Hank’s dad, walk across the Hank his dad is ready to go home. yard to tell Hank it’s time to leave for the day,

and help Hank say goodbye to his friends.

• In the art center Mirabelle spatters paint on the You let Mirabelle get the sponge and help floor and wall. You tell her that her wipe down the wall and floor. When it doesn’t matter because the she’s finished, you congratulate her for custodian is paid to clean up. helping make the classroom a pleasant

place to work and play.

• Benny runs on the Make Benny sit in the sandbox for Have Benny help Jena up and walk playground and knocks the rest of outdoor time. (Not related.) with her to clean her hands and knees.Jena over.

• Toddler Mike scribbles Remove crayons from the classroom Help Mike scrub off the wall with a on a wall with crayon. for six weeks. soapy rag.

• Laura misuses a book Take the book away from Laura and tell Show Laura how to use tape to repair and tears several pages. her she has ruined it. (Not related.) the book.

Example Illogical punishment Logical consequences

Example Negative role model Positive role model



Becomes angry.

Won’t share.

Bites other children.

Is jealous.

Uses foul language.

• Does not feel successful withan important task.

• Has been told stop, no, and don’t too many times.

• Is being forced to do some-thing.

• Feels frustrated by too many demands from adults.

• Is too young (under 3 years) tounderstand sharing.

• Needs experience and guidance in owning and sharing.

• Is teething.• Is using the mouth for learning.• Communicates through biting

rather than words.• Doesn’t understand that biting

hurts.• Feels frustrated but hasn’t

learned more appropriate coping skills.

• Feels replaced by a new person in the family.

• Has been unfairly compared with others.

• Has been treated unfairly.

• Doesn’t know any better.• Is imitating someone.• Is trying something new.• Is trying to get your attention.• Is letting off steam.

• Become angry.• Allow an out-of-

control tantrum.

• Snatch an object fromthe child.

• Scold the child.• Say you don’t like the

child.

• Bite the child back.• Encourage biting

back.• Make the child bite

soap.• Force the child to say,

“I’m sorry.”

• Shame the child.• Ignore the child.

• Show shock or embarrassment.

• Get excited.• Over-react.• Wash out the child’s

mouth with soap.• Put hot pepper on the

child’s tongue.

• Remember anger is normal and sometimes appropriate.

• Evaluate and modify the environment to minimize frustration.

• Help the child express anger in ways that don’t hurt anyone.

• Provide an outlet for strong emotions.

• Help the child feel more secure.

• Teach problem-solving skills.• Provide duplicate toys and

materials.

• Provide toddlers with alternative and soothing objects to bite.

• Supervise closely to prevent biting.

• Help children develop other communication skills.

• Evaluate and modify sched-ule, environment, or materials to reduce children’sstress.

• Comfort victims.• Teach children that biting

hurts.• Share information with

parents, stressing how typical biting is.

• Provide warmth, love, and understanding.

• Discuss the child’s feeling one-on-one.

• Help children feel competent and successful with tasks.

• Make available books that deal with jealousy.

• Ignore the incident.• Offer a substitute word.• Teach children new, extra-

long words.• Evaluate and modify

materials to be stimulating but not overwhelming.

Tips for Handling Common Behaviors*

The child It may mean the child So don’t Instead try to



Hurts you or other children.

Destroys materials.

Refuses to eat.

Demands attention.

• Is too young to understand the pain.

• Is inexperienced in social relationships.

• Is angry.• Is frustrated.

• Is curious about how things work.

• Does not understand the correct way to use the materials.

• Has had an accident.• Feels excited or angry.• Finds the materials too difficult

or frustrating.

• Is showing a normal decrease in appetite.

• Is not hungry.• Does not feel well.• Dislikes a particular food,

flavor, or texture.• Is imitating someone.• Is trying to be independent.• Is trying to get attention.

• Is tired, hungry, or not feeling well.

• Feels left out, insecure, or unloved.

• Really likes you and is jealous of the attention you give other children.

• Hasn’t yet learned to play creatively and independently.

• Get angry.• Hurt the child.• Force the child to

say, “I’m sorry.”• Say you don’t like

the child.• Ignore the child.

• Scold, yell, or shout.• Tell the child “You’re

bad.”• Hurt the child.

• Make a scene.• Reward or bribe the

child.• Threaten the child.• Scold the child.• Force the child to

eat.• Withhold other foods

or drink.

• Ignore or isolate the child.

• Shame the child.• Scold or punish the

child.

• Attend the hurt person first and involve the child who did the hurt in the comforting.

• Quietly separate the children.• Divert the children’s attention.• Take away hurting objects—

calmly and firmly.• Offer different ways to express

feelings.

• Teach and model the proper ways to handle materials.

• Examine fragile items with the child.

• Remove broken materials from the area.

• Teach the difference between valued and throw-away items.

• Involve the child in repair work.

• Remain calm and casual.• Make food interesting and

attractive.• Introduce new foods a little at a

time.• Help children learn to serve and

feed themselves.• Serve small portions.• Involve children in food prepara-

tion.

• Attend to the child’s physical needs.

• Show interest in the child’s ideas and discoveries.

• Offer interesting activities for the child to do with other children.

• Recognize the child’s efforts and successes.

* Adapted from “Tips for Handling Common Situations With Chil-dren,” Texas Child Care, Winter 1983.____________________________________________Reprinted with permission, Texas Child Care Quarterly, © Texas

Workforce Commission, Spring 2002.

The child It may mean the child So don’t Instead try to

Tips for Handling Common Behaviors*


The Child-CenteredKindergarten*

APOSITION PAPERB Y J O A N M O Y E R

The child-centeredkindergarten is notnew; it has its roots inthe 19th century.Atthat time, the kinder-garten was envisionedas a “garden for chil-

dren” (the literal meaning of the Ger-man word “kindergarten”), a placewhere children could be nurturedand allowed to grow at their ownpace.While that image has changedsomewhat over the years, the “roots”of sensitivity to children remain.Children’s developmental needs havenot changed, and so the importanceof educating the whole child—recog-nizing his or her physical,



social/emotional, and intellectualgrowth and development—remains.Achange in the kindergarten curricu-lum, however, was brought about by:(1) societal pressure, (2) misunder-standings about how children learn,(3) aggressive marketing of commer-cial materials largely inappropriate forkindergarten-age children, (4) ashortage of teachers specifically pre-pared to work with young children,and (5) the reassignment of trainedteachers in areas of declining enroll-ment.

Since its beginning more than100 years ago as a professional organ-ization, the Association for ChildhoodEducation International (ACEI) hasemphasized the importance of thekindergarten years in a child’s devel-opment.The official position of ACEIconcerning kindergarten states: TheAssociation for Childhood Education In-ternational recognizes the importance ofkindergarten education and supports high-

quality kindergarten programs that providedevelopmentally, culturally, and linguisti-cally appropriate experiences for children(Moyer, Egertson, & Isenberg, 1987).

Purpose of KindergartenMany of the earliest kindergartens

in the United States served the pur-pose of easing the acculturation ofnewly arrived immigrant children.Later, the purpose became easing thechild’s transition from home to themore formal aspects of the elemen-tary school. For some children, thetransition purpose continues to beimportant.The vast majority of chil-dren today, however, have experienceat preschool and/or childcare settingsbefore they attend kindergarten.

Nevertheless, many people in andout of education continue to perceivethe kindergarten as the initial groupexperience for children (NationalCenter on Education Statistics, 1984,p. 43).

Unfortunately, many parents andelementary educators do not viewexperiences in child care or otherprekindergarten programs as “reallearning.” Spodek (1999) reportedthat many of the programs haveshifted their emphasis from spurringkindergartners’ development to high-lighting specific learning goals.Whileprograms vary in quality (as they doin elementary and secondaryschools), children of any age arelearning in every waking moment.Education provided for children atany level simply serves to organizetheir learning into more well-definedpaths, governed by the philosophicalorientation of program planners andthe quality of the program.Althoughbroad variations in children’s abilitiesare evident, all children can learn.Noddings (1992) reminds teachersnot to expect all children to bringsimilar strengths and abilities to theclassroom.These variations in abili-



ties, coupled with children’s varyingethnic backgrounds and socioeco-nomic levels, add interest, joy, andchallenge to the kindergarten pro-gram.

The work of such developmentaltheorists as Dewey, Piaget, and Vygot-sky serves as a foundation for kinder-garten practices.The theoretical back-ground is expressed through theintegrated curriculum, which alsobest accommodates the variations inchildren’s understanding of the worldaround them. Early childhood profes-sionals at all levels are concernedabout the methods and content inthe majority of kindergarten pro-grams. Despite societal changes,kindergarten remains a place wherechildren need a quality program inorder to achieve their full potential.

Program GoalsThe need for flexibility in plan-

ning programs that serve children andtheir families is well-documented.Parents need options so that the serv-ices they select for their children canmeet family needs, as well as theneeds of each child. Some parents,however, have misconceptions aboutthe goals of the kindergarten programand, as a result, they focus on suchcursory academic skills as countingand reciting the alphabet (Simmons& Brewer, 1985). Many people feelcomfortable emphasizing such learn-ing because it is easily measured.Elkind (1996) warns, however, thatpushing children into academic areastoo soon has a negative effect onlearning, and refers to this practice asthe “miseducation” of young chil-dren.

According to Katz (1985), earlychildhood educators need to considerchildren’s dispositions, which she de-fines as “characteristic ways of re-sponding to categories of experienceacross types of situations. Examplesinclude curiosity, humor, creativity, af-fability, and quarrelsomeness. . . . Dis-positions are not likely to be acquiredthrough workbook exercises, lessons,or direct instruction” (p. 1).

Some parents, concerned over the

demanding nature of the kinder-garten curriculum, delay their chil-dren’s kindergarten entrance.Thispractice has tended to institutionalizethe more demanding and narrowlyacademic curriculum (Walsh, 1989).While 6-year-olds may be more ca-pable of accomplishing the curriculargoals, such programs try to “fit” chil-dren to the curriculum, rather thanadjusting the curriculum to respondto the nature of the learner.Thus,younger children are more likely tofail.

The activity/experience-centeredenvironment, which is essential ifyoung children are to reach theirmaximum potential, provides for a farricher and more stimulating environ-ment than one dominated by pencil-and-paper, teacher-directed tasks.Awell-designed kindergarten programcapitalizes on the interest some chil-dren may show in learning academicskills.At the same time, it does nothave that same expectation for allchildren; nor does it use up precioustime to inculcate skills and knowl-edge for which children have no im-mediate use or real understanding.Learning to learn should be the em-phasis in the early years (Bloom,1981).

Program ContentKindergarten programs must be

related to the needs and capacities ofthe children enrolled in them. Inspite of major sociological and tech-nological changes, developmentalrates have not accelerated, nor arechildren more intelligent than theyused to be (Elkind, 1986). Only thevariety and intensity of early experi-ences have changed. Most kinder-garten children are only 5 years old,and they have the basic needs of thisage group, whether or not they haveattended preschool or know how toread (Webster, 1984).Young childrenstill need supportive environments,rich in direct experiences that aremeaningful to them (Nebraska StateDepartment of Education, 1984).

A high-quality kindergarten pro-gram provides a strong foundation

upon which children can build theskills, knowledge, and attitudes towardschooling necessary for lifelong learn-ing.

Program ImplementationAn effective, individually and cul-

turally developmentally appropriatekindergarten program:

• Recognizes and accepts individ-ual differences in children’s growthpatterns and rates by setting realisticcurriculum goals that are appropriateto their developmental levels.

• Educates the whole child—withattention to his or her physical, so-cial/emotional, and intellectual devel-opmental needs and interests.

• Responds to the needs of chil-dren as developing, thinking individ-uals by focusing on the process oflearning rather than on disparateskills, content, and products.

• Provides multiple opportunitiesfor learning with concrete, manipula-tive materials that: (1) are relevant tochildren’s experiential background;and (2) keep them actively engagedin learning and discovering throughuse of all the senses, leading to moreinput upon which thought is con-structed.

• Provides a variety of activitiesand materials by incorporating: (1)learning activities that encourage ac-tive participation through “hands-on”activity, communication, and dia-logue; (2) large blocks of time to pur-sue interests; (3) time to ask questionsand receive answers that develop con-cepts and ideas for use at varying lev-els of difficulty and complexity; and(4) time to reflect upon and abstract in-formation when encountering view-points that are different from one’speers.

• Views play as fundamental tochildren’s learning, growth, and de-velopment, enabling them to developand clarify concepts, roles, and ideasby testing and evaluating themthrough the use of open-ended mate-rials and role-enactment. Play furtherenables children to develop fine andgross motor skills, to learn to sharewith others, to learn to see others’



points of view, and to be in controlof their thoughts and feelings.

• Provides many opportunities forthe use of multicultural and nonsexistexperiences, materials, and equipmentthat enhance children’s acceptance ofself and others; these experiences en-able children to accept differencesand similarities among people, in-cluding those who are challenged insome way.

• Embraces the teaching of allcontent areas, especially when theyare presented as integrated experi-ences that develop and extend con-cepts, strengthen skills, and provide asolid foundation for learning in lan-guage, literacy, math, science, socialstudies, health, art, and music andmovement.

• Allows children to make choicesand decisions within the limits of thematerials provided, resulting in in-creased independence, attention, joyin learning, and the feelings of successnecessary for growth and develop-ment.

• Utilizes appropriate assessment

procedures, such as observation tech-niques and portfolios, to measurelearning for all kindergarten children.

Play Is EssentialThe pressure for academic

achievement, coupled with the mis-taken idea that today’s children haveoutgrown the need to play, have ledto increased emphasis on “basic skills”in kindergarten.The principal sourceof development in the early years isplay (Vygotsky, 1976); in fact, Catronand Allen (1999) state that the opti-mal development of young children ismade possible through play.Whenviewed as a learning process, play be-comes a vehicle for intellectualgrowth, and it continues to be themost vital avenue of learning forkindergartners. In contrast, researchindicates that academic gains fromnon-play approaches are not lasting(Schweinhart & Weikert, 1996). Playinvolves not only use of materials andequipment, but also words and ideasthat promote literacy and developthinking skills, Consequently, in addi-

tion to the three R’s, play also pro-motes problem-solving, critical think-ing, concept formation, and creativityskills. Social and emotional develop-ment also are enhanced through play.Play fosters wholistic learning (Isen-berg & Jalongo, 1997).“Children in-tegrate everything they know in alldomains when they play” (Almy,2000, p. 10).The classic words ofLawrence Frank (1964) remain asmeaningful as ever today:

“A conception of play that recog-nizes the significance of autonomous,self-directed learning and active ex-ploration and manipulation of the ac-tual world gives a promising approachto the wholesome development ofchildren. . . . It is a way to translateinto the education of children ourlong-cherished, enduring goal values,a belief in the worth of the individualpersonalities, and a genuine respectfor the dignity and integrity of thechild” (p. 73).

Suransky (1983) warns that “erod-ing the play life of early childhoodhas severe implications for the chil-



dren we attempt to ‘school’ in lateryears” (p. 29). Froebel believed that infree play children reveal their futureminds (cited in Bruce, 1993). It is im-portant to emphasize that critics ofthe current practice of emphasizingacademic work over free play are notadvocating an environment thatmakes fewer demands on children.Almy, Monighan, Scales, and VanHoorn (1984) state,“Teachers who,drawing on recent research and theirown classroom research, justify an im-portant place for play in the earlychildhood curriculum will not losesight of their responsibility as instruc-tors. . . .Teachers have responsibility. . . for providing the play opportuni-ties in which children can consolidateand make personally meaningful theexperiences they have had” (p. 22).

Kindergarten teachers agree withresearchers and experts who contendthat child-centered activities that pro-vide cognitive challenges, and also fa-cilitate the development of autonomyand social skills, are essential foryoung children (Spidell Rusher, Mc-Grevin, & Lambiotte, 1992).Wardle(1999, p. 7) writes “. . . as we [have]seen many of our public funded earlychildhood programs become down-ward extensions of public schools, weneed to advocate for the children’sright to play.”

Appropriate Physical EnvironmentKindergarten children are active,

curious learners who need adequatespace, a variety of materials, and largeblocks of time in which to try outtheir ideas.Attention to the arrange-ment of physical facilities is an in-tegral part of their educational ex-perience. How teachers arrangekindergarten classrooms affects chil-dren’s interests, level of interactionand involvement, initiative develop-ment, skill development, and overallattitude toward schooling and learn-ing.A classroom arrangement thatsupports learning gives attention tothe organization and use of space, thearrangement of materials, and the roleof both adults and children in thelearning environment.

How space is organized and usedinfluences how comfortable childrenfeel and how they work, contributingto a challenging and satisfactorylearning environment. Because chil-dren’s activity patterns change as theygain new skills and mature, and be-cause spatial organization influencesother behaviors, the physical facilitiesmust be flexible enough to change toaccommodate the children.

Similarly, the arrangement oflearning materials determines theirlevel and use. How well materials arearranged also affects the ideas andconnections children can make withthe materials.

Although children and teachersoccupy the same physical space, theirperceptions and use of that space arenot the same. Kindergarten teachersmust arrange the space from thekindergartner’s point of view and per-spective. In order to build a sense ofcommunity, kindergarten classroomsshould reflect the children, individu-ally and as a group, as well as theteacher.

The following environmentalprinciples address spatial organization,use of materials, and the role of adultsin the kindergarten:

• Rooms should be arranged toaccommodate individual, small group,and large group activities.

• Interest areas should be clearlydefined; differ in size, shape, and loca-tion; and attend to traffic patternswhile permitting continuity of activ-ity and reducing distractibility.Allspaces should be clearly visible to theteacher.

• Rooms should be arranged tofacilitate the activity and movementsof children at work by attending toavailable paths for their use and mini-mizing the amount of interference.

• Learning materials should bearranged and displayed so that theyare inviting to children and suggestmultiple possibilities for use; theyshould be clearly visible and accessi-ble, enabling children to return andreplace materials as easily as they canget them. Clear, well-organized mate-rials facilitate children’s ability to use

and explore them.• Materials should be changed and

combined to increase levels of com-plexity, thus helping children becomemore self-directed and increasingtheir level of involvement.

• Children perceive space they cansee, reach, and touch.Teachers cansupport, stimulate, and maintain chil-dren’s involvement in learning byproviding a variety of raw materialsfor exploration, tools for manipula-tion, containers for storage and dis-plays, adequate work spaces, invitingdisplays at eye level, and appropriatesources of information within thechildren’s reach.

Textbooks and MaterialsConsiderable discussion in the

educational and popular media hasfocused on the quality of textbooksused in schools.The concerns ofearly childhood educators, however,appear to have been overlooked inthis discussion. Many kindergartenteachers are expected to use com-mercial texts that present informationand activities that are developmen-tally inappropriate.These materialsalso may be culturally inappropriate.Many “how to” books for teachersare simply collections of reproducibleworksheets that result in a pencil/pa-per curriculum. Such practices donot reflect what we know about howyoung children learn.Today’s kinder-garten programs must reflect devel-opmentally appropriate practices thatpromote active learning, and shouldmatch goals and content to thechild’s level of understanding (Isen-berg & Jalongo, 2000).

The introduction of technologyinto kindergarten classrooms, whilepromising (and becoming more com-mon), still requires the teacher todetermine appropriate uses of thattechnology.“Used appropriately,technology can enhance children’scognitive and social abilities” (Na-tional Association for the Educationfor Young Children, 1996, p. 12).Elkind (1996) cautions:“The dangeris that the young child’s proficiencywith the computer may tempt us to



ignore what we know about cogni-tive development. . . . If we rate achild’s intellectual competence by hisor her performance on a computer,then we will have lost what we havebeen working so hard to attain—abroad appreciation of developmen-tally appropriate practice” (p. 23).

Teachers for KindergartensAside from parents, teachers fre-

quently are the most significant adultsin young children’s lives.Therefore,quality kindergarten programs mustbe staffed by caring teachers whohave faith in every child’s potential toachieve and succeed.

Assigning primary and upper ele-mentary teachers to the kindergartenis a questionable practice—indeed, itis cause for great concern. Many ofthese teachers have limited under-

standing of appropriate programs for5-year-olds, and so they operate un-der the false assumption that youngchildren learn in the same way thatolder children do (Association forChildhood Education International etal., 1986). Consequently, they use a“watered-down” primary curriculum,replete with workbooks, textbooks,and one-dimensional tasks that canbe readily evaluated.

ACEI advocates developmentallyappropriate kindergartens staffed withearly childhood teachers who:

• Are knowledgeable in child de-velopment, committed to children,and able to plan a curriculum thatwill promote the full development ofeach child—enabling teachers to havea profound influence on children’slives.

• Listen thoughtfully to children,

extend children’s language aboutideas and feelings, ask questions thatencourage insights and highlight con-tradictions, and promote and valuecreative, divergent responses from allchildren.

• Regularly assess children’s inter-ests, needs, and skill levels—enablingthem to plan continuous, flexible, andrealistic activities for each child.

• Design learning environmentsthat provide for successful daily expe-riences by matching activities to eachchild’s developmental level, and byusing positive interactions, encour-agement, and praise for children’s ef-forts.

• Promote a positive self-image byhelping children succeed in a varietyof activities and experiences, and byproviding techniques to help childrenestablish their own limits. Children’s



self-esteem affects what they do, say,and think.

• Utilize a variety of instructionalapproaches, including individual,small group, large group, role-enact-ment activities, and activity centers—all suited to kindergartners’ widerange of ability, interests, and needs.

• Provide varied experiencesabout which kindergarten childrencan communicate by: (1) encouragingthem to use their own experiences asa basis for developing language activi-ties through individual and smallgroup interactions with peers andadults; (2) arranging for periodicchange of materials, equipment, andactivities in the environment; and (3)providing experiences for children touse their senses as they interact withpeople and materials.

Such teachers provide effective in-teraction with children, as well as en-couragement, support, and guidance.

Program SupportParental involvement is essential if

they are to understand the purpose ofkindergarten education, assist inachieving kindergarten goals and re-inforce those lessons in the home set-ting. Parents who are unable to par-ticipate directly in the classroom cancontribute in myriad other ways(Barbour & Barbour, 2000; Isenberg& Jalongo, 1997). Parents can showtheir support for their children’slearning by volunteering in the class-room, exchanging information withteachers, acting as chaperones on fieldtrips, helping with homework, read-ing to children, discussing the schoolday with the kindergarten child, in-forming teachers about home situa-tions that may affect the child’s be-havior at school, and paying attentionto materials sent home. Parents mustadvocate for child-centered kinder-garten programs for their children, inpart by informing administrators andschool boards of their eagerness tosupport these programs.Teachers, ad-ministrators, and parents must worktogether as advocates for child-cen-tered kindergarten programs.

Central administrators, supervi-

sors, and building principals whooversee the kindergarten programalso must be educated about the de-velopmental needs of kindergartenchildren and the unique needs of thekindergarten program.As SpidellRusher, McGrevin, and Lambiotte(1992) state,“Communication amongteachers, principals, policymakers, ex-perts in childhood education, andparents is vital” (p. 294).With thisknowledge, they can provide the ad-ministrative support essential to thesuccess of the kindergarten program,value its uniqueness, and interpret itto the community professionally andwith integrity. Elkind (1986) cautions

that “the risks of miseducating chil-dren are both short- and long-term.In each case, the potential psycholog-ical risks of early intervention faroutweigh any potential educationalgain” (p. 634).

ACEI advocates child-centeredkindergarten programs that encour-age active experiential learning, aredevelopmentally appropriate, increaseindependence, and promote joy inlearning—staffed by teachers who areprofessionally prepared to work withyoung children.

As Lewis (2000) writes,“Perhapswhat is needed are super programsthat provide balance, giving every



child a chance to succeed and toplay” (p. 564). ✐______________________________

Joan Moyer is Professor, College of Education,Arizona State University,Tempe,Arizona.Reprinted from ACEI / J. Moyer (2001) (“TheChild-Centered Kindergarten:A Position Pa-per,” Childhood Education pp. 161–166) bypermission of Joan Moyer and the Association forChildhood Education International, 17904Georgia Avenue, Suite 215, Olney, MD. Copy-right © by the Association.______________________________**An earlier version of this paper was pub-lished in Childhood Education 63:4 (April 1987),pp. 235-242.______________________________

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GuestEditorialContinued from page 3

Such situations offer an evangelisticopportunity and a means for channel-ing children into the church’s ele-mentary schools.

One journal issue is wholly inade-quate to cover the topic of earlychildhood development. Limitedspace does not allow us to cover anumber of relevant topics. However,the JOURNAL welcomes reader re-sponses to the articles and invites thesubmission of additional manuscripts.

Readers wishing to read moreabout this topic can refer to sourceslisted at the end of many of the arti-cles or search the CIRCLE Websitefor additional resources: http://circle.adventist.org/.—Linda Bryant Cavi-ness.______________________________

The coordinator for this special issue on earlychildhood education, Linda Bryant Cavi-ness, Ph.D., is Associate Professor of Educa-tion at La Sierra University in Riverside, Cali-fornia. Her areas of specialization are Languageand Literacy and Educational Neuroscience.Theeditors express their appreciation for her dedica-tion, enthusiasm, assistance, and attention to de-tail in soliciting articles and producing the issue.


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Along with feature articles that range from integrating faith and learning to tips for substitute teachers, the JOURNAL often devotesentire issues to themes that are relevant to Adventist educators in the new millennium. Some of these issues to which the JOURNAL has given in-depth coverage include: multiple intelligences, administration and leadership, character development, outdoor education, school safety and conflict resolution, health, spiritual assessment, distance education, brain research, school boards, and multicultural education.

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The Summer 2004 issue focused on school boards and drew a great deal of interest even from people who do not regularly subscribe to the JOURNAL.Some 8,300 extra copies have already been ordered for board members around the world.

Additional copies of the school boards issues are still available for a special bulk rate—up to 25: $2.50 each; 25-99: $2.00 each;100 or more: $1.50 each, plus the costs of handling and shipping.

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