ADULT LEARNERS IN FORMAL ADULT EDUCATION Experiences …

Sixth FP Integrated Project no.: 513321

Project title: Towards a Lifelong Learning Society in Europe:

The Contribution of the Education System

ADULT LEARNERS IN FORMAL ADULT EDUCATION

Experiences and Perceptions

Subproject 3 Comparative Report (March 2011)

Ellen Boeren, Eve-Liis Roosmaa, Ellu Saar and Ides Nicaise

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Table of Contents

1. CONTEXT INFORMATION 5

1.1. INTRODUCTION 5

1.2. GENERAL FRAMEWORK OF THE REASERACH 6

1.3. SUBPROJECT 3 AND OTHER SUBPROJECTS 9

2. THEORETICAL OVERVIEW AND HYPOTHESES 11

2.1. THEORETICAL OVERVIEW 11 2.1.1. Introduction 11 2.1.2. THE MICRO LEVEL: Experiences and Perspectives of Adult Learners 12

Socio-Economic Dimension 12 Psychological Dimension 14

2.1.3. THE MESO LEVEL: Learning Environment 15 Educational Institutions 16 Learning Process 17

2.1.4. THE MACRO LEVEL: Characteristics of the Wider Context 17 Educational System 17 Other System Characteristics 19

2.1.5. Participation Models 22 2.1.6. Theoretical Conclusions 24

2.2. RESEARCH QUESTIONS 25 2.2.1. Country/Macro Level Questions and Hypotheses 25 2.2.2. Institutional/Meso Level Questions and Hypotheses 26 2.2.3. Individual/Micro Level Questions and Hypotheses 27

3. SURVEY METHODOLOGY 30

3.1. SURVEY – QUESTIONNAIRES 30

3.2. SAMPLING AND SURVEY METHODS 32 3.2.1. Operational Definition of Formal Education 32 3.2.2. Operational Definition of Adult Learners 32

3.3. SAMPLING FRAME 33

3.4. EFFECTIVE RESPONSE 35

3.5. METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES 36

3.6. STRUCTURE OF THE ANALYTICAL CHAPTERS 37

4. DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS 38

4.1. MACRO LEVEL CHARACTERISTICS – MACROECONOMIC AND INSTITUTIONAL

CONTEXT OF COUNTRIES 39 4.1.1. Broader Economic and Social Context 39

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4.1.2. Labour Market 44 4.1.3. Welfare System 46 4.1.4. Educational System 48

4.2. OVERVIEW OF FORMAL ADULT EDUCATION IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES 51 Austria 51 Belgium (Flanders) 54 Bulgaria 56 The Czech Republic 58 Estonia 60 Hungary 61 Ireland 62 Lithuania 64 Norway 66 Russia 68 Slovenia 70 England 72 Scotland 73

4.3. MESO LEVEL CARACTERISTICS AND ADULT LEARENER’S PERCEPTIONS OF THE

LEARNING INSTITUTIONS 76 4.3.1. Characteristics of the Learning Institutions 76 4.3.2. Country Differences in Characteristics of the Learning Institutions 78 4.3.3. Perceptions of the Learning Process 84 4.3.4. Country Differences in Perceptions of the Learning Process 85

Relationships between learners 85 Learner engagement in the learning process and ability to pursue own interest 86 Teacher support, task focus and organisation of learning 87

4.4. MICRO LEVEL INDICATORS – BACKGROUND OF ADULT LEARNERS 89 4.4.1. Socio-Demographic Profile of Adult Learners 89 4.4.2. Country Level Differences by Socio-Demographic Profile 90 4.4.3. Socio-Economic Profile of Adult Learners 92 4.4.4. Country Level Differences by Socio-Economic Profile 94 4.4.5. Socio-Cultural Profile of Adult Learners 97 4.4.6. Country Level Differences by Socio-Cultural Profile 98

4.5. MICRO LEVEL INDICATORS – MOTIVATION FOR LEARNING 99 4.5.1. Attitude towards Adult Education 99 4.5.2. Country Level Differences in Attitudes towards Adult Education 101 4.5.3. Relevance of Participation in Adult Education 103 4.5.4. Country Level Differences in Relevance of Participation in Adult Education 105 4.5.5. Confidence in Successfully Completing Current Studies 108 4.5.6. Country Level Differences in Confidence of Completing Current Studies 109 4.5.7. Satisfaction with Learning Process and Outcome 110 4.5.8. Country Level Differences in Satisfaction with Learning Process and Outcomes 111

5. THE EFFECTS OF MICRO, MESO AND MACRO LEVEL CHARACTERISTICS ON PERCEPTIONS AND EXPERIENCES OF ADULT LEARNERS 113

5.1. COUNTRY DIFFERENCES IN ADULT LEARNERS’ EXPERIENCES AND PERCEPTIONS OF

FORMAL ADULT EDUCATION BY EDUCATIONAL LEVELS 114 5.1.1. Country Differences in Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motives 114 5.1.2. Country Differences in Barriers and Classroom Environment 115 5.1.3. Country Differences in Attitudes 116

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5.1.4. Country Differences in Satisfaction and Confidence 117

5.2. MICRO, MESO AND MACRO LEVEL CHARACTERISTICS AFFECTING PERCEPTIONS AND

EXPERIENCES OF ADULT LEARNERS 117 5.2.1. Most Relevant Micro and Meso Level Characteristics Affecting Adult Learners’ Perceptions and

Experiences 120 Micro and meso level characteristics affecting confidence 123 Micro and meso level characteristics affecting satisfaction 125

5.3. DIFFERENCES IN ADULT LEARNERS’ EXPERIENCES AND PERCEPTIONS OF FORMAL

ADULT EDUCATION BY COUNTRY CLUSTERS 126

6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 129

6.1. MICRO LEVEL – Learning Experiences and Perceptions of Adults with Different Background 130 Sample Composition 130 Gender and age differences 131 Differences according to the highest completed education and the level of current studies 131 Differences in reasons for participation in adult education 132 Differences in confidence in completing studies and satisfaction with learning 132 Differences in access to and organisation of adult education 133 Differences in learning process, learning environment 133

6.2. MESO LEVEL – Educational Institution Characteristics Influencing Learning Experiences and

Perceptions 133 Influence of perceptions of the learning environment 134 Influence of barriers hindering participation 134

6.3. MACRO LEVEL – Country Variations in Adult Learning Experiences and Perceptions 134 Typology of countries 135 Differences in formal learning perceptions and experiences by country types 135

6.4. RECOMMENDATIONS 137 Limitations of the Study 138

REFERENCES 139

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1. CONTEXT INFORMATION

The report starts with a general overview of the research project, followed by a presentation of

the research questions which will be answered in the following chapters. The third chapter gives

information on the data collection by means of a survey and points out the methodological issues.

The empirical parts of the report are divided in a descriptive chapter containing the characteristics

of the sample population and an analytical chapter searching for influencing factors in the

experiences and perspectives of adults participating in formal education.

1.1. INTRODUCTION

LLL2010 ‘Towards a Lifelong Learning Society in Europe: the Contribution of the Education

System’ is a research project funded by the European Commission in the context of the Sixth

R&D Framework Programme. Nowadays, European lifelong learning is seen as an engine for

economic competitiveness with the rest of the world and as a remedy against social inequalities

and instability. The Lisbon strategy, striving at a 12.5 percent participation rate of adults in

education and training by 2010, failed in a wide range of countries. In order to become the most

knowledge based economy in the world, together with growing social cohesion, newly developed

lifelong learning strategies have to be implemented in the European countries.

The overall focus of LLL2010 project is on the contribution of the education system to make

lifelong learning a reality in the European Union.

The main objectives of LLL2010 are:

to develop and carry out a joint research agenda for a better understanding of the tensions

between the knowledge-based society, lifelong learning and social inclusion in the context

of enlargement of the EU and globalisation;

to provide an analysis of the role played by education system in the enhancing of lifelong

learning and dependency of this role on relevant institutions at micro, meso and macro

levels;

to provide an empirically based analysis of the adequacy of lifelong learning policies in

Europe and their implications for different social groups, especially for socially excluded

groups;

to develop relevant policy proposals for lifelong learning strategies to reduce social

exclusion on the European and national level and to identify their implications for

relevant areas of social and economic policies;

to strengthen cooperation and infrastructure for international and multidisciplinary

comparative research in the area of lifelong learning;

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to develop transnational data sources, including a survey of adult learners in schools and

universities, in-depth interviews with schools management, employers, analysis of policy

documents.

1.2. GENERAL FRAMEWORK OF THE REASERACH

The LLL2010 project consists of five subprojects.

Subproject 1 is a review of literature and policy documents relating to lifelong learning

and adult education policies in Europe.

Subproject 2 investigates participation and non participation of adults in formal learning,

based in the Eurostat Adult Education Survey and the Labour Force Survey.

Subproject 3 focuses on the perceptions and experiences of adult learners enrolled in

formal adult education courses in Europe.

Subproject 4 consists of interviews with the management of small and medium size

enterprises (SME’s) and focuses on learning opportunities for workers.

Subproject 5 focuses on the institutional aspects of adult education and consists of

interviews with schools and university management, officials and other stakeholders in

adult education.

The LLL2010 consortium includes partners in Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic,

England, Estonia, Hungary, Ireland, Lithuania, Norway, Russia, Scotland and Slovenia.

This document is the comparative report of the Subproject 3 and is prepared by the Belgian and

Estonian teams, who coordinated this part of the research.

The report starts with introducing the structure of LLL2010 project, continued with links of

Subproject 3 to other subprojects and with an overview of adult formal education in countries

under study. The second chapter proposes Subproject 3 theoretical framework followed by the

research questions. The third chapter gives information on the data collection by means of a

survey and points out the methodological issues. The empirical parts of the report are divided into

a descriptive chapter containing the characteristics of the sample population and an analytical

chapter searching for influencing factors in the experiences and perspectives of effective adult

learners in formal adult education. Final chapter of Subproject 3 comparative report will integrate

all findings into a structured overview and formulate policy recommendations and points of

attention for further research.

Participation in lifelong learning is approached as being a subject of influence of national

policies, institutional factors and strategies of relevant actors on three – macro, meso and micro –

levels.

The project's points of departure are the following: First, we assume that lifelong learning is

functional within the broader economic, social and cultural systems in which it is embedded.

Country-specific and historically developed institutional systems (for example, education system,

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employment system, welfare state regime, etc.) shape the opportunities as well as incentives for

lifelong learning. Second, all subsystems are in an intense interaction. It means that the

differences between systems are systematic. The systems may be classified along various

dimensions of institutional variation, and they may be grouped into types of systems with

common characteristics. Third, these institutional ‘packages’ and subsystems yield strikingly

different outcomes of analogous political reforms and are the main mechanisms for promotion of

the so-called Europeanization. It means that solutions are path-dependent and changes are

‘institutionally bounded’.

The proposed methodology addresses the different dimensions of the subject of research. The

research covers three levels as well as different aspects:

Macro level, macro-structural aspects to describe how country-specific institutions

influence the supply and demand for lifelong learning. We will try to show how the

institutional differences have influenced the access of adults to education system as well

as demand for different types of skills and levels of education

Macro level, policy aspects to measure the influence of public sector policies

implemented at each level of the education system.

Meso level, schools, universities… to analyse how schools meet the lifelong learning

challenge and promote the access of adults to education

Micro level, adult learners, to analyse the motivation of adults participating in formal

learning, the expectations and attitudes towards LLL, obstacles to access and support

received, determinants of choice behaviour, evaluation of the ongoing training, etc. We

carried out the Survey of adults studying in formal education system (basic, secondary

and tertiary level).

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Scheme 1.1 Scheme of the LLL2020 project

MACRO LEVEL

Subproject 1

Policy analysis

Subproject 2

Research based on

AES data

Macro analysis

MESO LEVEL

Subproject 3

Survey of adults

continuing studies in

the formal education

system

Meso level analysis

(educational

institutions)

Subproject 4

Research in SMEs

Participation of

workers in LLL

Subproject 5

Interviews with

schools and

universities

management,

officials

AD HOC

GROUP

ACTIVI-

TIES

EXPLA-

NATORY

FRAME-

WORK

FOR

LLL

MACRO LEVEL

Subproject 1

Policy analysis

Subproject 3

Survey of adults

continuing studies

in the formal

education system

Macro analysis

Subproject 2

Research based on

AES data

Macro analysis

MESO LEVEL

Subproject 3

Survey of adults



system

Meso level analysis

(educational

institutions)

Subproject 4

Research in SMEs

Participation of

workers in LLL

Subproject 5

Interviews with

schools and

universities

management,

officials

INDIVIDUAL LEVEL

Subproject 3

Survey of adults



system

Individual level

Subproject 2

Research based on

AES data

Individual level

analysis

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1.3. SUBPROJECT 3 AND OTHER SUBPROJECTS

Subproject 2 of the LLL2010 research examines participation and non-participation of adults in

formal learning. It focuses on patterns of participation and non-participation in the different

European countries. ‘Subjective’ elements (motivation and attitudes) play an important role in

this study, next to objective characteristics (individual attributes) and country differences in

institutional settings.

The survey analysed in this report (subproject 3) focuses on adults who are currently participating

in lifelong learning. Existing surveys among representative samples of the working-age

population (such as the Adult Education Survey or the Labour Force Survey, used in

Subproject 2) tend to focus on participation issues. Often the number of effective participants in

such surveys is too small for more detailed surveys to evaluate the process of LLL. A specific

survey among actual participants is therefore essential to collect information about the

expected/actual duration, intensity, contents, teaching/learning methods, progression, assessment

procedures, experienced obstacles and support, costs and funding, triggers and motives for

participation, perspectives after the course, use of APL, evaluation of courses by participants,

alternative learning routes, complementarity/substitutability between formal/non-formal/informal

learning etc. Special attention will be devoted to the participation in lifelong learning of low-

skilled people.

Research objectives

obtain in-depth comparative information about adult learners’ perspectives (demand side)

of formal provision for LLL;

test different hypotheses about the causes of unequal participation, with a particular focus

on low-skilled and low-literate adults.

These objectives and research questions are rather general and descriptive and need further

elaboration into more analytical research questions and hypotheses. The following general

questions, which form the core of the LLL2010 project, are the point of departure for this

undertaking:

What is the role of the formal education system in:

Stimulating participation in lifelong learning?

Reducing inequalities in participation in lifelong learning?

Although there will be a considerable conceptual overlap between SP3 and SP2, SP3 will offer

significant surplus value because:

The sample consists of adults participating in formal education instead of a representative

sample of the adult population. Therefore, it will include a-typical groups, like for

example low-skilled adults who do participate in formal adult education.

It will enable us to collect in-depth information on the process of LLL

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o Information about the learning environment, characteristics of the learning

institution and the learning process

o Information about the experiences and perspectives of learners with regard to the

process of LLL

And both can subsequently be related to each other.

On the meso-level, results of the subproject 4 (interviews with the management of small and

medium-sized enterprises) and subproject 5 (the survey of educational providers) will supplement

the findings of the institutional survey in SP3.

On the macro-level we can build on the results of Subproject 1 and the interim results of the ad-

hoc group.

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2. THEORETICAL OVERVIEW AND HYPOTHESES

2.1. THEORETICAL OVERVIEW

As described above, the present report focuses on participants in formal adult education. From

the literature we know that there are several potential determinants of participation and

persistence in lifelong learning on the macro, meso and micro level. On the individual level,

motivation is a crucial determinant of success, and arguably an important variable to be

influenced or optimised by interventions at the meso and the macro level. To foster a learning

society, it is of prime importance that the learning environment (meso) and the broader

institutional and policy context (macro) stimulate positive attitudes towards lifelong learning and

intrinsic/autonomous, as well as instrumental motivation for participating, and persevering in it.

Within this theoretical overview, we describe the main determinants on the micro, meso and

macro level which form the theoretical basis for our research.

2.1.1. Introduction

Participation issues have always been, and still are, one of the major concerns in the field of adult

education (Courtney, McGivney, McIntyre & Rubenson, 1998; Gorard & Rees, 2002; OECD,

2005; Antikainen, Harinen & Torres, 2006). In the past decades, two main research movements

have emerged in participation research (Jung & Cervero, 2002):

the psychological tradition, mainly from the US, including on the one hand studies about

the relationship between individual attributes such as motivation, attitudes, perceptions,

intentions,… and participation, and on the other hand studies into barriers to participation,

again with a focus on the individual’s and adjacent environmental attributes. These

studies have often been criticized for their individualistic perspective;

The sociological perspective examines the impact of demographic, technological,

economic and cultural factors on aspects of adult education. In this approach, people can

not be seen as independent from their social context in making decisions about learning.

These studies have been criticized for being too deterministic.

In this project we try to combine both views into a ‘socio-psychological approach’ (as suggested

by Jung, 2002, p. 318), following some recent evolutions in the sociology of education and

educational psychology.

In the sociology of education, the ‘life course perspective’, based on structuration theory

(Shilling, 1992), tries to overcome the dualism between the individual and the social context, or

between ‘agency’ and ‘structure’. It focuses on the interplay between individual change and the

changing social context. When examining the behaviour of adults in relation to participation and

persistence, it is important to take account not only of the broader socio-economic context, but

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also the more immediate social situation of individuals (such as family and work dynamics) and

the way in which these social factors play out at the level of the individual’s experiences and

perspectives (Davey & Jamieson, 2003).

In educational psychology, the social cognitive approach towards human agency (Bandura,

1989) also emphasizes the dynamic nature of engagement between learner and environment.

Action, personal factors (cognitive, affective and others such as motivation) and environmental

events all operate as interacting determinants of human behaviour, in our case, participation and

persistence in formal adult education.

Both movements in sociology and psychology thus agree upon the idea that ‘people are making

their worlds at the same time as their worlds are making them’ (Watson, 2001, p. 223 in Webber,

2004).

In this study, we examine individual learners’ perceptions and behaviour as determined by socio-

economic and psychological factors, and the learning environment as determined by the

characteristics of the educational institutions and the learning process, as well as adult education

policy and other system characteristics.

2.1.2. THE MICRO LEVEL: Experiences and Perspectives of Adult Learners

The experiences and perspectives of adult learners that ground their motivation are the central

dependent variables in this subproject. In the literature, ‘motivation’ is generally defined as the

reason why someone participates, and continues participating, in an educational programme

(Gordon, 1993). It is a hypothetical construct, providing a possible concrete causal explanation of

behaviour. A quote of Boshier illustrates the importance of studying motivation: ‘The nature of

the individual learner and his reasons for participation are an important starting point for any

research on adult education. An understanding of why adult education students participate would

facilitate the growth of theory and models to explain participation, throw light on the conceptual

desert that underpins adult education dropout research, and enhance efforts to increase the

quantity and quality of learning experiences for adults’ (Boshier, 1991).

Within this micro-level analysis, we will distinguish between two dimensions. The socio-

economic dimension describes the social, cultural and economic inequalities in participation. It

explains who the actual participants are, to which socio-economic and socio-cultural groups they

belong, and why these characteristics are relevant in understanding learning behaviour. The

second, psychological dimension builds on the concept of motivation to explain (persistent)

participation in adult education.

Socio-Economic Dimension

The demand for participation in adult education is unequal (Desjardins, Rubenson, Milana,

2006). Several studies have already shown those adults who have the highest need to participate –

adults with low skills and knowledge, with a low educational attainment and a low literacy level

–, tend to participate less than others.

The Human Capital Theory argues that the society can invest in people by means of adult

education and training with a goal of increasing their productivity and skills (Becker, 1964).

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Apart from increased productivity on the labour market, a higher knowledge and skill level

within the personal sphere can improve the quality of life. The Rational Choice Theory, which is

related to the Human Capital Theory, assumes that individuals try to maximise their welfare and

minimise costs (Allingham, 2002). Within these perspectives, the decision to participate in adult

education results from an analysis of the costs and benefits.

Costs can be direct as well as indirect. Direct costs are out-of-pocket expenditures which are

linked directly to the course programme, such as the enrolment fee. Indirect costs are less

‘visible’ as they relate to the alternative (foregone) activities of students. Examples of these

indirect costs include child care, foregone earnings (because one is spending time on education

instead of work) etcetera. The indirect costs often turn out higher than the direct costs.

Examples of benefits include one’s increased productivity, employment probability and earnings

on the labour market, improved chances for promotion, etcetera.

Within the personal sphere, a better health condition, more social contacts, increased quality of

leisure activities, … are benefits of participation in adult education as well. Admittedly, such

benefits are visible only in the long run and they are never completely guaranteed.

The balance between costs and benefits differs between individuals and leads to an increased or a

reduced participation for some specific socio-economic and socio-cultural groups. Benefits are

more visible for adults active on the labour market and the costs can be reduced by their

employer. Youngsters have a longer expected return period for their educational investments,

while their costs (foregone earnings) are lower than for older adults. Edwards, Sieminski and

Zeldin (1996) indicated that retired adults participate less, Bélanger (1997) observed a decreased

participation from the age of 55 with a significant decrease from the age of 65. Also Doets, Hake

and Westerhuis (2001) concluded that older participants participate less. Adults with a low prior

educational attainment may be deterred by the perception that they have less chances of success,

while low-income adults may not be able to afford the costs (mainly foregone earnings). Inactive

adults cannot receive financial support from an employer and their own financial resources are

limited. Support from family and friends is insufficient in many cases. Participation also differs

by gender. Jacobs and van der Kamp (1998) noticed that women were underrepresented for a

long time in history, but are currently overtaking. Houtkoop and van der Kamp (1992) also

observed differences in course subjects between males and females. Women participate more in

non work-related courses, whereas men are more active within labour market oriented

programmes. Similar findings on gender differences within adult education participation have

been reported by Hayes (1989), Sargant and Tuckett (1999), Tuijnman and Schuller (1999).

The limited cultural capital of lower socio-economic groups is also relevant. Adults from poorer

socio-economic groups may lack the required knowledge, qualifications and skills to complete an

adult course successfully. Adults with a high initial educational attainment also know better how

to learn, and therefore may encounter less problems during the course. Educational attainment

appears to be a dominant factor from a wide range of research reports. Statistics show that adults

with a high educational attainment tend to participate much more in further education and

training (OECD, 2000). Van Damme and Legiest suggest that adults with a low educational

attainment have a poor confidence in their own abilities, were confronted with failure during their

initial educational career and these aspects have a negative impact on their future willingness to

participate. Other authors emphasising the importance of the educational attainment are Brunello

(2001), Doerbecker and Hake (1979), Jung and Cervero (2002), McGivney (2001), Wössman and

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Schütz (2006). Not only the individual’s prior educational attainment, but also the general level

of education (and cultural capital) of his social class influences the chances of participation in

adult education.

Tuckett and Sargant (1999) argue that adult education is mostly a matter of the higher and the

middle class. Van Damme and Legiest (1997) observe a gap in participation between white collar

and blue collar workers, something we recognize in the work of different authors. La Valle and

Finche (1999) conclude that employed people participate more and Field (2000) added that the

higher perceive occupational groups participate more. Antikainen (2006), Beirnart and Smith

(1998), Daley (2001) and Sawchuk (2003) reach similar conclusions. In the work of Pierre

Bourdieu (1973) ‘cultural reproduction’ is a key term, meaning that the family in which one

grows up has a major influence on one’s entire life course, especially in the field of education and

work. Bourdieu describes the family as the main transmitter of cultural, social and economic

values, which reproduces the inequalities in social, cultural and economic capital between

individuals. The same issues are also emphasised within the work of Field (2000), Nesbit (2006),

DiMaggio and More (1985), Ganzeboom (1989), Nagel (2004), Brookover (1979), Coleman

(1966), Collins, Moles en Cross (1982), De Graaf and Wolbers (2003), Kreft (1993) and Willis

(1977).

Psychological Dimension

Motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic (Deci & Ryan, 2000). In the former case, the reason to

participate in learning is inherent to the activity itself: for example, adult education might give a

lot of satisfaction. In the latter case, the reason to participate is based on something extrinsic to

the activity, often in the form of a reward or sanction. In the literature, intrinsic motivation is seen

as preferable because it results in high quality learning (i.e. deep learning, intense concentration,

absence of fear of failure,…) (Lambert & McCombs, 1998) while extrinsic motivation can result

in surface learning, fear of failure, and so on. For adult learners who are not intrinsically

motivated, extrinsic motivation can be the first step towards participation and also to intrinsic

motivation (Schön, 1987).

Sometimes the concept ‘instrumental motivation’ is used as an alternative for extrinsic

motivation: someone decides to learn because it is considered as ‘useful’ or because it is seen a

way to obtain a socially valued reward (e.g. on the labour market). Sometimes a strong

instrumental motivation may have the same stimulating impact on learning as intrinsic

motivation. In the present day literature, psychologists involved in motivational research replaced

the distinction between instrinsic and extrinsic / instrumental by autonomous and controlled

motivation (Vansteenkiste, 2005). Autonomous motivation can be translated by the expression

‘willing to participate’, controlled motivation by ‘having to participate’. The former category

includes a large part of extrinsic / instrumental motives, besides intrinsic motives.

According to Keller (1987, 1999), four conditions need to be fulfilled to motivate an adult to

learn:

attention

relevance

confidence

satisfaction

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These conditions are derived from a synthesis of psychological and educational research

(English, 2005). Ideally, they must be seen as a sequential process. First of all, the attention of the

adult must be gained and the learning activity must be accessible, otherwise the adult will not

consider the option of learning or quit the educational activity. As SP3 focuses on participating

adult learners, we can assume that this condition is fulfilled in our target group. Further, the

learner has to see the relevance or the value of the courses for his own life. Once the relevance is

perceived, the individual has to gain confidence in his own abilities. When the adult learner

experiences success, he will be more motivated to continue participating. Finally, the feeling of

satisfaction (about intermediate outcomes) is also very important to help participants persevere

and to prevent dropout.

Inspired by the literature and by the SP1 comparative report, the following experiences and

perspectives of the adult learners will be taken into account in SP3:

General attitudes towards lifelong learning (A)

The extent to which the adult thinks lifelong learning is (not) joyful, important and/or valuable

for himself, others and society at large.

Motives for (or the relevance of – or the expected benefits of) participation in formal

education (R)

By analogy with the central functions of lifelong learning that can be discerned in

European and national policy and the debate about whether LLL policy is an instrument

of power and social control (see SP1 comparative report p. 7 and Ahl, 2006), 4 categories

of motives for participation are distinguished at the individual level: human capital which

refers to educational and professional advancement, to increase employability in the

knowledge society, social capital in order to become a better, i.e. a more active, citizen

(focus on community service), personal fulfilment for the intellectual enjoyment of

learning and personal development and social control because participation is obligatory,

to comply with external demands

(Lack of) confidence in the ability to successfully complete the selected course in formal

education (C)

(Dis)satisfaction (S)

o with the formal education itself (process)

o with the expected outcomes of participation in formal education (outcomes)

In the following, methodological chapter, we will describe how these aspects of motivation were

measured.

2.1.3. THE MESO LEVEL: Learning Environment

The first general research question of this study is: ‘What is the role of the formal education

system in stimulating participation in lifelong learning?’ The formal education system is the main

environmental factor under study in this research project. In fact, we want to test the central

hypothesis which, according to Ahl (2006), is implicit in traditional participation research,

namely that participation and persistence follow a ‘homeostasis model’: ‘Initially, there is

motivation. This is hampered due to various barriers. After removing those barriers motivation

re-emerges, and all is well again. The model takes for granted that it is possible to affect

motivation, and hence behaviour, by amending individual, situational or structural barriers’ (p.

396). Although it is dominant in the adult education (policy) literature – and it is a central

assumption in the LLL2010 project proposal – Ahl is rather sceptical about this way of thinking.

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Within the formal education system, we distinguish between characteristics on the meso-level of

(a) educational institutions and (b) the learning process, and characteristics on the macro-level of

the educational system (initial and adult education) and other system characteristics (economy,

labour market, social protection, cultural context).

Educational Institutions

During the 1960s, Coleman raised the question if schools can make a difference in the

achievement of their pupils. In his Equity of Educational Opportunities Report, he came to the

conclusion that children bring their socio-economic and socio-cultural characteristics into the

class, and that these individual differences affect the differences in school attainment (Coleman,

1966). School characteristics did not seem to have any significant influence. As a reaction against

these conclusions, new research proved that the school can make a difference and is able to

reduce the inequalities between pupils (Mortimore, 1988). Within this research study, we are

interested to know if the characteristics of the educational institutions have an impact on the

learning experiences (rather than the achievement) of the adult learners. This information can be

used as a set of quality indicators for the future evaluation of adult education.

Based on an international comparative study Schuetze & Slowey (2002, p. 318) identified 6

institutional and policy factors (the latter being characteristics on the macro-level) which

appeared to either inhibit or support participation by non-traditional students in higher education.

Depending on the autonomy that educational institutions receive, these meso level characteristics

can be aggregated into macro level indicators as well:

institutional differentiation in the adult education system: e.g. horizontal and vertical

differentiation, articulation and transfer routes, student choice and information, no dead-

end routes, equivalence of general and vocational routes, coordination between different

sectors/programmes. Note: these characteristics are not only important with regard to

adult education but also with regard to initial educational.

institutional governance: e.g. institutional autonomy and flexibility

access: e.g. specific policy and outreach strategy for lifelong learners, open or flexible

access, recognition of work and life experience, special entry routes, involvement in

regional development/service for the community

mode of study: e.g. modular courses and credit transfer, part-time mode, distance

learning, independent study

financial and other support

adult education opportunities: e.g. provision of relevant courses, appropriate scheduling,

affordable fee levels

McGivney (2001) argues that only a broad range of strategies can change patterns of

participation. These strategies need to be proactive in their approach, and include policy (national

and institutional) backed by a realistic level of funding. Comparable factors appear in the review

by De Rick & Van Valckenborgh (2004) and in OECD (2003). All these sources confirm the

power of the educational institutions in attracting adult students.

17

Learning Process

Besides the characteristics of the educational institution itself, we are also interested in the

process of the learning activities undertaken by the adult learner. In educational psychology, it is

generally acknowledged that it is part of human nature to be curious, to be active, to initiate

thought and behaviour, to construct meaning through experience, and to be effective at what

people value. Learner-centred education values these primary sources of motivation and

capitalizes on them (Lambert & McCombs, 1998; OECD, 2000b), by stimulating a learning

process which is:

active ( = the learner actively constructs new knowledge on the basis of what he already

knows and is able to do);

functional (= learning takes place in real and realistic situations, aimed at functional

application in a work context, community, etc); and

social (= in co-operation with others; learning with and from others).

Furthermore, the psychosocial climate of the learning environment is very important in

explaining adults’ motivation and persistence. Research has shown that the more academically

and socially involved adult students are, the more they feel connected to other students and

faculty, the more likely they are to persist (English, 2005; New England Adult Research

Network, 1999; Tinto, 1998). From O’Fathaigh (1997) and De Rick & Van Valckenborgh

(2004), the following relevant characteristics of this learning process can be derived:

affiliation: the extent to which students like each other and interact positively with each

other;

teacher support: the extent of help, encouragement, concern and friendship teachers direct

towards students;

task orientation: the extent to which students and teachers maintain focus on task and

value achievement;

personal goal attainment: the extent to which the teacher is flexible, providing

opportunities for adults to pursue their individual interests;

organisation and clarity: the extent to which activities are clear and well organised;

student influence: the extent to which the teaching is learner-centred and allows for

student influence in course planning decisions;

involvement: the extent to which students are satisfied with class and participate actively

and attentively.

These characteristics of the learning process above are taken into account during the survey and

we will explore their impact on the learning experience of adult students.

2.1.4. THE MACRO LEVEL: Characteristics of the Wider Context

Educational System

In this part of the text, we leave the perspective of the concrete educational institutions and their

learning process and widen the scope of the analysis to the broader system elements within the

national and European context.

According to Brunello (2001) participation in education and training is influenced by the type

and level of education, the characteristics of the individual as well as by peculiarities of the

education system. Previous studies have shown that participation in further education and

18

training depends on the level of education people have already attained (OECD 2000a). So

further education occurs least likely in countries/regions where the proportion of people with low

qualifications is high and the proportion of a cohort that is able to move to higher levels is high.

There may be two explanations for this pattern: education increases the demand for more

education or, low educated adults are less motivated.

Education systems differ to quite a great extent, due from longer-term traditions of several

countries. The structure of the education system determines how individuals acquire education,

how it is distributed across the population, and how credentials are valued in the labour market.

Education systems vary in the extent to which they either provide more general education or

include vocational training as distinctive tracks. Also important is the age at which students are

sorted into different tracks and how rigid the boundaries between different tracks are in the

respective education systems. When examining the level of differentiation of education systems it

is also important whether and how the opportunities to access tertiary education differ between

graduates from different types of school, and whether there are educational dead-ends. In a

differentiated education system each education track awards rather narrowly defined

occupationally relevant credentials, and there is little opportunity to change direction once a

student has entered an option.

The degree of educational stratification also appears to influence participation in non-formal

education. The stratification of an education system refers to the extent to which general and

vocational education are separated into distinctive tracks and the rigidity of the boundaries

between different tracks. Comprehensive school systems with greater emphasis on the generic

skills are defined as those of low stratification. In countries with these kinds of education

systems, participation in non-formal education is higher than in countries with highly stratified

education systems. Brunello (2001) suggested that participation in non-formal education is a kind

of compensation for lack of specialisation in initial education. But the same difference between

education systems had been considered as yielding opposite outcomes: as Bassanini et al. (2005)

argue, vocational schools in stratified educational systems produce very specialized skills that

become more rapidly obsolete in the presence of technical progress. So more training might be

required to update existing skills.

In some countries with strong vocational components at the secondary level, vocational and

general education are highly segregated and it is hard to progress from secondary vocational to

tertiary studies. There is little opportunity to change direction once a student has entered one of

career branches. Such differentiated and inflexible systems hardly provide opportunities to

correct earlier educational decisions, to return to education after leaving the system, pass through

school and work episodes or combine work and training activities. We assume that in countries

with a differentiated system adults have lower opportunities for returning to the education

system. These systems cultivate inequalities constraining the chances of the less educated.

The reliability of educational signals is crucially influenced by the degree of standardisation in

education systems (Shavit and Müller, 2000). In highly standardised systems educational

credentials send clear and reliable signals to employers about the quality of education and skills

training of a potential worker. In a majority of European countries the general education system

is rather standardized. Yet, the differences, if any, are revealed in vocational education systems.

In part of the countries (primarily in German language countries) standardization is considered

especially important for vocational schools, because if established professional school leaving

19

certificates are issued to school graduates, the employers can be confident then that those new

workers will meet their expectations. We assume that standardisation has a twofold impact on

lifelong learning opportunities. The standardisation will form the basis for achieving adequate

job-person matches. From the employers’ viewpoint there is less need to develop firm-internal

career structures, nor to promote additional training for workers because recruitment from the

external labour market becomes a more viable option (Müller and Gangl, 2003). Nevertheless

standardisation may help to make educational paths more transparent and to facilitate the return

to the education system.

Recent explanations of participation in non-formal education take into account the rather

complex character of the link between the education system and participation in non-formal

education. Among the theoretical frameworks that inform such explanations are those of labour

market segmentation and internal labour markets (Maurice et al. 1986); welfare production

regimes and the social, economic, and political institutions that support them (Estevez-Abe et al.

2001).

Maurice et al. (1986) distinguish between systems of ‘organisational space’ and ‘qualificational

space’, and examine their linkages to the education system. Each system has specific implications

for non-formal education. In a system of organisational space, education is academic or general

in character with specific occupational skills learned on-the-job. By means of additional training

individuals obtain the skills that are necessary in a given company to make internal upward

moves. The intensity of additional training is expected to be high in a system of organisational

space. In a qualificational space education is closely linked to job requirements and more

importance is placed on diploma requirements and certificates (Maurice et al. 1986). Access to

skilled jobs is reserved for those workers who have the specific skills needed for these jobs. In a

qualificational space the education system produces workers with occupation-specific skills

(vocational education dominates). The acquired skills are transferable across firms and are

recognised by employers. In a qualification space adults with no certificates have a higher

necessity to return to the education system because without certificates their career opportunities

are limited. But as a rule, this space is combined with a differentiated education system and so the

proportion of adults without education certificates is quite low.

Other System Characteristics

Different institutional typologies have been developed to explain life course variation in

educational participation. The impact of education systems, employment relation systems, family

systems, national welfare state regimes and the varieties of welfare capitalism on the life course

have been explored.

Recently, more comprehensive approaches have emerged. They view the institutional

environment as multi-dimensional and highly interactive. Institutional systems and social

structures in modern societies are seen as mutually interdependent arrangements that have a high

degree of mutual complementarity and can be best understood as a kind of country-specific

‘institutional packages’ (Blossfeld, 2003). A ‘varieties of welfare capitalism’ approach seeks out

‘institutional complementarities’ between different production regimes, industrial relations and

social protection systems (Hall and Soskice, 2001). Rather than grouping countries under a single

regime, it seeks to develop multi-dimensional models of institutional structures that are country-

specific. According to this logic, the education system is part of a country-specific institutional

20

package and thus educational opportunities are formed in interplay of different institutions and

actors.

It has been argued that, basically, two alternative roads to competitiveness have been followed in

Europe: the 'low road' based on a low-wage, low-skill, low-involvement, and low-quality

equilibrium and 'high road' entailing high wages, high skill, high co-operation and high product

quality (Berger and Dore, 1996; Crouch and Streeck, 1997; Regini, 2000). Economically

developed countries identified by the varieties-of-capitalism approach as coordinated market

economies (CME) (Hall and Soskice, 2001) might be also characterised as 'high road' competition

economies, while those identified as liberal market economies (LME) rather follow 'low road' of

competition. According to the varieties-of-capitalism approach, important institutional settings

that contribute to different mechanisms of functioning in CMEs versus LMEs are financial

systems, systems of industrial relations, education and training systems and inter-company

relations. Specific features of these institutions have implications for the type of innovation firms

prefer and the type of skills they rely on.

To keep on the high quality road, a certain level of protection of investments into asset-specific

skills is needed. Three different types of such protection have been distinguished: employment

protection, unemployment protection and wage protection (Estevez-Abe et al., 2001). For firms

pursuing product market strategies which depend heavily on firm- and industry-specific skills,

the promise of employment and unemployment security is of great importance as it is an

incentive for workers to invest in (firms- and/or industry) specific skills. The more successful

these firms are, the greater their demand for specific skills, the greater the need for (employment,

unemployment and wage) protection. Firms are prepared to invest in training because they can

expect that workers remain in the firm for a sufficient duration. It is the logic of specific skills

equilibria in CME.

The more fluid markets of LMEs provide economic actors with greater opportunities to move

their resources around in search of higher returns, encouraging them to acquire switchable assets,

such as general skills of multi-purpose technologies. The institutional framework of liberal

market economies is considered to be highly supportive of radical innovation, which entails

substantial shifts in product lines, the development of entirely new goods, or major changes to the

production process (Hall and Soskice, 2001: 38-40).

Labour markets with few restrictions on layoffs allow companies interested in developing an

entirely new product line to hire personnel with the required expertise, knowing they can release

them if the project proves unprofitable. Fluid markets and short job tenures make it rational for

employees to concentrate more heavily on the development of general skills rather than industry-

or company-specific skills. Individual and firm investments in training are therefore small. There

is no quality standardisation and there are no formal degrees and certificates which are accepted

across firms.

In the case of a general skills equilibrium in LME (with most firms pursuing general skills

strategies, while there is weak employment and unemployment protection), higher protection

would undermine workers’ incentives to invest in these skills, without significantly increasing

their appropriation of specific skills (because there is little demand for such skills). Accordingly,

in the industrial relations arena, firms in LME generally rely heavily on the market relationship

between an individual worker and employer to organize relations with their labour force. Top

21

management normally has unilateral control over the firm, including substantial freedom to hire

and fire.

Unemployment protection, as protection from income reduction due to unemployment, is deemed

to reduce uncertainty about income throughout one’s career and is therefore an important

incentive for investment into industry-specific skills (Estevez-Abe et al., 2001). It is the arena

where welfare state policy is of a great importance for the formation of skills and their renewal as

a component of lifelong learning. There appears to be a correspondence between types of

political economies and welfare states. While social policy regimes that accompany coordinated

market economies are quite varied, virtually all liberal market economies are accompanied by

‘liberal’ welfare states, whose emphasis on means-testing and low levels of benefit reinforce the

fluid labour markets (Esping-Andersen, 1990). In the ‘varieties-of-capitalism literature’ the set of

product market strategies, employee skill trajectories, and social, economic and political

institutions that support them, are referred to as welfare production regimes; the welfare state can

also be understood as a component of national production systems (Hall and Soskice, 2001).

Two welfare production regimes have been distinguished: one combining high protection on at

least one of two (employment or unemployment) protection dimensions with firm- and/or

industry-specific skills, represented by the continental European countries and one combining

weak employment and unemployment protection with a general skills profile, represented by the

Anglo-Saxon countries and Ireland (Estevez-Abe et al., 2001). In the latter countries there is high

demand for semi-skilled workers with general skills; general skills are usually obtained in the

formal education system; students who are academically strong do their best to get as high a level

of education as possible, while students who are not academically strong, are offered relatively

few opportunities for improving their labour market value outside of the school system and as a

result, there are fewer incentives for them to work hard inside the school system (Estevez-Abe et

al., 2001). Hence, there are fewer incentives to both employers and workers to invest into

intensive further training in LME. To put it another way the total demand for work-related

lifelong learning in these countries should be more differentiated (shifted rather to low skills but

to very high skills as well) compared to CME where most firms pursue specific skills equilibria.

As in the long run both LME and CME have proven their sustainability, the same can be

expected in relation to general versus specific skills equilibria. ‘Generated by the globalizing

economy’, the demand for lifelong learning is supposed to be filtered by the country-specific

institutional package. This generates different challenges and allows different spaces for change

of education systems. This embeddedness of educational institutions into the wider institutional

context has certain implications for the learning career.

Empirical research based on indicators measuring these system characteristics within the EU-15

showed that the employment rate, the innovation rate and the institutional differentiation in initial

education within the country have a direct impact on the participation rates in lifelong learning

activities (Desmedt, Groenez & Van den Broeck, 2006). Strong government invention in the

areas of education, lifelong learning and active labour market policy emerges as the most

important factor in reducing social inequalities in learning.

22

2.1.5. Participation Models

Although we discussed the determinants of LLL at different levels separately, we also saw that

they interact strongly among each other. Therefore, an integrated analysis is needed using a

single comprehensive model. A selection of such frameworks can be found in the literature

(Silva, Cahalan, Lacireno-Paquet, 1998). Most of these models can be found in the theoretical

school of socio-psychological interactionism, indicating a match between sociological and

psychological variables (Manninen, 2005). Within this report, we started the theoretical overview

with the remark that we also use a socio-psychological approach in our research.

In this report, we build on the Expectancy Valence model of Rubenson (1977) and the Chain of

Response model of Cross (1981). These models are among the best-known models in the

international literature on adult education participation.

Expectancy and valence are the two main key elements within the model of Rubenson. A

combination of these elements leads to a motivational force which can be converted into an

effective participation in adult education. The model shows that expectancy as well as valence are

influenced by elements at an individual as well as an environmental level. The previous

educational experience of the individual, together with his own needs and personal characteristics

interact with his environmental supporting network such as his peer group and the availability of

educational opportunities.

Expectancy-valence model

Rubenson (1977)Previous Experience

Congenital Properties

Environmental Factors

(ie. structure, value of

significant others,

study possibilities)

Individual

Needs

Active

Preparedness

Perception and

Interpretation of

the Environment

Individual’s

Experience of

Needs

Expectancy

Valence of the

Education

Motivational

Force

The model of Cross has to be read as a decision making cycle made up of several stages.

Psychological and environmental aspects are highlighted. The self-perception of the adult is

related to his attitude towards learning and forms the main starting point of the decision process.

23

Next, similar to the model of Rubenson, expectations and values attached to participation are

taken into consideration. Cross clearly states that these values and expectations are influenced by

life transitions such as marrying, retirement or giving birth. Balancing the opportunities and

obstacles is a final step before a decision is made. Cross distinguishes between personal life-

related situational barriers, psychological dispositional barriers and broader institutional barriers.

All these barriers can be increased or decreased by the availability or lack of information on

learning possibilities. The final stage in the model is the result of the entire cycle: participation or

non-participation.

These two models can be linked with the Expectancy Value theory of Vroom (1964). Motivation

is the outcome of a continuous interplay between the value one attaches to a certain activity and

the expected outcomes. The ARCS model of Keller is also based on this Expectancy Value

theory. Keller states that Attitude and Relevance are similar to the value one attaches to

participation and learning and that the Confidence in one’s own abilities and the experience of

Satisfaction are related to the expectancies. Motivation can be increased by adopting the correct

learning and management strategies on the side of the educational institutions and lead to greater

efficiency and effectiveness in learning.

Chain-of-response model

Cross (1984)

(A)

Self-Perceptions

Attitudes Toward

Education

(B)

(D)

Life Transitions

Value of Goals and

Expectations

that Participation

Will Meet Goals

(C)

(F)

Information

Opportunities

and

Barriers

(E)

(G)

Participation

It must be admitted that participation models tend to focus exclusively on the individual side of

the participation process (Boeren, Nicaise, Baert, 2010). Research into the role of the educational

institutions and the government is scarce. Therefore, we felt a need to make a new visual

overview in which all aspects of the literature review are available.

24

Conceptual overview

DEMAND SUPPLY

SOCIETYSOCIETY

SOCIO-ECO

SOCIO-CULT

PSYCHOL

ORGANISATION INSTITUTION

ORGANISATION

PROGRAMME

RELEVANT

OTHERSFamily

Employer

Reference group

Services

RELEVANT

OTHERSEducation policy

Alternative programmes

Competition

Services

INDIVIDUAL EDUCATIONAL

INSTITUTIONDECISION / PERCEPTION

A (continuous) participation can be seen as a match or mismatch between the individual and the

educational institution. The individual has his/her own socio-economic status and psychological

characteristics and is surrounded by relevant others such as family, employer and friends. The

educational institutions are characterized by their organizational approach and the course subjects

offered to the students. Educational institutions have to create their learning programmes in

cooperation with the education policy, services and competitors within the education market.

Both the individual and the educational institutions are embedded in wider society containing all

other policy fields such as the labour market, health, social security etcetera.

2.1.6. Theoretical Conclusions

The overview above makes clear that participation in lifelong learning is a complex process in

which different factors within different levels can have their impact. It is the aim of this research

to investigate the determinants of the educational experiences and perspectives of the adult

learners. The empirical analyses will be performed on a database containing information at the

level of the adult learners, the educational institutions and the country macro-context. Data at the

first two levels are gathered by surveys, while information at the macro-level was collected from

an overview of available macro indicators. In the following part of this report, we will give an

overview of the methodology.

25

2.2. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The new conceptual overview includes three types of players: individuals, educational

institutions and national policies and institutions. These three levels are interrelated. In our

research design, the motivational variables of Keller (attitude – relevance – confidence –

satisfaction) act as the key dependent variables.

In our research, we are interested to know which factors influence the perceptions of motivation

as experienced by effective adult learners themselves – and which determinants matter most.

In the section below, we formulate research questions and hypotheses, based on the theoretical

framework, to be tested in the empirical analysis. Those research questions and hypotheses relate

to each of the three levels: countries – institutions – individuals. In some cases, we have

divergent or indeed opposite hypotheses indicated as H and H’, because we felt that the literature

provides different theoretical predictions.

2.2.1. Country/Macro Level Questions and Hypotheses

Q1 How/to what extent do the characteristics of the educational system explain any cross-

national differences in the adults’ experiences and perspectives?

H With regard to initial education:

In countries with

- high status and fewer dead-end attributes of vocational education

- a more comprehensive system of initial education

adults will show

- a more positive attitude towards lifelong learning

- intrinsic or instrumental motives for participation rather than extrinsic motives

- greater confidence in their ability to successfully complete the selected course in

formal education

- greater satisfaction with the process and the outcomes of formal education

We hypothesize an indirect relationship with the adults’ experiences and perspectives,

through the relationship between the lifelong learning system and the characteristics of the

educational institutions, as well as a direct relationship.

Q2 To what extent do the characteristics of the labour market explain any cross-national

differences in the adults’ learning experiences and perspectives?

H In countries with

- a high level of flexibility and mobility on the labour market

adults will show


- stronger human capital motives for participation in formal education

26

Q3 To what extent do the characteristics of the social protection explain any cross-national

differences in the adults’ experiences and perspectives?

H In countries with

- high unemployment benefits

- high level of active LM measures

adults will show


- stronger human capital motives for participation in formal education

- greater confidence in the ability to successfully complete the selected course in

formal education

- greater satisfaction with the process and the outcomes of participating in formal

education

H’ In countries with

- high unemployment benefits

- high level of active LM measures

adults will show

- stronger social control motives for participation in formal education, i.e.

- feel more pressure to participate in formal education

- be less motivated because their income is safe

2.2.2. Institutional/Meso Level Questions and Hypotheses

Q4 How/to what extent do the characteristics of the educational institution in which adults

are enrolled influence their learning experiences and perspectives?

Q4’ Which (set of) characteristic(s) of the educational institution matter(s) most?

H Educational institutions which

- are flexibly accessible through open admission, special entry routes for target

groups of adult learners or mechanisms for the assessment and recognition of

prior work and life experiences

- apply flexible modes of study that accommodate for the special needs of adult

learners, such as open (e-)learning (distance learning and self-learning), modular

courses, credit transfer and part-time study

- offer financial assistance and other support (child care, guidance and counselling,

tend to stimulate



formal education

- greater satisfaction with the process of participating in formal education

Q5 How/to what extent do the characteristics of the learning process in which adults are

involved influence their experiences and perspectives?

Q5’ Which (set of) characteristic(s) of the learning process matter(s) most?

27

H A learning environment in one or more of the following characteristics (ceteris paribus):

- a positive affiliation between the students

- a high level of teacher support

- a high level of task orientation

- adults can pursue their individual interests (personal goal attainment)

- activities are clear and well organised

- the teacher is learner-centred and allows student influence in course planning

decisions

- the students feel actively involved

tend to stimulate

- a positive attitude towards lifelong learning

- greater confidence in their ability to successfully complete the selected course in

formal education

- greater satisfaction with the process and the outcomes of formal education

2.2.3. Individual/Micro Level Questions and Hypotheses

Q6 To what extent do the experiences and perspectives of low-skilled and low-literate adults

(ISCED level 1 and 2 educational institutions) differ from those of adults with a higher

educational background/participating at a higher educational level?1

Q6’ To what extent can these differences – from a life course perspective – be explained by

differences in the immediate social environment (work and family dynamics and support)

of these adults?

H Low-skilled and low-literate adults will

- have a more negative attitude towards lifelong learning

- have a more negative attitude towards learning institutions

- have extrinsic motives for participation in formal education rather than

instrumental or intrinsic motives

- have less confidence in their ability to successfully complete the selected course in

formal education

- show less satisfaction with the process and the outcomes of participating in formal

education

than adults with a higher educational background/participating at a higher educational

level.

Q7 Are the characteristics of the educational institutions in which low-skilled and low-

literate adults are enrolled (ISCED level 1 and 2 educational institutions), different from

the characteristics of the educational institutions in which adults with a higher educational

background/participating at a higher educational level participate (segregation)?

1 Note that it is necessary to distinguish clearly between an individual’s initial level of education and the level of the

course in which s/he currently participates. Highly educated adults may enrol in lower-level courses for various

reasons (learn a different language at basic level, take an introductory course on a particular hobby, etc.). In our

sample, there is a sharp contrast between Western Europe and the CEE countries in this regard: 80% of the adult

learners at ISCED levels 1-2 in CEE countries have a low level education (ISCED 1 or 2). In Belgium, Norway,

Scotland and England only up to 50% of the corresponding group have low prior education.

28

H Low-skilled and low-literate adults are more likely be in institutions that

- are flexibly accessible through open admission, and provide for special entry

routes for adult learners or mechanisms for the assessment and recognition of prior

work and life experiences

- apply flexible modes of study that accommodate for the special needs of adult



- offer financial assistance and other support (child care, guidance and counselling)


level.

H The power and social influence of highly-skilled adult learners will force the learning

institution to offer ‘better’ education than the education for low-skilled and low-literate

adults, so that the hypothesis above might be very unlikely.

Q8 Are the characteristics of the learning process (classroom environment) in which low-

skilled and low-literate adults engage, different from the characteristics of the learning

process in which adults with a higher educational background/ participating at a higher

educational level participate (segregation)?

H Low-skilled and low-literate adults more likely engage in a learning environment in

which

- there is a more positive affiliation between the students

- there is a higher level of teacher support

- there is a lower level of task orientation

- adults can pursue their individual interests more (personal goal attainment)

- activities are more clear and better organised

- the teaching is more learner-centred and allows student influence in course

planning decisions

- the students feel more actively involved


level.

Q9 Can the characteristics of the educational institution compensate for initial inequalities in

learning experiences and perspectives between adults with a different educational

background?

H Low-skilled and low-literate adults who are in an educational institution that

- is flexibly accessible through open admission, special entry routes for adult

learners or mechanisms for the assessment and recognition of prior work and life

experiences

- applies flexible modes of study that accommodate the special needs of adult



- offers financial assistance and other support (child care, guidance and counselling

will show


- confidence in the ability to successfully complete the selected course in formal

education

29

- satisfaction with the process of participating in formal education

than low-skilled and low-literate adults studying in an educational institution that lacks

these characteristics.

H’ The characteristics of the educational institution alone are highly unlikely to compensate

nationwide for initial inequalities in experiences and perspectives between adults with a

different educational background. They can do so only in combination with specific

system characteristics of the wider society (existence of an open economy, a high level of

flexibility of the labour market, a fair system of social protection, a developed civil

society).

Q10 Can the characteristics of the learning process compensate for initial inequalities in

experiences and perspectives between adults with a different educational background?

H Low-skilled and low-literate adults who engage in a learning environment in which one or

more of the following characteristics apply:

- a positive affiliation between the students

- a high level of teacher support

- a high level of task orientation

- adults can pursue their individual interests (personal goal attainment)

- activities are clear and well organised

- the teaching is learner-centred and allows student influence in course planning

decisions

- the students feel actively involved

will show



formal education

- greater satisfaction with the process and the outcomes of participating in formal

education

than low-skilled and low-literate adults who engage in a learning process that lacks these

characteristics.

H’ The characteristics of the learning process alone are highly unlikely to compensate

nationwide for initial inequalities in experiences and perspectives between adults with a

different educational background. They can do so only in combination with specific

system characteristics of the wider society (existence of an open economy, a high level of

flexibility of the labour market, a fair system of social protection, a developed civil

society).

30

3. SURVEY METHODOLOGY

The empirical study in this subproject is based on a specific survey among 13 000 Europeans

involved in formal adult education – 1 000 on average in each of the 13 participating countries.

This chapter gives an overview of the content and construction of the questionnaires, the sample

population and the sampling methods.

3.1. SURVEY – QUESTIONNAIRES

For the LLL2010-SP3-project two questionnaires were developed: one to be filled out by

educational institutions and one for students enrolled in the courses organized by these

institutions. The core questionnaires were designed by the SP3 coordination team who took

feedback and comments from other partners into account. Additional questions could be added by

each team in their national version of the questionnaires.

The transformation from this core questionnaire, drafted in English, into a national one is

described in the country reports.

The questionnaire for the institutions consists of three main parts.

A. Characteristics of the educational institution: questions about the number of staff, number

of students, full-time and/or part-time programmes on offer, cooperation with other

institutions, use of APL and APEL, services offered to students, promotional activities,

existence of a written Mission Statement, paid training for educators, individual

performance reviews with educators, external quality control and the recruitment of

disadvantaged groups.

B. Characteristics of the specific programme(s) scrutinised in the research: questions about

organization of the study programme, admission requirements, enrolment conditions,

preparatory programmes, teaching modes and enrolment fees.

C. General questions: questions about lifelong learning policy.

The questionnaire for the students consists of four main parts.

A. Questions regarding their educational background: questions about date and reasons of

leaving full-time daytime education, highest educational level, discipline of highest

educational level, unsuccessful studies at a higher educational level and attitude towards

learning.

B. Participation in formal adult education: questions about enrolment in other formal

courses, discipline of current study, start and end date, reasons for starting the programme

and receiving assistance in making the decision to start the programme.

B.1. Characteristics of the institution in which you attend courses: questions about entry

requirements, exemptions, preparatory programmes, time use, teaching modes and

organization of the programme.

B.2. Costs of the entire course: questions about the person who pays the enrolment fee,

the amount of the fee, extra costs, grants, paid leaves and services.

31

B.3. The learning process during the entire course: questions about the classroom

environment, support to continue the study program, barriers and satisfaction.

C. Personal details: questions about socio-demographic characteristics such as gender, age,

nationality, country of birth, first language, educational level and nationality of parents,

marital status and household composition.

D. Questions regarding day-to-day activities: questions about socio-economic characteristics

such as main activity, occupational status, type of contract, sector of employment, date of

entering the labour market, general time use, participation in social and cultural activities

and monthly income.

Both core questionnaires can be consulted in appendix. Questions were based as much as

possible on existing scales and questions. One important source for constructing the students’

questionnaire was the Eurostat Adult Education Survey (AES) codebook. Similarities with the

AES are discussed below. Questions for measuring the attitudes of the adult learners are based

upon the Attitudes toward Adult and Continuing Education Scale of Blunt & Yang (1995).

Within their scale, three dimensions of attitude were found: enjoyment of learning, importance of

adult education and intrinsic value. Each dimension consists of 3 items, 9 in total. All 9 items

were included in question A9 of our students’ questionnaire. The students’ questionnaire also

contains a scale measuring the specific motives or the relevance of participating in adult

education. To create this B8 scale, we used the Education Participation Scale constructed by

Boshier (1977, 1991). Researchers used this scale in the past and performed factor analyses on it.

One example is the extraction by Garst & Ried (1999). They found six dimensions of relevance:

competency-related curiosity, interpersonal relations, community service, escape from routine,

professional advancement and compliance with external influence. Among all these factors, we

selected 3 items for each factor for inclusion in the questionnaire, a total of 18 items. Scale B20

measures the experiences with the learning process and is based on the Adult Classroom

Environment Scale of Darkenwald & Valentine (1986). Previous research revealed dimensions of

these learning process characteristics (O‘Fathaigh, 1997). Seven dimensions are: affiliation,

teacher support, task orientation, personal goal attainment, organization and clarity, student

influence and involvement. We used 2 items of each factor and included the item 15 on

discussion of the learning content on life based experience.

As explained in the introduction, in this subproject we focus only on effective participants in

formal adult education courses. In order to allow for comparisons between our sample and the

overall adult population, we included some common questions with the Eurostat Adult Education

Survey. Mainly the questions focussing on the socio-demographic, socio-economic and socio-

cultural profiles of the adult students were borrowed from the Eurostat core questionnaire. A

concrete overview of SP3 questions comparable to AES questions can be found in appendix.

32

3.2. SAMPLING AND SURVEY METHODS

3.2.1. Operational Definition of Formal Education

With regard to the target group of ‘adults studying in the formal education system’, we used a

common definition for the core sample in all countries (1000 completed questionnaires). Each

research partner had the possibility to include additional target groups in separate sub-samples.

The common definition of formal adult education is based on the final report of the task force on

the Adult Education Survey (AES):

‘Formal education is education provided in the system of schools, colleges, universities and other

formal education institutions that normally constitutes a continuous “ladder” of full-time

education for children and young people, generally beginning at age of five to seven and

continuing up to 20 or 25 years old. In some countries, the upper parts of this “ladder” are

organised programmes of joint part-time employment and part-time participation in the regular

school and university system. Formal learning is intentional from the learner’s point of view. It

leads to certification which leads to the next educational level.’ For reasons of trans-national

comparability, we make use of the internationally accepted ISCED-scale of levels.

Some notes on ‘certification’:

In this subproject, we are investigating adults who participate in institutions that are

authorized to provide certificates of formal education recognized by the ministry of

education. All courses in all fields of study that meet these criteria can be included.

Modular or course certificates are also included (even if individual students may not aim

to obtain a diploma), because they constitute credits that can be accumulated in order to

get access to that next level.

We are aware that this is a very restrictive definition. However, our survey aims to produce a

specific added value for a small, though important, subset of the AES target group, as only about

5% of all adult learning takes place in the formal system (Eurostat, 2007). Adults studying in the

formal education system are therefore mostly a too small subgroup in ordinary surveys.

3.2.2. Operational Definition of Adult Learners

We used the following definition:

People who have left full-time formal initial education – e.g. to enter the labour market – and

who, at some point, decide to participate in formal education again.

The time span between leaving full-time formal education and re-entering must at be least 2

years (of non-participation in education, e.g. work, inactivity, unemployment, travelling,…).

We do not define any lower or upper age limit.

Simplifying, in this part of the research, the label ‘adult learner’ is used to denote an adult who

learns in a formal educational setting. He or she must have the following characteristics:

a. he/she has left full-time initial education

b. he/she participates in formal education again

c. the gap between leaving and re-entering is at least 2 years

33

3.3. SAMPLING FRAME

The initial goal was at to collect least 1000 completed adult questionnaires in each participating

country. Thus, we established a target size for the dataset rather than a target sample size. This is

because of differences in the typical response rates in the participating countries and as the 1000

responses is already relatively small number, we did not want to have less completed

questionnaires.

In some countries the survey was not conducted in the whole country but in one or two regions,

for instance because education is regionalised (e.g. in the UK or Belgium), or because the country

is very big (e.g. Russia).

Within each country, the objective was to stratify the sample by level of education (ISCED) with

four subsets of respondents:

1) ISCED 1+2 primary and lower secondary/basic level 250

2) ISCED 3 upper secondary level 250

a) general secondary 125

b) vocational 125

3) ISCED 4 post secondary (non tertiary) level 250

4) ISCED 5+6 university level 250

a) bachelor 125

b) master 125

This kind of sample is not representative for the whole population of adult learners, but will

enable to analyse the similarities and differences by education level.

These adults were contacted via their educational institutions. A complementary institutional

questionnaire had to be completed by each institution whose students participated in our survey.

From a methodological point of view, our sampling method combines the following

characteristics:

A. Stratified sampling.

As indicated, we have stratified the sample by country/region, and by ISCED level within

each country:

stratum 1: ISCED level 1 + 2

stratum 2: ISCED level 3

stratum 3: ISCED level 4

stratum 4: ISCED level 5 + 6

B. Quotum sampling.

34

Within each stratum, we put forward a quotum of 250 completed questionnaires (with a

minimum of 100).

C. Multistage sampling.

Within each stratum, a number of institutions were selected to represent the variety of types

of providers (colleges, academies, providers of distance education etc.). Next, within each

selected institution, one or more fields of study were selected. A last stage was to select

respondents within each field. Those were drawn from the rolls of the respective institutions,

which means that dropouts were also part of our sample.

STAGE 1: Select institutions within the stratum

STAGE 2: Select a field of study within the selected institution

STAGE 3: Select respondents within the selected field of study

In order to reach the quotum of 250 completed questionnaires per stratum, over-sampling

techniques were applied. This is frequently applied where no register is available of all

members of a population.

Before the beginning of the fieldwork, each national team was asked to provide the best available

data (from the LFS LLL module or earlier AES etc) on the characteristics of the population of

adult learners in formal education. This means that the profile of our respondents can be

compared with the statistics available on (1) adult population data and (2) adult learners’ data (as

reliable as there is), so the gaps can be identified. The national samples achieved in the SP3

survey are discussed in detail and compared with statistics from other sources in the respective

national reports. Different methods of data collection can be used for the survey such as mail

surveys, telephone surveys, face-to face interviews, online surveys. In view of the variety of

countries involved, the complexity of the questionnaire and the fact that low-educated

participants could have difficulties to fill out the questionnaires without the support of an

interviewer, the SP3 coordination team recommended a (flexible) combination of the following

techniques:

a. ISCED 1+2: face-to-face interviews

b. ISCED 3+4: written questionnaire with the help of an interviewer (in group)

c. ISCED 5 + 6: written questionnaire, in group, postal or on-line (e-mail, not web-

survey)

35

3.4. EFFECTIVE RESPONSE

A total number of 13 293 respondents were interviewed, who belong to 734 different educational

institutions within the 13 countries. Unavoidably, however, the effective response obtained in the

13 participating countries diverged from the prescribed framework for a variety of reasons. As

shown in the table below (Table 3.1), the target of 1 000 completed questionnaires in Norway,

England and Lithuania. Reaching the guotum of 250 questionnaires for each stratum appeared to

be even more difficult. Especially students in primary and lower secondary education levels are

less well represented in our sample than desired.

Table 3.1: Effective responses obtained by 13 participating countries

Country Level of the current course

ISCED 1-2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5-6 Total

Austria Count 104 394 348 154 1000

% within country 10.4 39.4 34.8 15.4 100

Belgium, FL Count 263 283 422 257 1225

% within country 21.5 23.1 34.4 21.0 100

Bulgaria Count 253 268 251 258 1030

% within country 24.6 26.0 24.4 25.0 100

the Czech

Republic Count 0 501 0 500 1001

% within country 0 50.0 0 50.0 100

England Count 58 288 277 189 812

% within country 7.1 35.5 34.1 23.3 100

Estonia Count 341 290 249 244 1124

% within country 30.3 25.8 22.2 21.7 100

Hungary Count 250 244 268 249 1011

% within country 24.7 24.1 26.5 24.6 100

Ireland Count 178 203 263 357 1001

% within country 17.8 20.3 26.3 35.7 100

Lithuania Count 147 296 294 257 994

% within country 14.8 29.8 29.6 25.9 100

Norway Count 116 337 80 243 776

% within country 14.9 43.4 10.3 31.3 100

Russia Count 140 249 249 369 1007

% within country 13.9 24.7 24.7 36.6 100

Scotland Count 71 295 301 355 1022

% within country 6.9 28.9 29.5 34.7 100

Slovenia Count 196 309 274 511 1290

% within country 15.2 24.0 21.2 39.6 100

Total Count 2117 3957 3276 3943 13293

% within country 15.9 29.8 24.6 29.7 100

36

3.5. METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES

The multistage sampling technique in this research implicitly refers to a multilevel design.

Nonetheless, multilevel modelling cannot be seen as a panacea. Tacq (2007) argues that huge

sample sizes are needed and other research has shown that the variance explained at the macro-

level is often very small. A 2-level sample requires a minimum of 2000 units and in order to

obtain unbiased parameter estimations, a sample size of 5000 is ideal. A 3-level sample has to be

gigantic before multilevel modelling will show any significant effects.

Different researches have questioned the accurate sample sizes for multilevel modeling. The ’30

units’-rule is one of the most commonly used benchmarks (Kreft and De Leeuw, 1998): this

means that each level has to contain at least 30 observations in order to avoid unbiased results. In

our case, this would mean we need at least 30 countries, at least 30 courses within each country

and at least 30 students within each course. A first problem occurs at the level of the country

sample, as only 13 countries take part in our research. Sampling difficulties in some countries

resulted in high rates of non-response in some specific courses. Some researchers argue that the

first-level sample size can be reduced to 15 observations for each group, provided that the entire

sample size remains large enough. Maas and Hox (2005) state that smaller groups at level 1 do

not matter that much if the levels above contain at least 50 observations. Huang and Lu (2009)

recently concluded that those new orthodox rules of reducing groups at the lowest level continue

to yield biased results and that researchers have to stick at least to the 30 units-rule in order to

obtain reliable results.

Looking at our sample, we notice that no single country has 30 or more groups with at least 30

students. Nor is there any country with 30 or more groups containing 15 students in each course.

Table 3.2 Number of groups with at least 30 or 15 students

COUNTRY 30 students 15 students

AUSTRIA 11 29

BELGIUM 1 11

BULGARIA 1 19

THE CZECH REPUBLIC 19 27

ENGLAND 6 20

ESTONIA 11 23

HUNGARY 0 0

IRELAND 2 12

LITHANIA 9 22

NORWAY 0 0

RUSSIA 1 11

SCOTLAND 8 21

SLOVENIA 1 19

Therefore, we decided to stick to ‘simple’ linear regressions within this text. Multilevel models

performed for each country can be consulted separately.

37

3.6. STRUCTURE OF THE ANALYTICAL CHAPTERS

Having described the theoretical framework, research questions, data and methodological issues,

we proceed with analysing the Subproject 3 survey data. Chapter 4 begins with an introduction of

independent variables starting from the macro level national system characteristics. This if

followed by meso level variables (characteristics on the learning process and the organisational

aspects of the learning institutions). Further we provide a general picture of the socio-

demographic, socio-economic and socio-cultural profiles of the adult learners. On the basis of the

theoretical framework set out in chapter 2.1, chapter 4.4 explores different motivational

dimensions which will be used as dependent variables in the last chapters of the report. Final

analytical chapters explore the impact and interrelations of macro, meso and micro level variables

on adult learners’ perspectives and experiences.

As a final step, Subproject 3 Comparative Report forms the overall conclusions.

38

4. DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS

Having described the theoretical framework and the methodological issues such as the

construction of the questionnaires, sampling and survey methods, we will now start with

analysing the international database. In order to start with multivariate analyses, there is a need of

defining the independent and dependent variables of use within the research.

As stated before, the experiences and perspectives of the adult learners are the central dependent

variables within the research. This concept is measured by four separate scales containing items

on attitude, relevance, confidence and satisfaction (ARCS), as proposed by Keller (1987, 1999).

We further explore these so-called ARCS variables by means of data reduction techniques in

order to disentangle if these different items can be captured in a reduced set of dependent

variables (please see end notes to the current chapter). The theoretical framework was divided

into three main parts, including a micro, a meso and a macro level. It is the aim of the research to

integrate independent variables of these three levels within one model. Subsections 4.1, 4.2 and

4.3 of this chapter consist of the formulation of the independent variables. On the basis of the

international dataset, we show tables by level of the current course and the totals across level to

gain a first insight into the main differences between the 13 participating countries. By these

tables and figures we give a first overview of the adult population within LLL2010 Subproject 3

international dataset. We start with the set of independent variables beginning with the

description of country level macro characteristics (broader economic and social context, labour

market, welfare system, educational system and adult formal education in particular). This is

followed by exploration of learning institutions offering adult education at different levels of

education (learning organisation/environment and learning process). Next we give an overview of

adult learners’ micro level independent characteristics: socio-demographic; socio-economic; and

socio-cultural background (subsection 4.3). Sample differences here will in turn contribute to

possible explanations in regard to educational level differences by ARCS variables in 13

countries (subsection 4.4).

Scheme 4.1 Overview of Subproject 3 variables

DEPENDENT (Y) INDEPENDENT (X)

Experiences and

Perspectives of Adult

Learners

- Attitude

- Relevance

- Confidence

- Satisfaction

MICRO LEVEL

Socio-demographic Socio-economic Socio-cultural

MESO LEVEL PERCEPTIONS

Learning organisation Learning process

MACRO LEVEL

Broader economic

and social context

Labour

market

Welfare

system

Educational

system

39

4.1. MACRO LEVEL CHARACTERISTICS – MACROECONOMIC AND INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT OF COUNTRIES

In the following chapter we give description of macro level characteristics that will be used in

further analysis to depict country context effect on differences in participation in formal adult

education. Overview will be presented by characteristics of the broader economic- and social

context, labour market, welfare system, educational system and adult formal education

institutions by countries. Selection of institutional characteristics described below is based on the

Conceptual Framework Paper for LLL2010 (Working Paper No 16).

4.1.1. Broader Economic and Social Context

Here we compare countries by the following characteristics, that give an overall picture of how

favourable is the environment in which adult formal education or lifelong learning in general is

functioning:

GDP per capita in PPS (Purchasing Power Standard)

Public expenditure on education, % of GDP

Percentage of population with at least upper secondary education

Ratio of employees with ISCO 6-9 into employees with ISCED 0-2

Ratio of employees with ISCO 1-2 into employees with ISCED 5-6

There is a clear difference between western European countries and Central and Easter European

countries in their level of GDP per capita: economic production of CEE countries is below EU-27

average and thus much lower than in economically more developed western European countries

(Figure 4.1). However, from CEE countries, Slovenia and the Czech Republic are rather close in

reaching EU-27 average GDP per capita; Bulgaria and Russia have lowest GDP per capita, while

Lithuania, Hungary and Estonia remain in between. Among Western Europe, Ireland and

especially Norway have the highest level of economic production; Austria, Belgium and the UK

are at somewhat lower level, but fairly above the EU-27 average. This clearly implies that

possibilities to promote adult formal education and lifelong learning in general, are bigger in

western highly developed countries. Yet, because GDP per capita plays such an important role in

distinguishing country groups, then we have decided not to include this indicator in further

multilevel analysis, as it will diminish the effect of all other country-context indicators.

40

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

Bulgaria

Russia

Lithua

nia

Hungary

Esto

nia

Czech

Rep

ublic

Slove

nia UK

Belgium

FL

Austri

a

Irela

nd

Norway

GDP per capita in PPS

Figure 4.1 GDP per capita in purchasing power standards (PPS), 2007

Note: The volume index of GDP per capita in Purchasing Power Standards (PPS) is expressed in relation

to the European Union (EU-27) average set to equal 100. If the index of a country is higher than 100, this

country's level of GDP per head is higher than the EU average and vice versa.

Source: Eurostat Economy and Finance database

IMF World Economic database for Russia

GDP per capita is quite strongly associated with public expenditure on education (% of GDP),

although differences between countries are not as steep as in case of the former. Accordingly, the

level of public expenditure on education is lower in CEE countries, with the exception of

Slovenia that invests in education proportionally about as much as Belgium (Figure 4.2). Not

surprisingly, only Norway exceeds Belgium in public contributions to education. Exceptional

case among CEE countries here is also Hungary, where expenditure on education as a percentage

of GDP amounts to the level of Austria, Ireland and the UK. But we do have to keep in mind that

the rate of GDP per capita in Western and CEE countries is very different, thus the impact of the

expenditures on education or other fields is different, too. Public spending on education is low in

Russia, the Czech Republic and Bulgaria, while Estonia and Lithuania are at intermediate level in

comparison to other CEE countries.

41

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Czech

Rep.

Bulgaria Lithuania Hungary Norway Austria Estonia Ireland UK Belgium Slovenia

Public expenditure on education, % of GDP

Figure 4.2 Public expenditure on education, % of GDP, 2005

Source: Eurostat Population and Social Conditions database

OECD database for Russia

Picture regarding western European and CEE countries is entirely different when we consider the

percentage of population with at least upper secondary education (Figure 4.3). There are about

90% of population with at least upper secondary education in the Czech Republic, Lithuania,

Estonia and Russia. In Bulgaria, Hungary, Norway, Austria and Slovenia the respective ration is

close to 80; in Belgium, Ireland and the UK around 70. It is well known that higher level of

initial education induces participation in adult/further education. However, this might often work

in disadvantage of low-skilled individuals if special measures to enhance skill and knowledge

level of low-skilled are not applied.

42

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Belgium Ireland UK Bulgaria Hungary Norway Austria Slovenia Estonia Lithuania Czech

Rep.

% of population with at least upper secondary education

Figure 4.3 Percentage of population with at least upper secondary education, 2007


OECD database for Russia, reference year 2002

Next we examine how the occupational structure of the labour market matches with the

educational qualifications structure of the labour force and vice versa. We do this by comparing

first, the ratios of low level occupational groups (ISCO 6 and 9) with low level educational

qualifications (ISCED 0-2) and second, high level occupational groups (ISCO 1-2) with high

level educational qualifications (ISCED 5-6). This gives an idea of over and underqualification

tendencies in countries. In case of the match between low occupational structure and low

educational qualifications, we see that in Lithuania there are much more occupations that require

relatively low educated workers than there are those with low education (Figure 4.4). Also in the

Czech Republic, Estonia and Bulgaria low level occupations somewhat dominate over low level

qualifications. In Hungary, Austria and Slovenia on the other hand there are slightly more

workers with low educational qualifications than there are equally matched occupations. In

Norway, Ireland and Belgium this tendency is even more pronounced. Match between high

occupational structure and high educational qualifications shows that only in the Czech Republic

there are fewer workers with high level of education than there are occupations requiring high

level skills (Figure 4.5). In Austria and Hungary high level occupations and educational

qualifications are more or less equally matched. Yet in most of the countries there are more

workers with higher level educations than there are respective occupations on the labour market,

this is especially the case in Norway. So mostly it seems that labour force is overqualified.

43

0

0,5

1

1,5

2

2,5

Norway Ireland Belgium UK Hungary Austria Slovenia Czech

Rep.

Estonia Bulgaria Lithuania

Ratio of ISCO 6-9 into ISCED0-2

Figure 4.4 Match between low occupational structure and low educational qualifications, 2007


No data for Russia

0

0,2

0,4

0,6

0,8

1

1,2

1,4

Norway Bulgaria Estonia Belgium Lithuania Slovenia UK Ireland Austria Hungary Czech

Rep.

Ratio of ISCO 1-2 into ISCED5-6

Figure 4.5 Match between high occupational structure and high educational qualifications, 2007


No data for Russia

44

4.1.2. Labour Market

We characterise country specific labour markets by following indicators:

Employment Protection Legislation (EPL) index

Trade union density

Collective bargaining coverage

National legislation setting statutory minimum wages

According to EPL index, which comprises regulations concerning hiring and firing of employees,

we can see that most countries in our study have rather average level of labour market

flexibility/strictness. Labour markets are more regulated in Belgium, Norway, Slovenia and

Lithuania and least regulated in the UK and Ireland, but also in Hungary (Figure 4.6). We expect

more flexible labour markets give incentive to human capital related motives for participation in

formal education.

0

0,5

1

1,5

2

2,5

3

UK

Irela

nd

Hungary

Bulgaria

Czech

Rep

.

Austri

a

Esto

nia

Belgium

Norway

Slove

nia

Russia

Lithua

nia

EPL index

Figure 4.6 Employment Protection Legislation index, 2003 and 2005

Source: OECD StatExtracts dataset, Strictness of EPL

For CEE countries Mirco Tonin paper "Updated Employment Protection Legislation Indicators

for Central and Eastern European Countries" (2005), p. 18

Regarding trade union density and collective bargaining coverage we see that they play much

smaller role in the labour markets of CEE countries (Figure 4.7 and 4.8). Slovenia and Russia are

exceptional, Slovenia especially in case of collective bargaining coverage (no data on collective

bargaining coverage for Russia). We assume that trade unions and collective bargaining

agreements have positive affect on participation in adult education, as trade unions often regard

training and upgrading of skills as being one of employees’ rights.

45

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Esto

nia

Lithua

nia

Hungary

Bulgaria

Czech

Rep

.UK

Austri

a

Irela

nd

Slove

nia

Russia

Norway

Belgium

Trade union density

Figure 4.7 Trade union density, 2003 ... 2006

Source: Worker-participation.eu, a service of the European Trade Union Institute (ETUI)

Data for Russia Federation of European Employers

Data on Norway from Nergaard & Stokke, 2006 (reference year 2004)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Lithuania Bulgaria Estonia Hungary UK Czech

Rep.

Ireland Norway Belgium Austria Slovenia

Collective bargaining coverage

Figure 4.8 Collective bargaining coverage, 2003 ... 2005

Source: Worker-participation.eu, a service of the European Trade Union Institute (ETUI)

46

4.1.3. Welfare System

Under the welfare system we measure the effect of active and passive labour market policies:

Public expenditure on training of unemployed, % of GDP

Public expenditure on active labour market policies, % of GDP

Public expenditure on out-of-work income, % of GDP

Here we see major difference between CEE and western European countries, as the latter invest

significantly more in active and passive labour market policies (out-of-work income

maintenance) as a percentage of GDP (see Figures below). However, there are also some

exceptions – the UK (representative of liberal welfare system) invests in labour market policies

as less as CEE countries, especially in case of active labour market policies, including training of

unemployed. From other western European countries we observe that Belgium invests the most

in active and passive labour market policies, although the percentage of GDP to training of

unemployed is lower than that in Norway and Austria. So Belgium, Norway and Austria, but also

Ireland are countries investing most in welfare system when it comes to labour market policies.

0

0,05

0,1

0,15

0,2

0,25

0,3

0,35

0,4

0,45

Czech

Rep.

UK Bulgaria Estonia Hungary Slovenia Lithuania Belgium Ireland Norway Austria

Public expenditure on training of unemployed (% of GDP)

Figure 4.9 Public expenditure on training of unemployed, % of GDP, 2006


No data for Russia

47

0

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

0,7

0,8

0,9

1

Estonia UK Czech

Rep.

Lithuania Slovenia Hungary Bulgaria Ireland Norway Austria Belgium

Public expenditure on active LM policies (% of GDP)

Figure 4.10 Public expenditure on active labour market policies, % of GDP, 2006


No data for Russia

From CEE countries Estonia is the one contributing the least in active labour market policies and

out-of-work income maintenance and support. Yet by expenditures to training of unemployed

Estonia invests about as much as most of CEE countries, and somewhat more than the UK and

the Czech Republic. Hungary and Slovenia differ from other CEE countries in their bigger

expenditure in out-of-work income maintenance and support, which is to some degree

comparable to the expenditure of Norway, but significantly lower than in Ireland, Austria and

Belgium.

48

0

0,2

0,4

0,6

0,8

1

1,2

1,4

1,6

Estonia Lithuania Bulgaria UK Czech

Rep.

Hungary Slovenia Norway Ireland Austria Belgium

Public expenditure on out-of-work income (% of GDP)

Figure 4.11 Public expenditure on out-of-work income maintenance and support, % of GDP, 2006


No data for Russia

4.1.4. Educational System

Regarding country-specific educational system we are interested in following institutional

characteristics:

Percentage of upper secondary students enrolled in vocational education

Typical age at selection to educational tracks

Level of stratification of the educational system

Form of organisation of vocational training (school based or dual)

Countries display great diversity when it comes to the percentage of upper secondary students

enrolled in vocational education (Figure 4.12). In Austria and the Czech Republic there are about

80% of all upper secondary students studying in vocational education. In following countries

participation rate in vocational education is gradually declining from 70% to about 40%:

Belgium, Slovenia, Norway, Bulgaria and the UK. In Ireland, Estonia and Russia around one

third of upper secondary students are enrolled in vocational education, while in Hungary and

Lithuania respective rate is about 25%.

49

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Hungary Lithuania Estonia Ireland UK Bulgaria Norway Slovenia Belgium Austria Czech

Rep.

% of upper secondary students enrolled in vocational education

Figure 4.12 Percentage of upper secondary students enrolled in vocational education, 2006


OECD database for Russia

The Czech Republic, Austria, Belgium and Slovenia are in addition to having majority of upper

secondary students enrolled in vocational education also countries which could be characterised

as the ones with high stratification of the educational system – tracks of general and vocational

education are rigid (Table 4.1). Russia is another country with high level of stratification, but

here it is combined with low rate of students enrolled in vocational education. Educational

systems of all other CEE countries have medium level of stratification. Ireland and the UK have

least stratified educational systems in conjunction with about 30-40% of upper secondary

students studying in vocational stream. While in Norway low stratification, characterised by

smooth boundaries between different educational levels and tracks, is combined with relatively

high level of upper secondary students enrolled in vocational education (60%).

Table 4.1 Level of stratification of the educational system

Low Medium High

Ireland

the UK

Norway

Bulgaria

Estonia

Hungary

Lithuania

Austria

Belgium

the Czech Republic

Russia

Slovenia

Source: Müller and Gangl 2003; Shavit and Müller 2000

50

In addition to stratification of educational system it is of significant importance at what age are

students selected into general and vocational educational track. It has been found that there is less

social mobility in the society the earlier pupils are selected to educational tracks. In other words

the effect of ones social background on future advancement decreases if decision to continue

educational path either in vocational or general track is postponed. Figure 4.13 shows that in

highly stratified educational systems of Austria and the Czech Republic, but also in medium

stratified Hungary pupils or rather their parents and teachers decide on educational tracks already

at the age of 10 or 11. In Belgium decision is made at the age of 12, in Bulgaria and Lithuania at

14, in Ireland and Slovenia at 15. While in Estonia, Norway and the UK decision regarding

general and vocational educational tracks is postponed until the age of 16.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

Austria Czech

Rep.

Hungary Belgium BulgariaLithuania Ireland Slovenia Estonia Norway Russia UK

Typical age at selection to eucational tracks

Figure 4.13 Typical age at selection to educational tracks

Source: OECD, Education at Glance 2006

Eurydice database for Bulgaria, Lithuania and Slovenia

Further to the distinction between vocational and general tracks we can distinguish whether

vocational education is organised as a dual or school based system. Dual organisation of

vocational education is typical to the German educational system where learning is conducted

partly at school, but to a considerable amount as an apprenticeship at firm sites as well. From the

countries studied by the LLL2010 project, only Austria can be characterised as a dual system, all

other countries tend to organise vocational education at educational institutions (often with some

brief apprenticeship period(s)).

51

4.2. OVERVIEW OF FORMAL ADULT EDUCATION IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

Following overview of the formal adult education systems in countries under study is mostly

retrieved from Subproject 3 ‘Adult Learners in Formal Adult Education: Experiences and

Perceptions’ national reports.

Austria

Interaction with the initial education system

Preparatory programmes for school leaving-certificate (Hauptschulabschluss, lower secondary

school leave certificate) are offered through out Austria by different adult education providers.

These cooperate with the initial school system regarding examination and certification.

Most programmes for adults at ISCED level 3 and 4 are part of the school system. They are

organized as evening schools for adults and are part of the regular school system, meaning that

they take place at schools. These programmes exist for the general uppers secondary education as

well as for school types (colleges) of vocational education. The most important formal

certificates at ISCED level 3 which are not organized within the school system are

‘Berufsreifeprüfung’ (an adult education programme providing general access to higher

education for skilled workers and graduates of three- to four-year full-time VET schools) and

apprenticeship leave examination for adults (external examination without formalized course

system) for different professions as an adult education form of vocational education where

professional experience can be recognised. Both are organised outside the initial education

system as kind of parallel structure which was historically developed later than the initial

education system and is still seen as ‘second chance education’. Especially ‘Berufsreifeprüfung’

is seen as intermediate step leading to tertiary education, while apprenticeship leave examination

provides with the status of a skilled worker within certain professional fields (apprenticeship is

part of the dual vocational system in Austria).

Adult education at Universities often still seems to be considerable underdeveloped, traditionally

the rate of employed students within initial education has been high in Austria. Therefore it is

often hard to distinguish between initial and adult education. Universities of applied sciences are

probably more inclining towards ideas of lifelong learning and adult education, as here we find

more extra-occupational programmes than at universities. About one third of all students at

Universities of applied sciences participate in extra-occupational programmes. At these

institutions, the possibility to enter a programme without matriculation examination can be an

option for professionals with considerable work experience within their field of studies. This also

holds true for the only state post-gradual University in Austria, the Danube University Krems.

Financing adult formal education

Generally, a mixed system of financing adult education exists in Austria: state government on

federal, regional and municipality level, public corporations, sponsors, and increasingly also fees

from participants (OECD 2003)2.

2 OECD (2003) Adult Learning in Austria. Country Background Report of the OECD Thematic

Review on Adult Learning. Available at:

52

Preparatory programmes for school leaving-certificate are state funded, but for adults they are not

for free, although within several projects free places sponsored by the responsible Ministry are

available. Making this form of education available for free for all participants has not yet been

implemented, although it is discussed.

Generally secondary schools are free of cost.

The Berufsreifeprüfung is not for free, participants in preparation programmes can apply for state

supply at the regional level, but no general study grants exist.

Fees for Universities and Universities of Applied Sciences have not existed in Austria since the

1970s. Between 2001-2008, study-fees for Universities were in place and have been abolished

again with 2009. Universities of applied sciences can charge tuition fees of 363 € per Semester,

but in some regions (Laender) these institutions do not charge fees if the region who co-finances

these tertiary institution chooses not to do so.

Main ‘clients’ of the specific adult tracks

Only 3% of the Austrian population aged between 25 and 64 participates in formal adult

education (data from 2005). If looking only at participants aged 25 and older, the age-group

between 25 and 29 shows the highest participation rates in formal adult education, followed by

30 to 34 year olds. All other age-groups show very limited participation in adult education.

For the Austrian population the biggest target groups could be seen as those with formal

education background at ISCED level 2 (approx. 968.000 persons) and ISCED level 3 (almost

2.5 million). These numbers in no way correspond to participation rates within formal adult

education at ISCED level 3 (approx. 20.000 participants) and ISCED level 4 (approx. 10.000

participants) (Markowitsch et al. 2008)3.

Within lower secondary education and basic education participants in adult education are often

unemployed

BRP is directed towards occupied people without matriculation examination, mainly those who

passed an apprenticeship or graduates from intermediate vocational schools.

Entry requirements

Entry requirements for formal adult education are regulated by law, for adults basically the same

entry requirements exist like for young students in initial education.

No formal entry requirements exist for preparatory programmes for school leaving-certificate.

Age limits exist for some evening schools (e.g. to be aged 17 for AHS academic secondary

school). For upper secondary schools (AHS, HAK, HTL) graduation for 8th form (equalling lower

secondary level) are required. For upper secondary schools graduates from lower streams of

Hauptschule mostly need to pass entrance examination in certain subjects (see interaction with

the initial education system).

http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/51/19/25603759.pdf [Accessed 9th May 2006]

3 Markowitsch, J./ Benda-Kahri, S./ Prokopp, M./ Rammel, S./ Hefler, G. (2008): Neuausrichtung der

berufsbildenden Schulen für Berufstätige. Eine Studie im Auftrag des BMUKK. Donau Universität Krems.

53

For tertiary education in general Matura/Reifeprüfung (matriculation examination) is considered

as entry requirement for all institutions at tertiary level. An alternative form is the

Berufsreifeprüfung (BRP) which is an adult education programme providing general access to

higher education for skilled workers and graduates of three- to four-year full-time VET schools.

Graduates can pass the final examination for BRP not before they are 18 years of age.

Opportunities to shift between tracks

Formal Adult education in Austria is still strongly seen as ‘second chance education’. The

responsible Ministry in an information brochure puts it like this: ‘One of the main purposes of

adult education is to allow students to gain qualifications not obtained earlier by taking adult

classes in the form of “second-chance education’.4

For adult education limited information is available as far as data on shifting between tracks is

concerned. But Berufsreifeprüfung (BRP) was an important step to close gaps with the initial

education system, though this closing only happens afterwards. Adults with apprenticeship

background at upper secondary level or from vocational schools without matriculation exam can

find access to tertiary education. Still, in 2008 this model has fed back into the initial education

system, as the ‘Berufsmatura’ has been established where young apprentices in initial education

can combine their dual vocational training with the BRP programme leading them to

matriculation exam. This is an innovation within the Austrian (initial) education system, as

traditionally apprenticeship does not include matriculation examination.

Generally we can distinguish between tracks that enable participants to pursue their education

further within the formal system (like Hauptschulabschlusskurs, Berufsreifeprüfung, academic

upper secondary school AHS) and which are often seen as intermediary steps. These are all

general education programmes. On the other hand there are tracks which provide vocational

training within the formal system, within our SP3 sample of programmes these are both type of

upper secondary colleges (HAK colleges for business administration, HTL colleges for

engineering). Although graduates are entitled to proceed with tertiary education, these school

types still are regarded as providing graduates with vocational qualifications to be of immediate

value within the labour market.

At tertiary level the Bologna process has led to reorganisation within Universities in Austria. This

has also led to stronger permeability between Universities and Universities of Applied Sciences,

meaning that graduates from the latter can continue doctorate degrees at some university

programmes, although here developments are still ongoing and some problems still need to be

solved.

Credentials from specific tracks

In general all credentials from formal adult education are legally equal to initial education

degrees. Especially when schools for adults are concerned, curricula, teacher staff and quality

assurance mechanisms are the same for initial and adult education. The same applies to study

programmes at tertiary level. Adult education programmes like preparation courses for

Hauptschulabschlusskurs and Berufsreifeprüfung are part of formal education but are not

provided by formal institutions like schools or universities, but by adult education institutions.

Examination then is organised in cooperation with schools. As in Austrian society formal initial

education still is a much stronger concept than lifelong learning, one could state a lack in trust

4 http://www.bmukk.gv.at/medienpool/9043/bw_engl.pdf

54

within formal education institutions towards adult education providers. Still, Berufsreifeprüfung

can be seen as a successful adult education programme, as it recently has been also influencing

initial education programmes for young apprentices and therefore has become a model for initial

formal education.

Belgium (Flanders)


Formal adult education constitutes of learning activities at different levels. All forms of formal

adult education are specifically organized for adults.

In the case of primary and secondary education, adults can enrol in Centres for Basic Education

or Centres for Adult Education. They do not have another opportunity within the formal

education system. The Centres for Basic Education are fully dedicated to adults and can be

compared with the level of primary education and the first grade of secondary education.

Secondary Education for Social Promotion is also organised specifically for adults and is

comparable with the second and third grade of secondary education.

Likewise Higher Education for Social Promotion is geared towards adults. The level of this kind

of adult education can be situated between secondary education and the bachelor degree. In

Flanders, these courses lead to the grade of ‘graduate’.

Art academies have separate courses for adults. The starting age of adult courses depends on the

course itself. Music courses, verbal art courses and dance courses have a starting age of 15 years,

plastic arts a starting age of 18 years. The goals and the content of the courses do not differ from

those for children but are adapted to the level of adults.

Colleges and universities sometimes offer separate courses for adults although they are also able

to enrol in the normal daytime courses. Most colleges and universities with a supply of adult

courses have adapted enrolment conditions like being an employee or being registered as a job-

seeker. In Flanders, there is a special Open University which grants university degrees by online

courses.


All forms of formal adult education are organized and financed by the Flemish ministry of

education.


The main clients of the Centres for Basic Education are low literate adults, migrants, prisoners,

socially disadvantaged groups, low skilled employees, unqualified school leavers etc. More than

half of all the course hours is dedicated to Dutch as a foreign language.

Secondary Education for Social Promotion gives people a second chance of obtaining a degree of

secondary education, but is also accessible for citizens who already have their degree but who

want to learn something new or to update their knowledge with regard to their work or their

leisure time.

55

Two third of all adult students in higher education are younger than 35. Half of the students

follow courses at a college, one third at a university and the remaining group follows online

courses at the Open University.

Entry requirements

Candidate students can enrol for a course in Basic Education when they reach the age of 18 at

least on the last day of the calendar year in which they enrol. This is also the age on which

compulsory education ends. In some cases, students can already enrol at the age of 16 after

ending full-time compulsory education or at the age of 15 when the student finished the first

grade of full-time secondary education.

Students enrolling in Secondary Education for Social Promotion must have completed primary

education. The only exception is an enrolment in the study field of general training. In this case,

students must have completed full-time compulsory education.

Student enrolling in Higher Education for Social Promotion must have at least one of the

following certificates in combination with completion of part-time compulsory education:

certificate of the second year of the third grade of secondary education

diploma of secondary education

certificate of secondary education for social promotion for at least 900 course hours

diploma of higher education for social promotion

diploma of higher education

bachelor degree

master degree

another foreign diploma or degree ratified by European or international agencies.

A diploma of secondary education is obliged for students who want to enrol at a college or

university.


In the case of primary and secondary education, adults can enrol in Centres for Basic Education

or Centres for Adult Education. They do not have another opportunity within the formal

education system. Higher Education for Social Promotion stands on its own. There is no similar

offer of education at this level. There is also just one form of formal art education for adults.

Students who enrol in specific adult courses at a college or university are able to move between

specific and mainstream tracks as the goals of the courses are the same.


Formal adult education can be seen as a continuous ladder. The level in which students can start,

depends from the level already obtained. Basic Education is the lowest step on this ladder. After

completing a course in Basic Education, students receive a certificate. The next step on the ladder

is Secondary Education for Social Promotion. A certificate from Basic Education is not required

as all students who meet the entry requirements can start at this level. Having a diploma, degree

or certificate is no entry requirement.

Secondary Education for Social Promotion gives people the chance to obtain a diploma of

secondary education. With this diploma, people can enrol in higher education. Secondary

56

Education for Social Promotion offers modular courses in a lot of study disciplines which do not

lead to a full diploma of secondary education. Finishing a course leads to a certificate of that

particular course.

Bulgaria


Primary and secondary education

• Evening schools

In the sphere of primary and secondary education the forms of schooling stipulated in the current

Law of National Education are: daily, evening, extramural, individually tailored, independent,

distant, and correspondent. Evening and mixed schools are opened for students above 16 years

old.

• Schools at prisons

Part of the formal educational system are the schools at prisons where students above 16 years

are educated in all grades of basic and secondary schools. The number of prisoners entering these

schools is relatively constant: about 35% of all prisoners. Since a relatively high number of

prisoners are illiterate or are with a low educational level, about 50% of the learners enter

elementary school (first to fourth grade).

Vocational education

The Law of Vocational Education and Training from 1999 defines the different educational

institutions which can provide adult vocational education – vocational schools, vocational high

schools, vocational colleges, centers for vocational training, centers for qualification of trainees.

• Vocational high schools

Adult education is carried out throughout the country where there are vocational high schools. In

2008 professional qualification courses for adults have been conducted in 187 vocational high

schools (out of a total of 405).

• Vocational training centers

Vocational training centers are part of the formal education system – 678 centers were licensed

by the end of 2008. Vocational training centers teach pupils over 16 years of age

Higher education

• Colleges

Colleges offer a Baccalaureate degree education. In 2008 there were 41 colleges in Bulgaria. 10%

of all students attended colleges in 2008.

• Higher education institutions

Students in higher education institutions can chose among full-time, part-time, evening and

independent forms of education. Higher education institutions offer distance education, as well.

In 2008 30% of students participated in part-time and evening training and 4% in distance

education.

57

Financing adult formal education Both the evening schools and the schools at the prisons are state owned and financed. The state

and the municipal vocational schools, the centres for vocational training and the centres for

qualification of trainees are financed by the state budget, the municipalities, donations from

different sources, by international programmes and other revenues.

The state universities and higher education institutions are financed mainly by the state as well as

by the student taxes and different projects. The students in the state higher education institutions

pay taxes which are determined by the Council of Ministers, and whose amount is up to 30% of

the normatively fixed expenditure for the particular professional field. The lowest taxes are in the

fields of social sciences (between 140 and 200 Euro per academic year) and natural sciences

(between 150 and 250 Euro per academic year). In engineering the students pay about 250 Euro

per academic year. The highest taxes are paid by students in medicine and art – between 400 and

500 Euro per academic year.

The budget of the private higher education institutions is formed by the students’ taxes as well as

by donations and different projects. The students pay taxes which are determined by the

corresponding higher education institutions. The average fee is about 1000 Euro per academic

year.


Adults are mainly involved in tertiary and post secondary non-tertiary education. The percentage

of students over 25 years in different levels of education is as follows: in primary education –

0.04%; in lower secondary education – 0.06%; in upper secondary education – 0.64%; in tertiary

– 28.04% (15.66% are between 25 and 29 years old and 12.38% are over 30) and in post

secondary non-tertiary – 29.08% (all of them are between 25 and 29 years old).

Evening schools are attended mainly by early school leavers. According to data of the National

Statistical Institute, in recent years the number of school leavers is about 3% of all students

enrolled in basic and secondary education.

Schools at prisons are attended by prisoners who are low literate or illiterate. Most of them have

interrupted their education for long periods and have no vocational qualification.

The vocational schools and the centres for vocational training are opened predominantly to

people more than 16 years old who have acquired relatively low levels of education and do not

have professional qualification. The vocational courses are organized mainly for the unemployed.

In recent years the universities in Bulgaria have increased the number of accepted new students.

This fact, together with the lowering birth rate, have created two tendencies: 1) increase of the

percentage of students graduating secondary schools who enter the university immediately after

graduation; 2) increase of the number of adult students. This second tendency is related to the

higher dynamics and requirements of the labour market. As a result more and more adults tend to

increase their qualification or to acquire new qualification by entering Master’s programme in a

specialty different from the one of their bachelor’s.

58

Entry requirements

In case of formal education, the requirements for beginning studies are the same for all. This

means that certifying the education previously obtained/the existence of a certificate of the

necessary level of education is required.


Within the framework of secondary and higher education the opportunities to shift between tracks

are very limited. Adults over 16 years of age can enrol in vocational and evening schools if they

have certificate for the current academic year. On the basis of this certificate the student

continues his/her education in the system of secondary or vocational education. In vocational

schools students acquire profession or part of a profession. Although vocational centres are part

of the system of formal education the certificates they issue are recognized only within their

system.

Vocational schools after secondary education enroll only students with diploma for secondary

education. Most of the students are correspondent students or the courses are carried out as

distant education. Students can acquire more than one specialty but only within the same

institution.

Adult students in higher schools can study two specialties at the same time, but only within the

same university. They can also enrol in two different MA programmes, but only within the same

university. We can say that the opportunities for studying different specialties are greatest in the

MA programmes.


In case of formal education, an equal certificate or diploma is issued to all students regardless of

the form of study.

The Czech Republic


Formal adult education is permitted in the secondary and tertiary spheres by the Schools Act and

the Higher Education Institutions Act. There is no discrimination in the formal education system,

and every adult may apply to any educational institution and, if the meet the entry requirements,

may study at these institutions. Though this possibility exists, its practical application is sporadic

for many reasons (work, family, psychological, social, financial etc.).

Basic education for adults is not covered by the law, in light of the fact that the number of people

who fail to complete their basic education is statistically insignificant, as well as the fact that

these are citizens whose motivation to become educated is zero. A problem can arise in this

sphere in connection with the increased immigration of citizens without education. Under the

Schools Act secondary and higher vocational education can be completed in the form of evening,

long-distance, part-time, and combined forms of learning. The state does not play a part in the

organisation of this process, and it is fully within the competence of the institution what training

programme it will offer, if indeed at all.

The adult population can supplement its formal education on a tertiary level by studying at

technical colleges and universities. From the very start technical colleges offered the possibility

of long-distance courses.

59

At present the possibility of recognising the results of informal education and knowledge

acquired through practice is not respected during entry proceedings, the modularisation of studies

is not common, and the pedagogic process is not adapted to the possibilities of adult people. For

reasons of capacity the individualisation of education is rarely practiced. The most frequent form

of adult education in formal education programmes involves combined studies, which are

organised mainly by universities on various levels.

The Schools Act will recognize up to 60% of credits acquired on a further education programme

which are required for the proper completion of formal studies in the case of successful graduates

of this education, as long as they transfer to a formal education programme.


Adult people aged over 26 years are financially disadvantaged against younger students and do

not have a right to financial support. Although education at public universities is free of charge,

the system of financial support, stipends and student loans do not apply to adults involved in

long-distance, part-time and similar forms of study. Attendance at private universities is always

paying. The fees are equivalent to one monthly average wage for one semester, though at some

institutions this figure can be up to three times as much.

The costs of studies differ according to educational level. Higher secondary level education is

more often free of charge; clear majority of students pay for education on tertiary level. On

higher secondary level the average amount of fees is 11.750 CZK, on tertiary level it is already

20.675 CZK. Also the indirect costs differ according to educational level, its average amount

comes to 7.313 CZK. Utilization of various financial supports or grants is not very widespread, it

concerns only quite a limited group of students.

The conditions for further formal education are stipulated by the Labour Code, which

distinguishes between two reasons for studying while employed. If the student is supposed to

acquire the credentials necessary for the proper performance of their work, then their studies are

deemed as an impediment at work by the employee: if the studies serve to increase their

qualifications it is regarded as the performance of work for which the employee has a right to

remuneration. There is basically no legal right to neither work concessions or to material security

during further formal education. These conditions are usually set forth in collective agreements,

otherwise it depends on the individual decision of the employer.


In terms of age, at both ISCED 3 and ISCED 5 levels which are the only levels in the CR to

participate in the formal adult education, almost half of the clients represent young dropouts, less

than 10 years after breaking their initial studies. Educational structure of the clients reflects

required equal ratio of participants in adult education on level ISCED 3 and ISCED 5. Half of

them (50 %) are skilled; adult education is an important way of raising their education, as they

are most at risk on the labour market. Second half is composed of slightly more secondary

education graduates with leaving exam (30%) and university graduates (20%).

Entry requirements

Entry procedures for adults have not been adapted, with entry requirements the same as for a

“normal” programme. Until now, the skills acquired through informal education or practices are

not recognised in admission procedures.

60


Shifting is from one track to another is generally possible at both secondary and tertiary levels.

However, it is not possible for distant or combined study participant at secondary level to shift to

regular type of study. The rules for shifting vary – on both levels – on the educational institution

itself which has wide range of opportunities to set up the rules.

Most of the school are flexible in reflecting the needs of students, not excluding this aspect.


Credentials obtained from the irregular track of formal education are based on standards of

educational outcomes, which are equivalent to standards obtained from regular education.

Estonia


Under formal adult education basic, upper secondary or higher education obtained outside

daytime or fulltime form of study is meant.

Formal education provides the opportunity to:

acquire basic education and general upper secondary education in the form of evening

courses, distance learning or as an external student;

undergo vocational training in the form of part-time study. Based on the law amendment

made in 2006, vocational education institutions may offer several flexible opportunities to

participate in vocational training: vocational orientation courses in the framework of

preliminary vocational training to basic school and upper secondary school students;

vocational training in basic school and upper secondary school, giving basic vocational

skills; vocational secondary education; vocational training on the basis of basic education;

vocational training on the basis of secondary education; vocational training without the

requirement for basic education;

acquire higher education in part-time study or as an external student. Both professional

higher education institutions and universities offer flexible forms of study for acquisition

of higher education.


Obtaining of basic education and general upper secondary education in the form of evening

courses, distance learning and external study is free for students. Within the scope of the state

commissioned education, free education is also provided for obtaining vocational education in the

form of part-time study. Obtaining higher education in the part-time form of study is mostly

payable, with the exception of for instance teachers' training.

Study allowances and study loans are granted only to students who study full time; this means

that they are not available to most of adult learners.


At basic level students over age 30 constituted only a small percentage (6%). Most of the

students (67%) were 15 to 20 at the end of or shortly after the normal ages for completing upper

secondary education. A significant proportion (23.5%) of the students enrolled part-time were

ages 21 to 25.

61

In the middle of the 1990s 78.6% of those participating in part time higher education were under

30 (see Table 1). Now the age distribution of students has changed: two fifths of part time

students and one third of full time students are older than 30.

Entry requirements in the specific tracks

In case of formal education, the requirements for beginning studies are the same for all. This

means that certifying the education previously obtained / the existence of a certificate of the

necessary level of education is required. At present the results of informal education and

knowledge acquired through practice are not recognised during admission procedures.

Opportunities to shift between tracks Despite of vocational education reform the share of vocational school graduates continuing education in higher

schools has persisted low in recent years. Although there are no legal restrictions for graduates of vocational

secondary schools to apply for higher education vocational schools remained dead ends. General secondary schools

provide for a classical academic track giving their graduates the best preparatory education for further studies at

university. The internal differentiation of general secondary education has increased in the 1990s. Regional

differences between schools also increased, as well as the clear differentiation between common schools and ‘elite’

schools that select their pupils on the basis of their own criteria.

Since the Estonian secondary education system is based on German model, Estonia should be

classified as a country with stratified and differentiated education system. Yet, by the extent of

differentiation, Estonia should be placed behind Germany, because in Germany the distribution

of students into different school types is undertaken much earlier than in Estonia (when students

are 12).


In case of formal education, an equal certificate or diploma is issued to all students regardless of

the form of study.

Hungary


In the formal school-based adult education the main form is the regular part-time education. The

adult education form is the evening and correspondence courses.


There is always a fee for tertiary level and there is never any fee for primary. I would say that

most of the cases there is not fee for secondary level or vocational courses. But sometimes, if the

topic of the course is more "marketable" (e.g. language, computer) than some vocational courses

may charge the students.


The composition of participants changed in the last decades. The original function of school-

based adult education was to provide an opportunity for adults with low or incomplete levels of

schooling to obtain qualifications (at a more mature age, and parallel with working). However,

adult education has undergone a significant development in the past fifteen years: from a

‘primary schools for workers’ type the institutions have become the alternative institutions of the

education of young people.

During the recent years there has seen an increase in the mean age of participants in adult

training, and, contrary to trends in the prior years, younger generations are no longer dominant. It

62

seems that the number of students in the adult age group of people above 25 years of age is

growing, which is probably attributable to the fact that today younger people are much more

likely to complete their secondary school studies in full-time education than they used to do it in

the past.

Entry requirements in the specific tracks

The admission requirements to adult education are identical with those in regular education.

Opportunities to move between specific and mainstream tracks

With a few exceptions, transition between general schools is free of problems. But according to

regulations, students may only continue their primary studies in the framework of adult education

after getting older than 17 years. If someone started a secondary-level vocational training

program in the regular school system but interrupted it later, studies may be continued in the

framework of adult education in the same vocational track.


Formal (school-based) adult education in the single structure 8-grade primary schools, in

secondary education (grammar school, vocational training school giving nationally recognized

qualification) or in tertiary institutions provides the same qualifications and certificates as those

which are available in full time education.

Ireland


There is some degree of overlap between adult education provision and the initial education

system within an Irish context. The overlap occurs at two key junctures; primarily at tertiary level

wherein adults, having previously ceased formal education return as ‘mature’ students to higher

education and secondly and to a much lesser extent where adult education programmes leading to

the Junior (ISCED 3 – lower secondary) and Leaving Certificate (ISCED 4-upper secondary)

programmes are delivered within the secondary-level of the formal education system.

A rather distinctive feature of the provision of adult basic and further education in Ireland is the

diverse nature and extent of its provision. For the majority of adult learners of adult basic

education and of further education, their adult education programmes are provided by a broad

range of adult education service providers including but not exclusive to, the Vocational

Education Committees VECs, community-based organisations and through a range of training

agencies such as FAS, CERT and TEAGASC.


While primary, secondary and full-time higher education are funded by the State, there is no

singular approach to the financing of adult formal education in Ireland. Financing of adult formal

education – provided by the range of public sector education providers is the responsibility of the

state through funding lines of the Departments of Education and Science; Enterprise, Trade and

Employment and Community, Rural and Gaeltacht Affairs. Funding for the adult education

sector, specifically, currently stands at just under 2% of the overall annual education budget

(AONTAS, 20105).

5 AONTAS (the National Adult Learning Organisation) Annual Report 2009.

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In terms of adult basic education, no tuition fees apply for students either of the Vocational

Training Opportunities Scheme (VTOS) or of approved Post Leaving Certificate PLC courses. At

third-level, adult ‘mature’ students as first-time undergraduates are entitled to free tuition fees if

they are in full-time undergraduate education. Those returning to part-time higher education

course, however, are required to pay course fees of varying amounts dependent on the third-level

course/institution – an inequity which has received much critical attention (cf. Maunsell, Downes

& McLoughlin, 20086).

Local authorities in Ireland may provide maintenance grants to students, where eligible, who are

entering undergraduate or postgraduate education for the first time. Mature students may be

entitled to maintenance grants on the same basis as other third-level students. The student’s local

VEC (Vocational Educational Committee) provides maintenance grants for Post Leaving

Certificate PLC courses. Maintenance grants are generally based on family income limits, and on

whether or not the student must live away from home to attend college or is living at home.

Adults in receipt of state-benefits, such as job-seekers, disability, one parent family allowances

etc. may have the added costs of their return to education subsidized in part or whole through a

number of ‘Back to Education’ funding initiatives.


The main ‘clients’ of specific adult education tracks – are, traditionally, those who:

(i) are unemployed either in the short-; long-term,

(ii) have left school early,

(iii) possess low levels of formal educational qualifications,

(iv) are migrants/asylum seekers availing of literacy provision in ESOL,

(v) are in receipt of other state benefits/allowances.

The current economic recession has wrought changes in policy and practice in relation to funding

and provisions for the up-skilling/re-training of those who have been recently become

unemployed. This will, in the short to intermediate term, result in changes to the profile of the

main clients of specific adult education tracks.

The funding of adult education services is finite and in some cases has been reduced

dramatically, particularly, in relation to community education initiatives, thus, already limited

resources at service provision level are being further stretched so those most marginalised, such

as the long-term unemployed, become even less likely to access adult educational opportunities.

Entry requirements

While some entry requirements are dependent on conditions imposed by the State as the primary

funding agency, entry requirements to adult education courses, as a whole, vary broadly

according to each specific educational provider and indeed to the particular educational

programme being undertaken.

One example of this might be, entry requirements to the Vocational Training Opportunities

Scheme, VTOS require that students are aged 21 or over, and in receipt of Jobseekers Benefit or

6 Maunsell, C., Downes, P. & McLoughlin, V. (2008). National Report on Lifelong Learning Policies in Ireland.

LLL2010 Towards a Lifelong Learning Society: The Contribution of the Education System. Funded by the European

Union 6th Framework Programme.

64

Assistance, One-Parent Family Payment, Disability Allowance, Disability Benefit or Invalidity

Pension for at least six months to be eligible for participation on the Scheme.

Another example within the higher education system, to be eligible for entry as 'mature' students,

applicants must be 23 years of age by January of the proposed year of entry. While mature

students – apply through the Central Applications Office (CAO) – each institution, and indeed

different programmes within the same institution, may require different entry criteria. Thus

applicants may have to undertake a written test, aptitude test, interview, successfully complete an

access course to the programme/institution as a pre-requisite or a combination of one or more of

these conditions.


Generally limited in the Irish context, though with the introduction of the National Framework of

Qualifications NFQ in 2003 which sets out a 10 level educational structure that accommodates

qualifications gained in schools, the workplace, the community, training centres, colleges and

universities, from the most basic to the most advanced levels of adult learning – a structure now

exists which can allow for transfer across and progression onto other adult education

programmes.


The National Framework of Qualifications NFQ, linked as it is to the European Higher Education

Area – the Bologna Framework, and the European Qualifications, has remit in relation to the

development, recognition and award of qualifications based on standards of knowledge, skill and

competence acquired by learners. It was specifically designed to account for all types of

education and training, no matter the location of provision.

Lithuania


Formal adult education can be administered in:

adult secondary schools (full time and evening courses);

young adults schools (full time, evening, concentrated courses);

vocational training centres (in 5 ranks);

labour exchange training centres (formal, non-formal education programmes);

colleges (full time, extramural, evening courses);

universities(full time, extramural, evening courses);

distance learning;

continues learning;

modular programmes at the education centres;

adult learning at the secondary schools (concentrated courses);

adult learning centres;

business and technology schools;

agricultural schools;

possibility to continue studies at courses, seminars, formal education programme studies

in other EU countries.


Financial support for the adult education comes from: a) state budget and municipal budget; b)

other sources. Education is financed in accordance with the State Investment Programme, as well

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as in accordance with the Government and the Ministry of Education and Science approved

programmes. Municipal funding is drawn from the municipal budgets. Formal adult education

institutions: adult schools, learning centres, and adult classes in the secondary schools are

financed in accordance with the learner’s basket formation methods and the relative number of

learners counting method. Obtaining of basic education and general upper secondary education is

free for students. Within the scope of the state commissioned education, free education is also

provided for obtaining vocational education in the form of part-time study. Higher education

study allowances are granted only to full time students with the “learner’s basket”. Higher

education in the part-time form of study is payable.


They are:

people with unfinished secondary or other education;

people without required profession or qualification;

people seeking to re-qualify;

mothers forced to interrupt their studies;

people kept in detention;

people reintegrating market after imprisonment;

migrants;

national minority representatives;

disabled;

other labour market players (or unemployed).

Persons younger than 35 years make 97.6% of adult students in secondary schools, 90.3 % - in

colleges, 94.5% in vocational schools and 91.4% - at the universities (Lithuanian statistics, 2008

data). Thus, a majority of adult students are younger than 35.

Entry requirements

All institutions providing general and/or professional education admit individuals upon

submission of a certificate of previous education in any adult formal education institution.

Colleges admit all individuals who produce a document about graduating from the secondary

education, where three graduation marks significant for the particular college are taken into

consideration and on their basis the applicants compete.

Higher non-university schools accept adults in accordance with the admission procedure at each

separate school and on the basis of the document certifying formal completion of the secondary

level education.

University Bachelor degree programmes are open to adults in compliance with the general

admission rules determined by the Government and the Ministry of Education and Science and

on the basis of the maturation diploma or a graduation diploma from non-university higher

education school.

The graduate programmes admit adults in compliance with the general admission rules

determined by the Government and the Ministry of Education and Science and on the basis of the

Bachelor Degree certificate or a graduation diploma from non-university higher education school.

66

For non-university higher education school graduates complementary courses are organized to

supplement 40-80 credit deficit.


Formal adult education institution graduation documents certify certain general level of

education. Labour Exchange non-formal vocational training programmes are completed with

certain certificates (the graduates receive documents on a module completion and qualification

certificate). These documents let the adult learner apply for studies in formal education

institutions if the received certificates grant comparable degree of received education to the

intended school’s programme (re. programme content and number of hours of training).

In accordance to the individualized school (secondary, higher, professional and university level)

requirements the following may be applied: knowledge test by examination; compensation

course; supplementary credits to match formal programme requirements; in separate cases

admission may depend on the age of adult students and on the size of the class.

Credentials from specific tracks Formal adult education can be successfully continued stepping on a higher education degree every time. The

first step – basic general education. The document testifying to the presence of this education open doors to

study in colleges, professional schools or higher, university education (Bachelor, Master studies depending on

the requirements of a certain institution).

Norway


Adult education is normally located in regular secondary schools, often organized in

collaboration with education and training networks serving adults. Separate adult education

institutions are not common in Norway. All adults can apply for attending regular full-time and

part-time training.

Distance education institutions

With a low population density and endowed with a long-stretched coast, Norway developed adult

education based on distance teaching very early. Among the providers are separate distant

education institutions and study associations covering all ISCED levels.

There is a variety of distance education institutions in Norway. 13 detached distance educations

were reported active in 2006. Of the 24 registered member institutions in the Norwegian

Association for Distance Education (NADE), there are public higher education institutions,

which often have their own centres of further and continuing education. There are also private

institutions specialized in specific vocational areas, detached distance education institutions with

a broad profile offering education at different levels and umbrella organizations embracing

several member organizations and cooperation partners. The detached distance education

institutions are regulated by the law of adult education (§11) and come in different shapes; such

as organizations, foundations or schools for a branch or an economic sector.

Study associations

The Adult Education Law embraces study associations but they are separated from the public

educational system. The 19 publicly recognized study associations are idealistic organizations

that consist of 400 nationwide membership organizations, built upon democratic principles

emanating from the voluntary sector and the civil society.

67

Most study associations offer a broad range of formal and non-formal studies and courses, of

shorter and longer duration, at all educational levels both of theoretical and practical nature.

Study associations are supposed to reflect the political and cultural multitude of society, and

traditionally many courses have been tied to Norwegian cultural traditions. The Law of Adult

Education opens up for some collaboration with the formal educational system, and today

increasingly more study associations offer adult education that is related to the public educational

system. In practical terms, this means that public schools living up to the statutory right for pupils

to complete education are buying courses from study associations. Equally, public employment

offices buy courses from study associations as part of labour market training for unemployed

people.

As a general rule, public compulsory education in Norway is free of charge. At upper secondary

level, pupils only pay for text books and study material. University students have to cover their

own textbooks and study material, but they can apply for grants and loans from the Norwegian

State Educational Loan Fund in order to cover these expenses. Moreover, adult students can

receive additional financial support.


If these tracks are sorted along educational levels, the following picture occurs: Adult students in

basic education are primarily low-skilled immigrants or people dropped out from initial

education. At upper secondary level, both in general and vocational education, there are more

dropouts from initial education and slightly less immigrants compared with basic education.

Adults in university training represent more Norwegian speaking students with Norwegian

parents, but also immigrants completing studies started in foreign countries enrol in universities.

What most adult students have in common is that they tend to have job experiences and that they

now want to climb the educational ladder.

Entry requirements

As study associations and distant education institutions are gradually approaching ordinary

formal education, the entry requirements for formal courses will become more equal to the

national requirements. The issue of mainstream vs. specific requirements can be elucidated by

existing procedures for validation of non-formal and informal learning.

The Norwegian framework for validating non-formal and informal learning in the formal

education system makes a distinction between access to and shortening of education/training. It

aims to facilitate the appreciation of learning in different settings and life situations and at

different levels of the education system. The assessment of “Real Competencies” is less

commonly used in primary and lower secondary education than in upper secondary school.

Validation of non-formal and informal learning is also relevant for higher education. Applicants

aged 23+ might obtain ‘general study competence’ if they have spent five years in education after

lower secondary school or provided they have five years of vocational practice. From the age of

25, applicants can be enrolled in higher education provided that each university considers that

their non-formal and informal competencies allow them to study specific subjects. In the last

case, the students in question do not obtain ‘general study competence’. Around 10 % of the total

number of students is now being enrolled according to the procedure for those aged 25+.

Higher education institutions have very gradually started to develop procedures for exchanging

prior learning with shortened studies.

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Given that adult learners have statutory rights to complete their education up to and including the

upper secondary level, they have in principle equal opportunities for moving within and between

educational ‘mainstream tracks’ as students in initial education.


Credentials from the few specific adult education tracks do not systematically differ from those

obtained in ’mainstream’ tracks’ belonging to the formal education system.

Russia


Formal education in Russia is regulated by the Russian Federation Law ‘On Education’ that

defines general demands to education system as well as to different institutions and citizens.

There are no specifications in the law concerning formal adult education. However, there are

specific laws and legislative acts concerning education of adults, especially those belonging to

socially underrepresented groups (former military persons, orphans, disabled people, prisoners,

etc).

Thus, although in practice separate programs are often organized by institutions of formal

education for adult learners at ISCED levels 1-4 (evening schools, prison schools, educational

centres) they are officially regulated by the general legislation that does not distinguish between

initial and adult education. On the level of tertiary educational programs there often exists no

practical distinction which leads to the situation when young and adult participants are jointly

enrolled into the same courses.

Adult education also develops in the form of the additional education system which includes both

formal and non-formal programs. In addition to granting the opportunities for acquiring

secondary education it offers alternative forms of post-compulsory vocational training without

getting compulsory secondary education with the purpose to cover the shortage of skilled

workers. A set of various forms and levels of additional (general and vocational) training creates

the system that fills the gaps of compulsory primary and secondary education. Higher general and

vocational training is the basic form of post-compulsory education. The system of continuing

education (lifelong learning) starting from preschool education and up to additional education is

built as an independent system of continuous general and vocational training on the basis of

primary education. Generally, contemporary Russian system of adult formal education proves to

be rather chaotic and thus inefficient.


According to the national Act ‘On Education’ (article 41. Financing of educational institutions)

compulsory primary and secondary education is entirely financed by the state and is free for

learners. However, the financing system of education is now in the process of transformation,

which main idea is to introduce per capita budgets (based on the number of students) for

education institutions of all ISCED levels. Besides, a new projected law proposing a number of

school subjects to be paid is currently being under consideration.

Higher education is usually funded by the state budget as well as by tuition payments. Most

universities have both paid and unpaid programs for students. There are special quotes for budget

and paid places in every university. Students, who have managed to pass all exams with high

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results enrol into free programs, and those, whose results are not that good, can enrol into a

university on paid basis. At the same time, the sector of commercial formal adult educational

offers is rapidly developing.

As far as vocational schools are concerned, there are both free and paid programs available. The

tuition fees are paid either by learners or their employers.

For unemployed citizens registered as such at employment centres both formal and non-formal

educational professional training are available for free.

Employed citizens willing to improve their professional skills be enrolling into formal or non-

formal educational programs bear the costs either themselves or have them paid by their

employers. Sometimes the costs are shared by both parties.

At vocational training and tertiary education adult learners are entitled to monthly stipends in line

with existing stipend schemes without any limitations.


As far as adult learners in the system of secondary education are concerned, they are mostly

represented by early school leavers returning to school in order to obtain full secondary education

and take the Unified National Examination (UNE). Besides, secondary education in prisons is

compulsory for all prisoners under 30 years of age without complete secondary school diploma.

Adult learners of professional vocational education institutions are mostly those enrolled in short-

term paid professional courses paid either by themselves or their employers

However, the percentage of adult learners in the system of secondary and professional vocational

education is rather low, the majority of adult learners are enrolled in higher education institutions.

Most employers require their employees to have a higher degree, even at the positions where

such high qualification if often unnecessary. Therefore, adult learners are rather motivated to

obtain higher education. The amount of those acquiring 2nd higher degree also increases in

Russia during last years even though it is paid.

Entry requirements

The entry requirements for the enrolment in formal education are defined by respective laws and

by individual education programmes. They are the same for young and adult students, some

privileges are made for orphans and disabled applicants in the system of vocational and higher

education. The basic requirement is adequate educational certificate or diploma validated by the

state as well as passed exams. In order to be admitted to a higher education institution applicants

have to successfully pass the Unified National Examination (UNE) and sometimes some other

additional exams.

Educational legislation doesn’t provide a possibility for validation and recognition of non-formal

education and learning as well as prior work experience.

Opportunities to shift between formal and non-formal education

The system of non-formal education in Russia started to grow large and get more oriented at the

labour market after the collapse of the Soviet Union, when there appeared a wide range of

commercial education courses aimed both at career and personal interests development. The main

obstacle for non-formal educational programs development is that they are not integrated into the

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formal educational ladder and the recognition of prior non-formal learning by formal educational

institutions is not possible. Formal educational system in contemporary Russia benefits from its

privileged position and moves towards further commercialization and social exclusion of

marginalized groups (e.g. through the cancellation of correspondence courses and the extinction

of evening schools) thus preventing educational market from multidimensional development.

Even though the matters of non-formal education, adult and lifelong learning are being widely

discussed by the officials, who see such programs as a good support and addition for the system

of formal education, the systems of formal and non-formal education remain disconnected. So

far, there are no visible efforts on the part of the government aimed at making bridges between

the two in order to make the system of education in Russia modernized and more accessible for

different categories of population. However, it is clear that non-formal education should become

a fully legitimate participant of the educational system because current formal education is unable

to provide learners with quality knowledge and skills required by the modern labour market.

Slovenia


Formal educational system in Slovenia is designed so that adult formal education forms a

complementary system to the education of children and youth. This means that all levels of

education are accessible to adults, from primary education onwards. Therefore formal educational

system deals with adults at its every level. No specific track within formal education is geared to

adults.

The renewed Vocational education and training act from 2006 and the Higher education act do

not acknowledge adult education; instead they distinguish between regular and irregular

education. Regular education covers full time youth education and irregular education designates

part-time education which is intended for adults. According to the Vocational and professional

education act employed and unemployed persons as well as those of 16 years of age and older

who have lost their status of a regular pupil may enrol into irregular vocational and technical

education.

In contrast, the Gimnazija act speaks of education of adults. This act states that employed,

unemployed and those older than 18 years of age may enrol in education for adults. According to

the above secondary education legislation, adults/irregular students may enrol either in

educational programmes specially prepared for adults or in educational programmes for youth

adjusted to the needs and peculiarities of adults.


Financing of regular education at the primary and secondary level is the responsibility of the

state. This holds also for regular tertiary education when it is provided in the public sector.

There is no unified approach to the financing of irregular (adult) education. Primary education is

entirely state financed. At the secondary and tertiary level participants have to pay the tuition fee.

Whether participants alone are bearers of financial costs of their education or not depends on

their employment status. Adults who are unemployed and registered with the National

employment office may have their formal education subsidised on the basis of the Active

employment policy programme. The employed not eligible for the support of their formal

education from the active employment policy programme bear the costs either themselves or have

them paid by their employers; sometimes the costs are shared by both parties.

71

Adults are entitled to scholarship in line with existing scholarship schemes only if they are

younger than 28 years of age and holders of the status of a student.

The main ‘clients’ of irregular education

Here one has to distinguish between secondary and tertiary education. At the level of secondary

education one can most often find young dropouts who return to schooling to obtain their first

formal qualification and those finishing vocational training who would like to pass maturity

examination in order to enrol in tertiary studies or upgrade their attained certificates because of

promotion at the work place.

Looking at the tertiary level where irregular students represent about 24 % of all enrolled in

tertiary studies, the picture is somewhat different. Since tertiary education in Slovenia is very

exclusionary every study year the number of the candidates for enrolment largely exceeds the

number of available study places for regular students. Therefore a large number of young people,

who do not fulfil the criteria for regular enrolment, enrol in tertiary studies as irregular students

immediately after finished secondary education.

Entry requirements

The entry requirements for the enrolment in formal education are defined by respective laws and

by individual education programmes. They are the same for regular and irregular students. The

basic requirement is adequate educational certificate or diploma. A universal entrant ticket for

tertiary education is successfully passed general maturity examination.

Educational legislation has opened the possibility for validation and recognition of non-formal

education and learning as well as work experiences but the whole process is still at its very

beginning. In addition, it is not foreseen that work experiences or non-formal education and

learning my count towards entry requirements; it is recognised only upon the enrolment in

particular education /study programme.


Irregular students at the secondary vocational and technical education do not have the possibility

to shift to the regular track if they are employed, unemployed or are 16 years old and older, and

have lost their status of a regular pupil. As for general secondary education the age limit is 18

years. In addition, differences in organisation of delivery of the educational programmes may

represent a serious barrier to such shift.

No legal barriers for shifting from irregular to regular studies exist at the tertiary level. Higher

education institutions themselves define their own internal criteria. They are usually represented

by attained average grades in a particular study year. How strictly they apply them is again

dependent on the number of available study places for regular students. Moreover, it has to be

considered that irregular study represents an important financial source for an educational

institution. With transferring irregular students to the mainstream track the inflow of additional

financial means decreases.

On the other hand, tertiary education students may switch from regular to irregular track any time

without any limitations.

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Equivalency of credentials obtained from the irregular track

Credentials obtained from irregular track of formal education are based on standards of

educational outcomes, which are equivalent to standards obtained from regular education. Hence,

they give the same opportunities for the development of educational and occupational careers.

England


The principal institutions offering formal learning opportunities to adults in England are the

further education (FE) colleges. These are located in most major towns (larger city often have

several); there are over 400 FE colleges in England and Wales. The sector is characterised by its

diversity. Some are chiefly ‘sixth-form colleges’, essentially providing the last two years of

schooling for 16-18 year-old students (where local schools do not have ‘sixth forms’). Some are

very large, with over 30,000 enrolments, some (especially the sixth-form colleges) have fewer

than a thousand. There are also a few focussed on specific areas: agriculture and horticulture, and

art, design and performing arts. However, many are general colleges, combining sixth-form

provision with provision for adults, chiefly of a vocational and skills-related character.

Some colleges, especially in big cities, have large programmes of foundation-level work: this is

not directly vocational, but provides essential language and life skills for employability. Some

colleges are focussed very much on local employer needs – though even here, some are quite

narrow in their curriculum, as with the art of agricultural colleges, while others are much broader.

Some courses contribute to apprenticeship training, others to retraining for the unemployed.

Many colleges offer programmes of higher education (HE), often in collaboration with

universities. The levels of programmes offered therefore extend from ISCED level 2 to level 5.

In England, the term ‘adult education’ traditionally referred to a body of largely non-vocational

and non-accredited part-time study provided partly within FE, but also within a range of local

authority adult education centres or institutes, by universities (through ‘extra-mural’ or ‘adult

education’ departments), and by bodies such as the Workers’ Educational Association (WEA).

Changes over the past two decades, however, have meant that university provision for adults is

largely in the form of part-time programmes leading, or accredited toward, undergraduate

degrees. Unaccredited provision within the WEA and adult education institute sector is now

limited.


Finance for formal adult education comes from three main sources: government, the student (or

his or her family, friends, etc.), and students’ employers. Government funding is channelled

chiefly through the Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) in respect of

courses leading to qualifications at degree level (whether in universities of FE colleges) or

through the Learning and Skills Council (in respect of all other provision). The LSC, established

in 2001 under the Learning and Skills Act 2000, is to be abolished, however. Under the

Education and Skills Act 2008, responsibility for funding learning ‘post-19’ will be transferred

with effect from April 2010 to a new Skills Funding Agency. The SFA ‘will route around £4

billion of funding swiftly, efficiently and securely to FE colleges and other providers, including

the Third Sector, primarily in response to customer (employer and learner) choice’. The

underpinning ideology is that it should be ‘demand-led and customer focused’.

73

Within the higher education sector, full-time and part-time students are charged fees. Full-time

students are eligible for loans to support tuition fees, and, depending on their household income,

to support maintenance. Support for part-time students is less routine, and typically less generous.

In FE, the Adult Learning Grant provides ‘up to £30 per week during term time – that’s around

£1,000 a year’ to students aged 19 or over who are studying full-time (at least 12 hours per week)

for their first Level 2 or Level 3 qualification. Following a government decision in 2007, there is

a general presumption in HE and FE that students will not receive funding in respect of courses

which are at a level equivalent to, or lower than, a level they have already achieved (albeit in a

different subject).


With very limited exceptions there are no tracks designed specifically for adults. The main

exception is the ‘Access to Higher Education Diploma’, designed to provide mature students who

have not gained standard university entry qualifications (normally, A-levels) with the knowledge

and study skills needed for higher education). Around 1,000 such courses are offered across the

country, in subjects including arts and humanities, legal studies, science, technology and nursing.

Entry requirements

Adults who wish to enrol in education are not required to have a formal initial qualification,

provided they are ‘mature students’ (typically, aged 21 or over). (Many postgraduate degrees and

professional qualifications are exceptions.) Often colleges (and sometimes universities) have

arrangements for assessment of prior (or sometimes prior experiential) learning (APL or APEL).


Although the principle of consumer choice is well-established, the practice often falls short of

this. In many cases, specific courses will have progression requirements which hinder post-entry

movement between tracks. This is particularly true of professional qualifications, where

universities and colleges are often beholden to the power of professional bodies. Arrangements

for credit transfer are often limited, especially within the university sector between ‘elite’ and

“non-elite” institutions.


The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) sets out the levels against which a qualification

can be recognised in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. It is intended to help learners make

informed decisions about what qualifications they wish to take, by comparing the levels of

different qualifications and identifying different progression routes. Qualifications are at nine

levels (‘entry’ to level 8); levels 4-8 cover various levels of higher education award. This is now

being supplemented with a range of credit weightings under the Qualifications and Credit

Framework, designed to ‘present qualifications in a way that is easy to understand and measure’

(http://www.qcda.gov.uk/19674.aspx) Credit weightings are based on the size (volume of study)

of the programme concerned.

Scotland


Within the formal education system there are a number of programmes available to adult learners

and these are offered mainly through Scotland’s colleges (also known as further education

colleges); however, the courses are open to all irrespective of age. The one exception is Access to

Higher Education courses. These are only available to those aged 21 and over. It could be seen

http://www.qcda.gov.uk/19674.aspx

74

(as the Slovenian system) as complementary to the initial education system. Colleges offer

courses from basic literacy/numeracy to post-graduate qualifications. They therefore span ISCED

levels 2 up to and including level 5. They have a strong focus on vocational qualifications and it

is possible to study full-time or part-time and a considerable number of courses are available

online.

The term ‘adult education’ has been used mainly in relation to the development of community

education following the Alexander report Adult Education: the challenge of change. Community

education included adult learning, youth work and community work and it changed to

Community Learning and Development (Wallace, 20087). It has had a strong focus on

community based learning for adults as well as youth work and community work. However,

many of the courses provided do not offer accredited learning and would therefore not qualify as

‘formal adult education’. The boundaries are blurred though between community education and

colleges. Some community education courses are provided in colleges and courses sometimes

provided by Community Learning and Development provide SQA accreditation.


Formal adult education provided in colleges and universities is financed by the Scottish Funding

Council (SFC). Here are differences between full-time and part-time studying.

Full-time courses: All Scottish domiciled students, irrespective of age, are entitled to free

education (fees paid) up to and including ISCED level 5 (undergraduate qualification). College

students may also be eligible for allowances to cover: set texts, health and safety equipment,

study trips, dependant’s allowance, childcare costs and travel costs. Students in higher education

can apply for a student loan to cover living costs; students in colleges can apply for a means

tested bursary.

Part-time studies: College students are expected to pay their own fees but may receive

support/fee waiver if they are in receipt of certain benefits, are on a low income or disabled.

Students over 16 can apply for an Individual Learning Account of £200/year to be used towards

the cost of the course. Allowances such as Jobseekers Allowance (unemployed) and Income

Support benefits can affect the number of hours a person can study.

Non-advanced college courses leading to an SQA qualification are normally free of charge to all

students.


As can be seen from above there are no specific adult education tracks except for Access to

Higher Education courses. These are aimed at students who do not have the relevant

qualifications to access higher education and successful completion of an Access course provides

entry to certain degree course. Colleges often have links with specific universities which allow

transfer from Access course to degree level course.

7 Wallace, D. (2008) Community Education and Community Learning and Development, In: T.G.K. Bryce and

W.M. Humes Scottish Education: 3rd edition beyond devolution. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press

75

Entry requirements

Adults wishing to enter into education do not normally need formal initial education

qualifications provided they are classed as ‘mature students’ (over 21 for undergraduate study).

Colleges are normally more flexible than universities though all state that they offer APL at least.


Students can change courses but this may affect funding for the course; however, to gain a

particular qualification there will be a specified number of modules and levels that have to be

achieved by the student. The extent to which you can shift will also depend on the course you

wish to do, e.g. a mature adult student will be affected by the level of the course, the entry

requirements (especially if it is an elite university) and also, for certain professions, by the

requirement of any professional body.


All course programmes within the formal education system are linked to the Scottish Credit and

Qualifications Framework (SCQF). They are assigned to a level and allocated a certain number of

credit points and range from Level 1 (Access 1 – note this is not the same as Access to Higher

Education courses) to 12 (doctoral degrees). Level 1 starts roughly with modules/qualifications

aimed at 16-year olds who are still at school though colleges also offer this provision. A number

of vocational qualifications are also included in this framework. The credit points are based on

notional number of hours of study. A full-time course over one year is normally 120 credits.

Courses included within the system are either accredited by the Scottish Qualifications Authority

(SQA) – initial education system courses – or by the universities as they have degree awarding

powers. University teaching and learning for the UK is overseen by the Qualification Assurance

Agency (QAA). As the majority of qualifications are based on modules it is possible to build up a

qualification over a period of time. The intention of the qualifications framework was that it

would open up access for all – but this has not really happened (it is discussed by interviewees in

SP5).

76

4.3. MESO LEVEL CARACTERISTICS AND ADULT LEARENER’S PERCEPTIONS OF THE LEARNING INSTITUTIONS

4.3.1. Characteristics of the Learning Institutions

It is widely accepted that the motivational process can be influenced by external factors. Within

the context of education, we can argue that school level variables can increase the attractiveness

of the learning activity. Furthermore, clear and functional information on the content of the

learning activity as well as on the practical organisation of the study programme are necessary to

convince adults to enrol for a course (Cross, 1981). Barriers experienced by the adult learners

have a hindering effect and cause drop outs. Therefore, it is important that the practical

organisation of the courses is in accordance with the educational needs of the adult learner.

In the further linear regression analysis, as a first variable related to the organisation of the study

programme, we observe the effect of the level of the current course. Statistics on socio-

demographic, socio-economic and socio-cultural profiles showed significant differences between

educational levels. Within the regression analyses with motivational aspects as dependent

variables, we are also interested if the level of the current course has a significant relationship

with motivational characteristics. Other variables of interest in our study consist of perceptions of

the learning organisation from the point of view of the individual learner. First variable here

focuses on the entrance requirements, indicating that previous qualification was needed by an

extensive group of adult learners enrolled at the highest level courses (Table 4.1.A, Appendix).

Second set of variables focuses on the course organisation. Modular courses were more indicated

by adult learners at higher educational levels, while classical linear system was widely recognised

at lower levels (ISCED 2-3). Granting exemptions for certain parts of the study programme on

the basis of prior learning or relevant experience is more practiced at tertiary education.

Another aspect of course organisation is the intensity of work done within school premises: how

long is the entire course/programme, how often learners go to classes and for how many hours

per week. On the average, most adults reported that the duration of the course is up to one year,

less than a tenth were taking two-year courses. Adult learners studying in higher education

(ISCED 5-6) were most likely to take courses that lasted for one year, while at ISCED 4 there

were about 20% of learners taking longer courses. It is also evident that adult learners at ISCED

level 5 attend school less frequently than those at ISCED 2-4. This is also apparent by class hours

where learners at ISCED level 2-4 mostly have classes for 20 hours a week and more; learners at

ISCED level 5 on the other hand less than 20 hours (the range is rather broad though: 5-19

hours). Difference in average class size as estimated by the adult learners themselves show that

bigger classes (21-50 students) are more common at ISCED level 5 and about one tenth of these

learners attend courses with even 51 students and more. Adult learners at ISCED levels 2-4 learn

mostly in groups with up to 20 students and third of learners at ISCED level 2 have classes with

up to 5 student-groups. Differences of didactical methods are rather small, but it is clear that

distance education is more used within tertiary education than primary and lower secondary

education. While one-on-one teaching is due to bigger classes less practiced at ISCED 3-5.

Results show that at all ISCED levels adult learners are faced with course fees, more so at higher

educational levels. Thus, if at ISCED level 2 about 20% of adult learners report paying entirely or

77

partly for their course themselves, then at ISCED level 5 the respective percentage is 56.

Accordingly, financial means and support is also much more received by adult learners at ISCED

levels 4 and 5 because in many countries post-secondary and tertiary education is at least partly

for a fee. Therefore, student grants and loans are somewhat more common at ISCED levels 4 and

5; paid leave and educational leave benefit at ISCED 5; and travel allowances at ISCED 2-4.

Adult learners at higher educational levels (ISCED 4 and 5) report also more often than others

problems related to financial issues. Of course financial problems are not solely resulting from

educational fees, adult learners at any educational level might also struggle with supporting

themselves and/or their family. Hence, about one third of those studying at ISCED level 2 and 3

report having financial problems while participating in adult education (Figure 4.14). However,

most pronounced problem at all educational levels appears to be the lack of time for studying,

especially so at ISCED level 5 (60%) and less at ISCED 2 (32%). Other rather essential problems

for adult learners at all ISCED levels are transportation and lack of preparation for the study

programme. In addition, at higher educational levels also studies being scheduled at an

inconvenient time seem to pose considerable difficulties (19% at ISCED 4 and 29% at ISCED 5).

Other problems do not show significant differences between educational levels of the current

course.

0,0

10,0

20,0

30,0

40,0

50,0

60,0

70,0

ISCED 1-2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5-6

Too little time for studying Financial problems

Transportation problems Lack of preparation for the study programme

Studies scheduled at an inconvenient time Troubles arranging for childcare

Family problems Difficulties competing with younger students

Figure 4.14 Problems and barriers related to the current course

Next to the problems adult learners are facing during their learning activities we were also

interested in services which are provided for them by the educational institutions and which of

those are they actively using. Table 4.2 shows that most educational institutions provide learners

with library, Internet access, cafeteria and services for study advice, although to somewhat lesser

degree at lower ISCED levels. Near half of the adult learners at ISCED level 5 also acknowledge

availability of sports accommodation and dormitory. Career services appear to be offered more

frequently at ISCED levels 4 and 5. There are fewer differences between educational levels in

availability of other services. Regrettably, least available service according to adult learners in the

78

current study is transportation, which is one of the most apparent problems for learners.

Accordingly, services most often used by adult learners are the ones that were most available to

them, yet at much lower rate than the actual availability would let us presume.

Table 4.2 Services provided by the educational institutions by ISCED level, %

ISCED 1-2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5-6 Total

SERVICES AVAILABLE AT

SCHOOL

Library 55.0 59.0 72.8 92.6 70.6

Internet access 55.1 62.1 67.1 84.6 68.0

Cafeteria 45.5 56.4 67.8 77.0 62.3

Services for study advice 51.1 50.5 57.8 64.1 56.1

Sports accommodation 21.3 24.0 32.7 45.5 31.3

Career services 22.6 21.7 29.5 36.0 27.6

Social services 23.1 22.5 26.9 27.5 25.0

Dormitory 6.9 11.2 29.2 49.1 24.9

Medical services 19.5 17.5 27.1 23.7 21.9

Legal services 9.1 11.2 18.7 17.2 14.1

Childcare 14.1 9.6 11.4 10.6 11.3

Transportation 6.1 5.8 9.2 5.9 6.6

SERVICES USED BY LEARNERS

Cafeteria 28.7 34.3 44.1 53.4 40.4

Library 27.2 30.2 40.1 61.2 40.1

Internet access 26.2 29.7 35.0 50.0 35.6

Services for study advice 26.1 24.1 27.6 27.6 26.3

Sports accommodation 8.7 6.9 6.7 9.0 7.9

Career services 7.0 7.1 8.4 8.4 7.7

Medical services 7.3 4.8 5.9 4.7 5.6

Social services 6.0 4.0 3.4 3.4 4.1

Legal services 2.1 2.8 5.0 2.9 3.2

Transportation 2.2 1.9 2.1 1.5 1.9

Childcare 2.2 2.2 1.4 0.6 1.6

4.3.2. Country Differences in Characteristics of the Learning Institutions

While deciding about re-entering formal education system, important factors among other things

are entrance requirements, weather one can get exemptions for certain parts of the study

programme, how the course is organised and how often and intensively are classes organised. We

see that previous qualifications are more often required in Central and Eastern European

countries (Table 4.2.A, Appendix). Thus, in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary,

Lithuania, Russia and Slovenia adult learners at all educational levels report much more often

than other countries that previous qualifications were necessary before entering current study

programme. In the UK and Ireland, however, previous qualifications are needed far less.

Interestingly, Norway resembles here more of CEE countries than the UK and Ireland, showing a

bit higher level of requirement of previous qualification when compared to the total average.

Results of Austria and Belgium are in between, although at lowest educational level in Belgium

previous qualifications are required only from about 6% of respondents, which corresponds to the

overall peculiarity of Belgian ISCED 2 case. Differences between countries by the requirement of

previous qualifications are smaller at tertiary level of education. Yet also here previous

qualifications are more required in CEE countries, together with Belgium and Norway – about

90% of respondents acknowledge this requirement. In case of Austria, the UK and Ireland

previous qualifications at ISCED level 5 seem to be required somewhat less.

79

Entrance tests (including interview), as part of study programme enrolment procedure, are

practiced by educational institutions to a far lesser extent and there is more variance by countries

by ISCED levels. Thus, at the lowest level of education we see that in Austria and Russia

entrance tests were required more often than on average (35%) – 60-70% of respondents report

passing entrance tests. In Belgium, Scotland, England, Hungary and Bulgaria, on the other hand,

entrance tests were mentioned as an entry requirement only by 10-20% of adult learners. In

Estonia, Lithuania, Slovenia and Norway entry tests were required from 37-46% of adult

learners. At ISCED levels 3-5 entrance tests are practiced more often, and accordingly variation

between countries decreases as the level of education increases. About 50-60% of adult learners

report having performed an entrance test while enrolling to ISCED level 3 programme in the

Czech Republic, Russia, Ireland, Scotland and Estonia. Results are considerably different in case

of Hungary and Bulgaria where only 7-13% of adult learners recognise entrance test as one of

enrolment requirements. At ISCED level 4 entrance tests were required more often from students

in Scotland, Ireland, Russia, Estonia, Lithuania and England (63-77%); and significantly less in

case of Hungary, Austria, Belgium, Norway and Slovenia (12-27%). When entering to highest

level of education, entrance test is regarded as important screening measure of students in Russia,

Estonia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Austria and Scotland, 63-86% of respondents indicated

performing a test. Yet in Belgium and Norway only about 20% of students had to take an

entrance test during their admission to ISCED level 5 programme.

Next we are interested whether after re-entering formal education system learners are entitled to

exemptions for certain parts of the study programme on the basis of prior learning or relevant

life/work experience (Table 4.3.A, Appendix). It appears, as expected, that accreditation of prior

learning (APL, diploma or certificate required) is more widespread than accreditation of prior

experiential learning (APEL). Results indicate clearly Norway to be a forerunner in applying

APL and APEL broadly at all ISCED levels. In Norway there is no distinction between APL and

APEL, both of those exemptions are regarded as “real competences”8. Thus, 60% of Norwegian

adult learners studying at primary and lower secondary education state that they have been

granted exemptions for certain parts of the current study programme on the basis of prior learning

and life competences. In Bulgaria, Slovenia, Estonia and Austria there are about 30-40% of

learners at ISCED level 2 admitting of receiving exemptions on the basis of prior learning and 6-

22% on the basis on prior experiential learning. Respective rates for Lithuania are 16% APL/9%

APEL; and for England 11% APL/7% APEL. However, there are countries with similar to

Norwegian results in implementing APL/APEL at intermediate levels of education – ISCED 3

and 4. Hence, at ISCED level 3, compared to 67% of those in Norway, 61% of learners in

Slovenia and Austria also report of getting exemptions on the basis of prior learning. Another 12-

14% of Slovenian and Austrian students have been granted exemptions on the basis of prior life

and/or work experience. The level of receiving exemptions on the basis of APL is somewhat

higher than average also in Estonia (39% compared to the average of 25%); 20% of students

report exemptions on the basis of APEL as well (average is 9%). Slovenia, Estonia and especially

Austria stand out with implementation of APL also at ISCED level 4. In Lithuania, Belgium and

England results are close to the average of 24%. Around 20% of those studying at ISCED 4

report APEL exemptions in case of Ireland, Estonia, Austria, Russia and Lithuania (average here

is 12%). Norway stands particularly out at the highest level of education with over 90% of adult

8 In Norway, exceptions can be made with regard to admission and/or shortening of studies. According to SP3

Norwegian survey, overall exceptions regarding admission seem a bit more common than exceptions regarding

shortening of studies.

80

learners getting exemptions on the basis of their prior competences. Other countries exceeding

the average of 28% for APL at ISCED level 5 are Austria, Lithuania and Belgium (49-43%); and

for APEL Austria, Slovenia, Russia, Hungary and Lithuania with 20-40% compared to the

average of 14%.

Predominantly, courses in a study programme are organised as linear, i.e. standard year system

(Table 4.4.A, Appendix). To increase learning flexibility for participants educational institutions

are gradually introducing modular system: intense lessons in a shorter time period. At tertiary

level of education there are already more than half of SP3 sample taking courses via modules. At

the lowest level, however, modular courses are rather broadly introduced only in Ireland and

Norway (about 40%). In case of Estonia there are about 30% of adult learners at ISCED level 2

saying that courses are organised by modules. Modular courses seem to be practically nonexistent

at primary and lower secondary education in Bulgaria, Slovenia and Hungary. Yet, when in

Bulgaria and Slovenia linear system prevails (98%), then in Hungary there are 79% of learners

taking courses via standard year system. At ISCED level 3 modular courses are most widely used

in Belgium – 65%. In Norway and Ireland about 40% of adult learners study via modules; in

Austria, Estonia and the Czech Republic around 30%. Modular study is used the least again in

Slovenia, Bulgaria and Hungary. At higher ISCED levels courses are organised via modules

much more often. Thus, at ISCED level 4 more than 60% of adult learners in Lithuania, Estonia

and Ireland take up modular courses; in Norway 54%, and around 40% in Bulgaria and Belgium.

Modular system is least popular at ISCED level 4 in Hungary, but also in Slovenia, Russia and

Austria. Yet, in higher education 91% of Hungarian adult learners report taking courses via

modules; modules are widely recognised in Lithuania, Estonia, Ireland, the Czech Republic and

Norway as well (65-87%). In Belgium and Austria respective rates are 41% and 32%, while in

Bulgaria a quarter of adult students take modular courses; and only 16-18% of adult learners in

Russia and Slovenia study by modules.

Further, adult learners were asked to indicate intensity of the classes: how long is the entire

course/programme (the start and the expected end date of the course) and how often are they

going to school (Tables 4.5.A and 4.6.A, Appendix). In general, adult learners take courses that

last up to one year, only 10% of all respondents had longer courses. To this question we have

overall 40% of missing answers, thus we might assume that learners were not sure when exactly

did they start and when will they end current study programme or perhaps they just decided to

leave these questions unanswered. At ISCED level 2 almost all learners in Belgium, Bulgaria,

Ireland, Lithuania and Slovenia report having courses that last no longer than one year, while in

Estonia and Hungary 70-75% and in Russia 46% admit the same. In case of Estonia, Hungary

(~50%) and Russia (~70%) also at ISCED level 3 and 4 there are less adult learners studying for

up to one year. Whereas in other countries the respective percentage remains between 80 and

100. Country differences are less evident at ISCED 5, although again in Estonia and Hungary, but

also in Austria there are somewhat less adult learners taking courses that last up to one year

(~70%). Mostly, adult learners are attending school more than three times a week9, however,

quite many students in basic and secondary education claim attending school once a week (22%

at ISCED 2 and 29% at ISCED 3). Only few adult learners at ISCED 2-4 go to school less than

once a week, but among learners at ISCED level 5 there are 25% of learners visiting school that

seldom. So in general, adult learners at the highest educational level (need to) attend school less

frequently than others. Because most adult learners in our sample go to classes more than three

9 In the questionnaire, ‘more than three times a week’ was a maximum given frequency for the respondent to answer

about how many times a week is s/he going to the educational institution for instruction.

81

times a week (41%) and in this case it gets rather difficult to combine learning activities with

other domains of one’s life (at home, at work, in civil society), following analysis by ISCED

levels and by countries will be presented by this level of frequency. At ISCED level 2 vast

majority of adult learners go to school more than three times a week in Bulgaria, Austria and

Slovenia (77-99%). Also in Russia, Lithuania and Norway adult learners seem to visit school

somewhat more often than on average at the lowest educational level (54-59% compared to the

average of 45%). At the level of upper secondary education frequency of going to classes is lower

– 37% on average do that more than three times a week. Here we find highest rate of adults going

to classes three times a week in Bulgaria (87%). In most countries there are about 50-60% of

ISCED level 3 students attending classes three times a week: Norway, Scotland, Austria, Estonia,

Ireland, Russia and Lithuania. Adult learners at ISCED level 4 attend school most frequently,

about 55% of all learners here go to school four or more times a week. Most frequent school

visitors appear to be among Lithuanian (94%), Austrian (82%), Estonian (76%) and Scottish

(75%) ISCED 4 adult learners; while in Belgium and Hungary less than one tenth visits school

that often. At ISCED level 5 though it is only around 30% of adult learners going to school more

than three times a week. Still, among Russian, Austrian and Lithuanian sample adult learners

attend school rather frequently (48-66%).

To a large extent ISCED level 2-3 education for adult learners is free (Table 5.7.A, Appendix),

yet about 20% of learners at ISCED 2 and 30% at ISCED 3 say that they entirely or partly paid a

course fee for their studies themselves. In Belgium we find the highest percentage (~80%) of

adults paying for their studies at all educational levels. Here we should keep in mind that in case

of Belgium formal adult education includes art, language and other types of courses that are

attended by those older and with higher initial education when compared to the overall

Subproject 3 sample. In Bulgaria (0%), Ireland, Russia, Estonia, Slovenia and Scotland less than

one tenth of learners at ISCED 2 indicated paying themselves a course fee. Respective percentage

is also fairly low in Austria – 14%. At ISCED level 3 few learners in Bulgaria and Scotland are

paying course fee; compared to the average adult learners are faced less often with course fees

also in Estonia and Ireland (~12%). While about half of adults in England, the Czech Republic,

Hungary and Norway pay entire or part of their course fee themselves. Next to Belgium rather

many learners in Slovenia do pay for their ISCED 3 studies themselves – 60.5%. At ISCED level

4 there are less adult learners paying for courses than an average in Estonia, Scotland and

Lithuania, but also in Austria. Whereas in Belgium, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Hungary, Norway and

England 84-50% of adults are themselves paying ISCED 4 course fee. In Scotland there are

relatively few adults paying their course fee at ISCED level 5 as well – 11%. The respective

percentage is low in case of Austria too – 25%. Countries where 70-90% of adults state that they

pay entirely or partly themselves for higher education are: Lithuania, Belgium, the Czech

Republic, Slovenia and Bulgaria.

Although financial means/support and financial problems are more prevalent at higher

educational levels (ISCED 4 and 5), there are still countries where adult learners report

substantial financial difficulties also at lower levels (Table 4.3). Thus at ISCED level 2 in

Slovenia, Hungary and Austria bout 60-50% of adult learners say they have financial problems.

Also in Russia and Norway percentage of learners admitting financial problems is rather high

(about 40%). Financial difficulties are felt on an average level (one third of learners) in Estonia

and Lithuania. While in Belgium, Bulgaria, England, Ireland and Scotland there are only up to

12% of learners having financial issues. In these countries there are also substantially less

learners receiving financial support. Financial support is most often received by ISCED level 2

82

learners in Norway and Slovenia (42% and 47% respectively). Compared to other countries,

received support is rather high also in Lithuania and Hungary (around 20%).

Table 4.3 Financial aspects by ISCED level and country, %

ISCED 1–2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5–6

Financial

Support*

Financial

Problems

Financial

Support*

Financial

Problems

Financial

Support*

Financial

Problems

Financial

Support*

Financial

Problems

Austria 13.5 47.6 10.4 27.1 6.0 24.8 22.1 39.0

Belgium 6.8 3.8 17.0 13.8 28.7 10.8 38.1 20.9

Bulgaria 0.0 4.5 5.2 30.8 23.9 46.6 27.9 44.9

Czech R. 10.0 22.2 33.6 29.2

England 3.4 4.5 5.2 17.7 9.7 35.7 48.1 22.2

Estonia 10.9 33.0 29.0 34.6 65.9 43.9 63.9 49.2

Hungary 20.0 52.4 20.5 38.2 23.1 36.1 48.6 39.7

Ireland 0.6 10.5 10.3 22.1 16.3 36.7 35.0 38.9

Lithuania 17.0 29.3 8.4 21.6 86.1 39.0 31.5 52.1

Norway 42.2 36.0 54.9 34.0 53.8 30.8 52.3 30.9

Russia 5.0 38.6 20.5 45.4 29.3 53.4 39.8 61.8

Scotland 7.0 11.8 18.0 36.0 45.8 47.7 48.7 35.8

Slovenia 47.4 58.1 42.4 52.9 36.9 43.7 45.2 39.6

Note: * Types of financial means and support are: student grant, student loan, paid leave, educational

leave benefit and travel allowance

Alongside financial problems, adult learners face difficulties with transportation, but even more

so with having too little time for studying (time pressure) and studies being scheduled at an

inconvenient time. The overall picture shows that in Bulgaria, Ireland and even more so in

England and Scotland, adult learners seem to have either less pronounced or average level

problems with transportation, time pressure and scheduling of the studies (Table 4.8.A,

Appendix). Adult learners in Estonia, Norway, Slovenia, the Czech Republic and at higher

educational level also in Austria express more often problems related to transport and time issues.

To go in further detail, at every ISCED level learners feel more time pressure than problems with

transportation or scheduling of studies. At ISCED level 2, time pressure is somewhat less an

issue compared to higher levels of education, but still one third is concerned with having too little

time for studying. This is even more problematic for adult learners in Norway, Hungary, Russia

and Slovenia where 40-53% of adults recognise time pressure. However, in Bulgaria and in

England only about 10% are troubled by having too little time for studying. Transportation is an

issue more than on average (19%) for ISCED level 2 learners in Austria, Estonia and Slovenia –

29-48% –, while in Bulgaria, Belgium and Ireland less than one tenth is brining up this problem.

Inconvenient scheduling of studies bothers learners at the lowest level of education more than on

average in Estonia, Norway and Slovenia, yet this is an issue for rather few in Bulgaria, Ireland

and Scotland. At ISCED level 3 transportation problems are more relevant for adult learners in

Estonia and Russia (30% compared to the average of 20%), but less so in Scotland, England and

Belgium. Scheduling of studies poses more problems than generally only for Norwegian and

Slovenian students, but time pressure is felt more in addition to those countries also in Hungary

and the Czech Republic. Again we observe less time related problems in case of England,

Scotland and Ireland. At ISCED level 4 transportation problems are mentioned by one third of

adult learners in Estonia and Russia, average for this educational group is about 10% lower.

Studies being scheduled at an inconvenient time is more problem than on average at post-

secondary level for Slovenian and Norwegian learners, while in England and Scotland they are

practically nonexistent. Time pressure is felt significantly more than on average in Austria and

Slovenia where about 60% of students report this as one of their problems during current studies.

83

Understandably, time scarcity is much wider issue for those studying at ISCED level 5 however,

more than a third of Hungarian, Czech and Austrian learners say they have problems with

transportation. If on average about 30% of adults studying at tertiary level of education feel that

studies are scheduled at an inconvenient time, then in case of Norway, Austria, Estonia, Belgium

and Slovenia respective rate is about 40-45%. For the same countries, plus the Czech Republic,

we find that more than 65% of adult learners also have too little time for studying. Yet, despite of

this alarmingly high proportion of learners struggling with lack of time, they continue learning in

formal education and majority is confident in successfully completing current studies. Moreover,

previous studies have indicated that adult learners and those not continuing their studies bring up

financial and time related problems to about the same rate in all countries representing different

welfare system regimes (see Rubenson & Desjardins, 2009). Yet some welfare state regimes

(social democratic for instance) help adult learners more in overcoming those barriers.

To conclude with the characteristics of learning institutions we provide country level differences

by educational levels by services that are available to adult learners in schools/universities (Table

4.9.A, Appendix). As we saw in the beginning of this chapter, most learning institutions provide

access to library, Internet, have cafeterias and provide study advice. However, these facilities are

more available at higher levels of education. Adult learners acquiring ISCED level 2 education

are better equipped with library at their schools in most of CEE countries: Russia, Estonia,

Lithuania and Bulgaria – 70-90% of adult learners here claim having library at their school, while

average for this groups is 55%. In Belgium and Austria there are only about 20% of adults stating

the availability of library. Internet access is most accessible to adult learners at lowest level of

education in Estonia (79%) and Scotland (95%), in Bulgaria on the other hand only 16% have

Internet access, in Austria, Belgium and Hungary around 35% and in Russia 44%. In England,

Ireland, Lithuania and Slovenia Internet is available for about 70% of learners. Somewhat

surprisingly, cafeterias are available at ISCED level 2 according to very few respondents in case

of Bulgaria and Slovenia; to the contrary, in England, Hungary, Ireland and Scotland majority of

schools seem to have cafeterias. At ISCED level 2 study advice is offered more than on average

in this group (51%) in Slovenia and Lithuania – around 80%. While in Belgium study advices in

practically non-existent and in Hungary it is offered to about 26% of students at ISCED level 2.

When coming to ISCED level 3 we see that here mainly Internet access and availability of

cafeterias is significantly higher than it was at ISCED level 2. Libraries are more common in

Estonian, Lithuanian, Russian, Scottish (~90%) and also English (66%) schools. Internet is again

more available in Scotland and Estonia, whereas in Russia, Hungary, Slovenia and Belgium the

rates are below the average. Regarding cafeterias and study advice the pattern of countries is

almost the same as it was for ISCED level 2 with the exceptions that in the Czech Republic study

advice is not too common, while in Scotland at ISCED level 3 study advice is given in majority

of schools. Libraries are significantly more available at ISCED level 4, here only in Slovenia and

Belgium about half of adult learners say they have school-library, in all other countries library

coverage is basically above 60%. Internet access continues to be low in Hungary and Russia

(32% and 45% respectively), but access is below average of 67% also in Slovenia, Lithuania,

Bulgaria and Belgium. Cafeterias are not common in Slovenia at ISCED level 4 and also at

highest level of education, while in other countries majority of educational institutions providing

post-secondary and tertiary education do offer cafeteria services. At ISCED 4 study advice is less

available in Belgium, Hungary, Austria and Estonia, while it is very popular in Scotland, England

and Lithuania. Internet access is broadly available at highest level of education – in Slovenia,

Bulgaria and Russia about 70% of adult learners claim having Internet, in other countries access

is even wider. Study advice at ISCED level 5 is offered to a lesser degree in the Czech Republic,

Ireland, Austria, Hungary and Estonia, but the respective rate is nonetheless quite high – 41-55%.

84

4.3.3. Perceptions of the Learning Process

Literature based on processes within the classroom state that a positive perception of the

classroom environment or learning context in turn leads to personal determination of participants

(Tobias, 1998), higher persistence, more wellbeing, better understanding of the learning content

and to better performances. Within our research, we focus on the classroom environment scale of

Darkenwald & Valentine (1986). This classroom environment scale consists of many items

measuring interrelations between students and interrelations between students and the adult

educator/teacher. Based on research by O’Fathaigh (1997), seven factors were extracted:

affiliation, teacher support, task orientation, personal goal attainment, organization and clarity of

the course/programme, student influence and involvement. Within Subproject 3 students’

questionnaire, we included 2 items of each factor and added one item on real-life examples (item

15)i. As a first overview, we show the descriptive statistics for each item, divided by level of the

current course and indicating the mean and standard deviation (Table 4.4). Comparable to other

scales as used within the construction of the dependent variables, items were measured on a five

item scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) till 5 (totally agree). On an overall level, we have to

state that the perception of the adult learners is rather positive. Adult learners at the lower levels

experience more help from the teacher, feel more respected as individuals, experience more clear

organised programme and enjoy the study programme more.

Table 4.4 Mean and standard deviation of classroom items by ISCED level

ISCED 1-2

Mean (St.D.)

ISCED 3

Mean (St.D.)

ISCED 4

Mean (St.D.)

ISCED 5- 6

Mean (St.D.)

TOTAL

Mean (St.D.)

Relationships between students

1. The study programme provides

opportunities for making new friends 4.13 (0.79) 4.11 (0.85) 4.21 (0.75) 4.17 (0.78) 4.15 (0.79)

14. The students in the study programme

enjoy working together 4.01 (0.86) 3.89 (0.85) 3.94 (0.80) 3.78 (0.81) 3.90 (0.83)

Learner engagement, pursuing own

interests

2. Students often ask the teacher questions 4.16 (0.81) 4.09 (0.84) 4.18 (0.78) 3.95 (0.88) 4.09 (0.83)

13. Most students enjoy the study

programme 3.93 (0.90) 3.83 (0.89) 3.89 (0.86) 3.67 (0.85) 3.82 (0.88)

10. The teacher insists that you do things

his or her way 3.34 (1.09) 3.30 (1.04) 3.29 (1.04) 3.28 (0.97) 3.30 (1.03)

11. Students feel free to question study

programme requirements 3.50 (1.11) 3.57 (1.03) 3.46 (1.03) 3.40 (1.05) 3.48 (1.06)

15. Participants in the training discuss

real-life examples based on their personal

experiences 3.88 (0.93) 3.89 (0.87) 3.93 (0.85) 3.94 (0.84) 3.91 (0.87)

4. Students can select assignments that are

of personal interest to them 3.20 (1.19) 3.04 (1.16) 3.02 (1.16) 3.05 (1.13) 3.07 (1.16)

6. Most students in the study programme

achieve their personal learning goals 3.89 (0.87) 3.80 (0.84) 3.85 (0.80) 3.67 (0.78) 3.80 (0.83)

85

Table 4.4 continued… ISCED 1-2

Mean (St.D.)

ISCED 3

Mean (St.D.)

ISCED 4

Mean (St.D.)

ISCED 5- 6

Mean (St.D.)

TOTAL

Mean (St.D.)

Support from teachers, task focus,

organisation of learning

3. The teacher makes every effort to help

students succeed 4.30 (0.78) 4.21 (0.85) 4.17 (0.82) 3.83 (0.90) 4.12 (0.86)

7. The teacher respects students as

individuals 4.22 (0.82) 4.14 (0.88) 4.18 (0.80) 3.90 (0.89) 4.10 (0.86)

5. Activities not related to the study

programme are kept to a minimum 3.41 (1.05) 3.35 (1.02) 3.40 (0.97) 3.42 (0.95) 3.39 (1.00)

8. Getting work done is very important in

the study programme 4.12 (0.80) 4.14 (0.80) 4.21 (0.76) 4.06 (0.80) 4.13 (0.79)

9. The study programme is well organised 4.04 (0.88) 3.99 (0.89) 3.91 (0.93) 3.60 (0.99) 3.88 (0.94)

12. The study programme has a clear

sense of direction 3.98 (0.81) 4.03 (0.82) 4.00 (0.80) 3.83 (0.84) 3.96 (0.82)

4.3.4. Country Differences in Perceptions of the Learning Process

Regarding perceptions on learning process we can divide 15 statements presented to adult

learners into three major categories: 1. relationships or affiliation between students; 2. learner

engagement in the learning process and ability to pursue own interests/goals; 3 support from

teachers, task focus and organisation of learning.

Relationships between learners

Adult learners agreed the most with the statement saying ‘the study programme provides

opportunities for making new friends’. Differences by ISCED levels are rather low, but still level

4 learners, followed by level 5, agree with this statement somewhat more than learners at lower

levels (Table 4.4). Relationship between students was also measured with item stating ‘the

students in the study programme enjoy working together’. This statement finds less support than

first one; and when comparing students at different educational levels we see that ISCED 2 and 4

recognise enjoying working together in their study programme more often than others.

There are few countries diverging from the overall pattern (Table 4.10.A, Appendix). Namely, in

Belgium it is the adult learners at lowest level who are significantly more likely to agree that the

study programme does provide opportunities for making new friends. In Ireland, on the other

hand, students at tertiary level agree with this significantly less. Also in case of Scotland there is

a tendency indicating that tertiary level students are less optimistic about the opportunities to

make new friends (differences between educational levels are not statistically significant). In

Scotland and Ireland ISCED level 5 learners state enjoyment of working together in the study

programme less too. In Scottish sample, many adult learners studying at tertiary level are learning

online, this explains why they do not feel so much affiliation between students as others – actual

contacts between students are seldom. Unlike in other countries, we find for Russia that adult

learners at ISCED 2 agree significantly less with students enjoying working together in the study

programme. Similar tendency appears for Estonia and Lithuania, but here differences between

educational groups are not significant.

86

Learner engagement in the learning process and ability to pursue own interest

Next we observe that in general students are quite actively involved in learning process. Thus,

majority of adult learners agree that during the studies students often ask the teacher questions,

but interestingly enough this is little less recognised by adult learners at highest level of

education – ISCED 5. Whereas, ISCED level 2 and 4 learners agree with students asking the

teacher questions the most. In regard to this statement, there are no countries showing results that

differ significantly from the overall trend. Hence, in Belgium ISCED level 2 students agree with

asking the teacher questions the most, while ISCED level 5 agree with this the least; also in the

Czech Republic and Ireland ISCED 5 students stand out as agreeing with questions being asked

less than others; while in Estonia ISCED level 4 students sense active involvement of their peers

the most. Similarly, adult learners at ISCED level 2 and 4, followed by level 3 agree more with

the statement claiming ‘most students enjoy the study programme’. So again, this is less felt at

tertiary level. In Austria, Belgium and the Czech Republic those at lower levels of education are

sensing significantly more enjoyment of the study programme, whereas in Hungary, Ireland and

Scotland the opposite is true for ISCED 5. In Lithuania, in accordance with the general tendency,

ISCED 4 learners agree significantly more with most students enjoying their study programme.

Only in case of Estonia we see that adult learners at higher levels of education (ISCED 4 and 5)

agree with this statement considerably more than those at lower levels.

Following statements measure how learner-cantered teachers are while teaching their subject

matters. Adult learners at lower levels of education tend to agree slightly more with the fact that

‘the teacher insists that you do things his or her way’. Results are still encouraging in the sense

that differences between ISCED levels are very small and the level of agreement with this

statement when compared to other 15 statements is lower than average. Nevertheless, we find

significant differences supporting the general trend in case of Belgium and England where

tertiary level students are less confronted with the teacher insisting on doing things his or her

way; and in Scotland where adult learners at ISCED 2 perceive more pressure from the teacher.

Answers to the next statement ‘students feel free to question study programme requirements’ are

slightly puzzling, because now it is the primary and secondary level students who agree with this

statement more. Tertiary level students feel that they can question study programme requirements

more than others only in Slovenia. However, ISCED level 5 students agree with this statement

significantly less than others just in three countries: Belgium, Hungary and Ireland. In Austria, on

the other hand, ISCED level 2 students are more comfortable in questioning the requirements of

study programme. Expected results appear in responses given to the statement ‘participants in the

training discuss real-life examples based on their personal experiences’. This seems to be more

common at higher levels of education where adult learners’ work experience (preferably in the

sphere related to the field of study) helps. Yet, of course, real-life examples are very important to

students at lower levels of education as well, especially in motivating them to continue with the

studies and helping to realise the advantages and even the fun of learning. For Bulgaria and

Ireland results are significantly distinct, as in the former ISCED level 2 students state discussing

real-life examples more than others; and in case of the latter ISCED 5 agree with discussing real-

life examples the least. Significant differences occur also in Austria, but here both ISCED level 2

and 5 students agree more than others with real-life examples based on their personal experiences

being discussed. Significant results confirming the overall trend are found for Russia and

Slovenia.

Unfortunately adult learners agreed the least out of 15 statements with the one saying ‘students

can select assignments that are of personal interest to them’, yet freedom of choosing assignments

87

is more recognised at ISCED level 2. Although, we find significant differences between

educational levels in less than half of the countries: Belgium, Bulgaria, Ireland, Norway and

Estonia. Only in Estonia results are opposite, as here adult learners at lower levels of education

agreed less with being able to choose assignments that are of personal interest to them than those

at ISCED level 5 and 4. Adult learners agree more with the statement ‘most students in the study

programme achieve their personal learning goals’, but still not overwhelmingly. Adults at highest

educational level continue to have more critical view on learning process in this regard as well;

especially so in Bulgaria, Hungary and Ireland. In Estonia, though, it is the ISCED 4 learners feel

more confident about achieving their personal learning goals. No significant differences between

educational groups appear for other countries.

Teacher support, task focus and organisation of learning

Both statements measuring teacher support – ‘the teacher makes every effort to help students

succeed’ and ‘the teacher respects students as individuals’ – get equally high support from adult

learners. But again, answers of learners are more positive as the level of current studies

decreases. One reason for this could be that at higher ISCED levels learners are expected to be

more independent in their studies. On the other hand, ISCED level 5 learners have been more

reserved in all of their responses to different questions regarding satisfaction with various

learning aspects. Accordingly, learners at tertiary level of education agree significantly less with

the teacher making every effort to help students to succeed compared to those at ISCED 2 or 3 in

Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Ireland and Russia. While in

Slovenia it is the ISCED level 2 learners who differ significantly with their more positive

answers from those at higher levels of education. In case of England we observe slightly opposite

tendency, as students at lower levels of education are here somewhat less convinced in teacher’s

effort to help students succeed, yet these differences between ISCED levels are not statistically

significant. In Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary and Ireland adult learners at

ISCED level 5 also differ significantly from others with their lower support to the statement

claiming the teacher respecting students as individuals. In Austria adult learners at ISCED level 4

and in Russia level 5 together with level 2 feel less respect from their teachers. We observe

slightly contradicting results also for England and Estonia, where learners at higher levels of

education report teacher respect more often than others, but differences between educational

levels are not substantial.

When analysing the level of task orientation in the study programmes it appears that only ISCED

level 3 students agree somewhat less with the statement that ‘activities not related to the study

programme are kept to a minimum’. However, the overall level of agreement with this statement

is below the average (total mean 3.4). There are practically no differences between educational

levels, just in Belgium learners at ISCED level 2 tend to agree more than the rest with activities

irrelevant to the study programme to be kept to a minimum. Adult learners agree much more with

the second aspect of task orientation: ‘getting work done is very important in the study

programme’. ISCED level 4 students occur here as the most optimistic, followed by levels 3 and

2. We also observe more differences between ISCED levels here than in opinions to keeping

activities not related to the study programme to a minimum. Adult learners at ISCED 4 agree

significantly more with getting work done to be very important in the study programme in

Hungary and together with ISCED level 3 in Bulgaria and Ireland. Results are in line with the

general tendency also in the Czech Republic where ISCED level 5 learners agree less with this

statement than those at ISCED 3. In Lithuania it is the ISCED level 5 learners who together with

ISCED 4 support more the idea that getting work done is very important in the study programme.

88

While in Austria results show ISCED level 4 learners to agree significantly less with this

statement than others.

As a final step in analysing adult learners’ perceptions of learning process via descriptive

statistics, we examine how well is the study programme organised and whether it has a clear

sense of direction. Similarly to their answers regarding satisfaction with the study programme in

Chapter 4.2.7., ISCED level 5 learners express lower level of satisfaction here as well, while

learners at ISCED levels 2-4 are satisfied somewhat more. Differenced between ISCED levels in

regard to how well the study programme is organised are most pronounced in Belgium –

agreement with this statement decreases as educational level increases and differences between

educational groups are significant at all levels. In case of Hungary higher values to the

organisation of study programme are given by ISCED 3 learners, ISCED level 2 and 4 learners

are significantly less satisfied with the organisation of study programme, and in turn, ISCED

level 5 are even less satisfied with it. In Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Ireland and Russia

differences appear between ISCED 5 and those at lower levels of education, the latter agreeing

more that the study programme is well organised. ISCED level 2 and 3 students in Austria are

more supportive of this statement than those at ISCED 4 and 5; while in Russia it is learners at

ISCED 2 and 5 who are less satisfied with organisation of the study programme than others. In

more than half of the countries there are significant differences by educational levels in adult

learners’ opinions about whether the study programme has a clear sense of direction. ISCED

level 5 learners agree significantly less with this than others in Ireland, Hungary and the Czech

Republic. In case of Belgium ISCED level 2 learners continue to be the ones who feel most

comfortable with their study programme, thus they also state more often than learners at higher

levels that ‘the study programme has a clear sense of direction’. Like we saw in answers to the

previous statement, Austrian ISCED 2 and 3 learners are also more satisfied than others with the

sense of direction of their study programme. In Russia, however, ISCED level 2 learners tend to

agree with this statement to a lesser degree than those at higher levels. In case of Lithuania

ISCED level 4 learners stand out as agreeing with the study programme having a clear sense of

direction more than other educational groups.

89

4.4. MICRO LEVEL INDICATORS – BACKGROUND OF ADULT LEARNERS

Based on the research questions, we are interested in a set of factors influencing the motivational

aspects to participate in formal adult education. Based on previous research and conceptual

models on participation in lifelong learning, we have to state that a broad attention is dedicated to

the individual characteristics (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1980; Cookson, 1986; Darkenwald & Merriam,

1982, Cross, 1981). Within this micro level part of the document, we distinguish three main parts.

We start with describing the socio-demographic variables, which have a fixed character – you

cannot change your country of birth or your year of birth – previous research findings state that

these variables have an impact on the participation behaviour of the individual (Doets et. al.,

2001; Bélanger, 1997, Houtkoop & Van der Kamp, 1992). In a second part, we describe the

socio-economic variables. This group of variables consists of a wider set of characteristics such

as the educational attainment of the adult student, the educational attainment of the parents, the

occupational status and the net monthly income. Other than the socio-demographic variables,

these socio-economic variables have a typical changeable character. Changing mobility is also

one of the main important issues within the sociology of education (Erikson & Goldthorpe,

1992). An unemployed status can be transferred into an employed status. Educational attainment

is something which can be increasing. Adult education is seen as an ultimate key in realising

opportunities for mobility. As a last part, we introduce the socio-cultural variables. Participation

in social- and cultural activities is an indicator marking involvement with the other domains of

life than education and work. After all, participation in social- and cultural activities has positive

relation with a reduced level of poverty, a better health and an increased well-being (Alpass et al.,

2007). Besides these positive outcomes of social and cultural participation, we can state that these

activities themselves generate a high potential of learning activities and can therefore be seen as

opportunities of informal learning.

4.4.1. Socio-Demographic Profile of Adult Learners

Socio-demographic variables included here are gender, age, nationality and country of birth

(Table 4.11.A, Appendix). It has to be stressed, however, that our research is not based on

representative samples of adult learners because there is no available data on adult learners in

total population as we have defined them in LLL2010 project – learners who have interrupted

their studies in formal education for at least two years. According to Figure 4.15, we see that

females are more represented in our database. Not only within the entire database, but also within

each stratum of educational level of the current course (more so at ISCED level 4 – 64%; and less

at ISCED 210 – 55%). Furthermore, most adults fall between ages of 25 and 40, but keeping in

mind lifelong learning ideas, we have to pay attention to the youngest and older group as well

(Figure 4.16). Due to sampling definition, adults who did not leave formal education for two

years or more could not be included into the research design. Nevertheless, we find one third of

respondents being younger than 25 years of age, meaning that re-entering the formal education

system already starts at a young age. This is especially the case for adult students at the lowest

course levels. Regarding nationality and country of birth, we observe that almost 9 out of 10

students have the nationality of the country in which they follow their courses. The same applies

10 Here and onwards in text ISCED 2 refers to ISCED levels 1-2 (mostly this groups is comprised of those at ISCED

2), while ISCED 5 refers to ISCED levels 5-6.

90

to ones country of birth. Further exploration of the database forces us to make similar conclusions

regarding the mother tongue of the adult student as well.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70


Male Female

Figure 4.15 Gender distribution in the sample by the level of the current course, %

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70


Younger than 25 25 – 40 41 – 65 Older than 65

Figure 4.16 Age distribution in the sample by the level of the current course, %

4.4.2. Country Level Differences by Socio-Demographic Profile

Next we observe how predominant groups of gender, age and country of birth are represented by

educational level of the current studies by countries. Results in Table 4.5 show that in Bulgarian

sample there are much less female adult learners at ISCED level 2 when compared to the average

for this group (16% versus 55%), while in Belgian, Irish and Scottish samples females at ISCED

91

2 are overrepresented by additional 15-20%. In Bulgaria, part of the formal education is

organised via schools at prisons where students above 16 years are educated. Hence, in Bulgarian

sample at ISCED level 1-2 in majority male prisoners were interviewed. In Ireland, however,

men are underrepresented in literacy and basic education programmes also at the level of the

whole population. For ISCED level 3 we find Ireland, England and Slovenia having somewhat

more females than in the overall sample. In the Czech Republic dataset there are only 36% of

women compared to the average of 60% for this group (all in all the share of men and women at

upper secondary level in the Czech Republic is equal). At ISCED level 3 in Bulgaria there is

about an equal share of women and men. Yet, women are even more predominant at ISCED level

4 than on average (here we mean total of the sample) in Lithuania, Estonia and England (80-

85%). In Austrian sample, on the other hand, only 34% of adult learners at ISCED 4 are women

and 40% in Hungary. In Austrian case two different programmes with very different gender

proportions were covered at ISCED level 4: (a) business collages with two thirds of females and

(b) vocational colleges of engineering and industrial arts for employed persons with about 90% of

males. There are by about one tenth of women less than on average at ISCED 4 also in Slovenia.

We observe the highest divergence from the average at ISCED level 5 in case of Scotland where

about 80% are women. Women make up a vast majority also in Norway, Russia, Austria and

Estonia (around 70% compared to the average of 63%). This should be kept in mind especially in

case of Austria, where in general population two thirds of all participants on ISCED level 5 are

actually male and one third female. Yet in Slovenian sample there are slightly more males at

ISCED 5, although in the total population females are prevalent in tertiary education. At ISCED

5 in Bulgaria we observe equal ratio of men and women.

Table 4.5 Gender and nationality by ISCED level and country, %


female home

country female

home

country Female

home

country female

home

country

Austria 55.6 43.9 64.7 90.8 34.0 91.9 68.5 90.2

Belgium FL 74.1 96.6 62.8 92.9 63.6 90.7 65.0 95.3

Bulgaria 15.8 92.1 53.7 98.1 68.5 98.0 48.8 97.3

Czech Republic 35.9 99.2 55.8 98.2

England 60.7 91.1 71.3 88.3 79.7 83.9 59.0 89.3

Estonia 52.1 92.2 58.3 84.4 80.3 87.1 67.1 98.3

Hungary 54.8 86.8 65.3 99.2 40.3 98.5 59.1 98.0

Ireland 77.5 88.7 75.2 90.1 72.4 79.1 64.5 85.3

Lithuania 56.5 91.2 56.1 77.0 85.4 82.3 66.9 88.7

Norway* 58.6 67.2 57.0 78.6 63.7 85.9 70.4 77.8

Russia 40.7 100.0 59.4 99.6 57.0 99.2 70.2 98.9

Scotland 67.6 96.9 66.1 93.5 70.2 93.6 81.9 96.2

Slovenia 46.5 66.5 71.2 89.7 54.9 91.7 45.1 97.2

Note: * In Norwegian questionnaire it was asked about adult learners’ citizenship, not home country or

nationality.

Vast majority of adult learners at all ISCED levels reported being born in and having a

nationality of their home country (Table 4.11.A, Appendix). Hence, there are rather small

differences according to these characteristics by ISCED levels and by countries too. Still, in case

of Austria we see that at ISCED level 2 there are only about 44% of learners saying their

nationality is that of a home country. At higher educational levels about 90% of adult learners

state having Austrian nationality. This might indicate that people with other nationalities do get

the chance to attain basic or compulsory education, but only few (can) continue their educational

92

path at higher levels. Also in Slovenia and Norway at ISCED level 2 there are less of those with

nationality of the home country when compared with other countries.

Examination of the age profile of participants first reveals a pattern between post-socialist or

Central and Easter European (CEE) countries and Austria, on one hand, and members of the EU-

15 on the other (Table 4.6). In the samples of Belgium, England, Ireland and Scotland we find

less of those belonging to the youngest age group – under 25 years of age. At the same time, in

these countries there are more learners in the age group 41-65. Some CEE countries do differ

from the overall pattern. Hungary, for instance, seems to resemble more EU-15 countries,

especially at ISCED levels 2-4. At ISCED level 3 in Slovenia, the Czech Republic, and Lithuania

we observe lower proportions of adult learners under 25 years of age than among other CEE

countries. Age composition in Lithuania at higher educational levels is also closer to EU-15.

While Austria stands out from CEE countries on ISCED level 5, as here we find rather high

proportion (close to EU-15) of learners being 41-65 years of age. Belgium, in return, has the

highest rate of adult learners in the age group of 41-65 at ISCED levels 2-4. This is partly

explained by the fact that in Belgium formal adult education offers among other things art and

language courses and thus are also attended by those who have achieved higher levels of

education prior to the current course.

Table 4.6 Age groups by ISCED level and country, %


< 25 25–

40

41–

65 < 25

25–

40

41–

65 < 25

25–

40

41–

65 < 25

25–

40

41–

65

Austria 70.6 18.9 10.5 65.7 23.9 9.1 61.1 33.8 5.1 19.5 53.5 27.0

Belgium FL 4.4 27.5 62.5 14.5 35.6 45.6 9.7 42.6 41.5 16.3 52.2 31.3

Bulgaria 46.4 47.1 6.5 40.3 51.8 7.9 39.8 48.2 12.0 32.0 61.2 6.8

Czech Rep. 26.5 63.1 15.2 10.4 70.0 14.8

England 17.6 44.6 37.8 20.1 38.2 40.2 36.7 48.5 14.8 12.8 41.6 45.2

Estonia 85.5 14.5 0 74.3 25.3 0.4 44.8 39.5 15.7 25.8 61.9 12.3

Hungary 27.6 48.8 23.6 14.2 65.0 20.9 20.5 61.5 18.0 22.3 62.3 15.4

Ireland 9.8 36.8 44.7 28.7 29.9 34.0 20.9 43.2 34.8 8.9 57.1 33.6

Lithuania 54.0 42.4 3.6 34.3 64.9 0.8 19.2 41.2 39.6 12.5 58.9 28.6

Norway* 23.9 65.2 10.9 22.1 63.8 14.1 22.7 60.2 17.0 11.8 66.0 22.2

Russia 83 16.0 1.0 65.2 31.2 3.6 51.0 42.4 6.6 33.5 58.6 8.0

Scotland 14.4 22.2 55.4 22.6 51.1 25.1 33.1 48.8 18.2 17.9 48.5 33.3

Slovenia 48.3 39.1 12.6 25.5 61.7 12.8 30.3 59.2 10.5 19.7 61.9 18.4

Note: * In case of Norway there is no information on the year of birth, respondents marked their age by

following age brackets: 16-24; 25-44; 45-64, which are close to the ones presented in this table.

4.4.3. Socio-Economic Profile of Adult Learners

Within the scientific literature, the socio-economic status is often operationalised based on

educational attainment, social position within the society and financial resources. Families with

high socio-economic status have more access to and more experience with the educational

practices. People with lower socio-economic status have lower aspirations, feel less pressure to

learn and are less used to it (Darkenwald & Merriam, 1982). They often lack financial resources

and come across a wide range of barriers to participate (Cross, 1981).

93

Within our dataset, the educational attainment of the adult students varies somewhat according to

the level of the current course (Figure 4.17). Still, low skilled adults are mainly enrolled at lower

level courses and high skilled learners can mainly be found within higher level courses. Four out

of ten adults enrolled in tertiary education already obtained a bachelor or master equivalent

degree in the past. These statistics clearly show the principle of formal education as a continuous

ladder (Eurostat, 2005). Before entering the next step, finishing the previous step is obliged. In a

following part of the chapter, we will explore the possibilities of deviating from these rules by

making use of exemptions based on accreditation of prior experiential learning (APEL).

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90


No or 1 + 2 (low) 3 + 4 (medium) 5 + 6 (high)

Figure 4.17 Highest completed education by the level of the current course, %

Results concerning the educational attainment of the mother and father are more or less

comparable to the educational attainment of the adult learners themselves, but the differences

between the levels of the current course are less clear-cut (see Table 4.12.A, Appendix). Most

adult learners within low level courses have low educated parents, while most adult learners with

high skilled parents are enrolled at tertiary level courses. This finding is comparable to the

habitus idea of Bourdieu (1973) stating that the socio-economic background of the parents is

reflected into the own social position obtained within society. The labour market status of the

adult learners is also not stable across levels of the current course (Figure 4.18). Adults enrolled

in tertiary education courses are more often employed, only a small part of them are seeking a

job. The cluster of inactive learners consists of retired adults, those fulfilling domestic tasks,

fulltime students and disabled learners. Four out of ten adult students at the lowest level can be

found within this group.

Answering the income question was refused by a huge amount of all adult learners within our

database (although somewhat more at lower levels of education). On an overall level, we have to

state that the income is increasing by an increasing level of the current course. Based on the

totals, we have to argue that our adult learners have an income below average as more than half

of all validated answers are situated within quintiles 1 and 2 (see Table 4.12.A, Appendix).

94

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80


Active Job-seeker Inactive*

Figure 4.18 Labour market status by the level of the current course, %

Note: * Inactive: retired adults, those fulfilling domestic tasks, fulltime students and disabled learners

4.4.4. Country Level Differences by Socio-Economic Profile

According to one’s educational attainment (highest level of education completed prior to current

studies) we see that majority of adult learners studying at lower educational level (80%) are

currently obtaining their first level of education (Table 4.7). Yet, there are countries significantly

different from this pattern. In Belgium there are 44% of adult learners at ISCED level 2 who

already have acquired higher level educational degree; another 31% of them have previously

finished medium level education (ISCED 3-4). This is again due to the specificity of Belgian

formal adult education that includes art and language courses at ISCED level 2, which are often

taken up by adult learners with higher initial education. Norway, Scotland and England are other

exceptional cases. In Norway and Scotland there are about 20% of those with higher education

and around 40% of medium level education who currently study at lower educational level. In

English sample there are 10% of adult learners with higher previous education studying now at

low educational level (differences are probably due to sampling procedures). In the UK there are

also computing courses offered at ISCED level 2, this might explain why we find more adult

learners with medium and high education studying at so to say lower level courses. We observe

some interesting results also at the highest level of current studies. In Belgium, England, Scotland

and Norway there are many of those who seem to be either acquiring second higher education or

master’s degree, as they have a high level of education already before starting current studies at

ISCED 5-6. In Bulgaria, Estonia and Ireland there are about 40% of adult learners with higher

education starting their current studies at ISCED 5-6.

95

Table 4.7 Educational attainment by ISCED level and country, %


Low Medium High Low Medium High Low Medium High Low Medium High

Austria 91.5 7.3 1.2 42.7 54.3 3.0 16.6 76.1 7.3 0.7 79.1 20.1

Belgium 25.6 30.5 43.9 27.7 33.1 39.2 10.1 46.4 43.5 2.4 21.3 76.3

Bulgaria 100.0 0.0 0.0 99.6 0.4 0.0 0.0 94.4 5.6 0.0 57.4 42.6

Czech

Republic 2.2 97.8 0.0 0.0 66.2 33.8

England 51.9 38.5 9.6 5.9 61.5 32.6 4.2 84.2 11.5 0.6 32.6 66.9

Estonia 97.4 2.6 0.0 93.2 6.8 0.0 4.5 84.9 10.6 0.4 54.9 44.7

Hungary 81.6 17.6 0.8 77.0 21.7 1.2 27.6 64.6 7.8 0.0 66.7 33.3

Ireland 86.9 9.7 3.4 72.5 22.5 5.1 27.0 56.8 16.2 8.5 47.3 44.2

Lithuania 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 95.6 3.4 0.4 73.9 25.7

Norway* 31.5 44.5 23.9 22.2 63.1 14.6 19.3 67.1 13.6 6.2 46.4 47.5

Russia 98.6 1.4 0.0 79.1 18.9 2.0 14.1 78.7 7.2 1.9 72.4 25.7

Scotland 38.5 41.5 20.0 12.8 63.1 24.1 4.9 78.5 16.5 1.8 50.9 47.4

Slovenia 87.0 1.1 11.9 46.0 54.0 0.0 6.7 93.3 0.0 0.2 96.1 3.7

Note: * Data for Norway retrieved from Norwegian SP3 Country Report

According to one’s main activity we see that there are less employed adult learners at ISCED 2

compared to higher levels in all countries, but in Belgium, England, Estonia, Hungary and Russia

about 60% of those at lowest level are working, i.e. currently active on the labour market (Table

4.8). Respective percentage is lowest in Austrian sample, where only 10% of respondents are

active on the labour market. Highest rate of those wanting to find a job is in Slovenian ISCED 2

sample –72%. There are somewhat more job seekers among adult learners studying at low

educational level, when compared to the average of the total sample, also in Austria (26%) and

Hungary (19%). Highest rates of inactivity (about 60-70%) we find in Scottish, Austrian, Irish

and Estonian samples. There are more active labour market participants at medium level courses

(at ISCED 3 more so than at ISCED 4). Again, when compared to the total average, there are

more employed adult learners taking ISCED level 3 courses in the Czech Republic, Hungary,

Belgium, England, Lithuania and Bulgaria. At ISCED level 4 activity rates are higher for

Hungary, Belgium, Slovenia, Russia, Austria and Estonia. Labour market activity rates are

highest at ISCED level 5 where on average about 70% of the sample is reporting employment as

their main current activity and thus only few are looking of a job. Labour market activity is lower

in England, Scotland, Ireland and Bulgaria where only about 40-50% of those at ISCED 5 are

employed. Our results thus confirm the general tendency of those with higher education (or

acquiring higher education) having better chances for being employed. In addition to having

higher qualifications, also often the nature of higher level learning institutions enables better to

combine work and learning activities. Nevertheless, many adults at higher levels of education

report problems with the lack of time and studies being scheduled at an inconvenient time (Table

4.1.A, Appendix). Hence, among students at lower ISCED levels (especially so at ISCED 2)

there are more job seekers and those who have (temporarily) withdrawn from the labour market.

96

Table 4.8 Labour market status by ISCED level and country, %


Active Job-

seeker Inactive Active

Job-


Job-


Job-

seeker Inactive

Austria 9.9 26.4 63.7 53.9 9.9 36.1 64.7 8.4 26.9 78.9 3.9 17.2

Belgium FL 62.1 8.4 29.5 66.2 11.0 22.8 70.8 7.8 21.3 72.0 9.2 18.8

Bulgaria 63.7 19.2 17.1 45.6 20.0 34.4 53.2 11.1 35.7

Czech Rep. 86.8 6.3 6.9 90.4 1.4 8.2

England 56.2 6.2 37.5 65.2 4.7 30.0 39.5 2.4 58.1 41.5 0.6 58.0

Estonia 32.5 7.0 60.5 37.8 4.2 58.0 58.1 2.8 39.0 68.2 0.4 31.4

Hungary 61.2 19.2 19.6 79.5 9.8 10.7 71.1 16.5 12.4 79.8 0.4 19.8

Ireland 25.1 13.8 61.1 20.0 14.1 65.9 31.9 6.7 61.3 48.5 3.7 47.8

Lithuania 47.2 15.0 37.8 64.2 11.2 24.6 12.1 49.5 38.4 85.2 2.7 12.1

Norway 44.2 8.0 47.8 38.4 6.6 55.0 34.2 8.9 57.0 61.2 2.1 36.7

Russia 58.3 10.8 30.9 56.1 9.4 34.4 65.4 3.7 30.9 81.3 3.0 15.7

Scotland 23.7 3.4 72.9 21.3 7.8 70.9 12.3 1.9 85.8 41.2 1.2 57.6

Slovenia 22.3 72.0 5.7 57.0 37.1 5.8 68.2 23.9 7.8 84.0 4.5 11.5

Table 4.9 Lowest and highest income quintile by ISCED level and country, %


Quintile 1 Quintile 5 Quintile 1 Quintile 5 Quintile 1 Quintile 5 Quintile 1 Quintile 5

Austria 53.8 1.2 17.8 5.2 13.5 10.9 5.8 25.8

Belgium FL 28.1 8.6 19.9 8.1 16.0 8.5 23.2 15.2

Bulgaria 69.7 0.0 41.4 1.9 29.3 1.2 20.2 3.9

Czech Republic 18.6 2.2 8.5 7.0

England 17.9 7.1 24.9 4.8 35.6 3.6 20.4 9.0

Estonia 37.6 20.2 42.4 22.4 35.3 22.1 14.4 58.4

Hungary 30.6 7.7 14.8 17.9 18.8 22.5 18.0 34.5

Ireland 19.6 1.8 14.1 3.2 23.2 6.0 22.8 22.8

Lithuania

Norway 16.0 8.6 21.2 12.1 23.1 13.5 9.8 38.7

Russia 3.6 5.1 11.7 10.9 10.9 7.3 8.1 22.2

Scotland 25.4 3.2 52.5 2.3 56.6 1.4 38.3 5.3

Slovenia 45.0 3.3 45.3 1.0 30.6 0.8 14.7 3.1

97

Because of the reference to ones labour market position, also received income is clearly higher

among those currently studying at tertiary level (Table 4.9). However, we find in case of

Bulgaria, Austria and Slovenia that there are significantly more adult learners at ISCED level 2

whose personal net monthly income belongs to the lowest income (quintile 1) when compared to

the same group is other countries. The share of those receiving lowest income is higher than

average in case of Estonia as well (38% compared to the average of 31%). Interestingly enough,

in Estonian sample there is also the highest proportion of those receiving high income (quintile 5)

at lowest educational level (20% compared to the average of 6%). Among adult learners at

ISCED level 3 and 4 income distribution in general is equal – 27% receive lowest and about 8%

receive highest income. Percentage of adult learners receiving lowest income at ISCED level 3 is

higher in Estonia and Bulgaria, but also in Slovenia and Scotland; at ISCED 4 in Scotland,

Slovenia, Estonia and Bulgaria. We find highest rate of receivers of high income at ISCED 3 and

4 in Estonia and Hungary (around 20% of the corresponding sample). Distribution of income is

more equal at ISCED level 5, where 17% receive low and 19% receive high income. Bigger

differences between countries are by highest income quintile: 58% of Estonian ISCED 5 sample

report receiving highest income, 39% and 35% respectively in Norway and Hungary.

4.4.5. Socio-Cultural Profile of Adult Learners

Participation in social and cultural activities can have positive effects on different aspects of life

(Matarasso, 1997). It increases the personal development including one’s confidence and self-

respect. Participation in these activities is also regarded as informal learning opportunity and are

often a first step in exploring further learning possibilities in non-formal or informal settings.

Furthermore, participation in social and cultural activities contributes to social cohesion, the

decrease of loneliness and criminality and shapes a more tolerant world. It gives people the

opportunity to develop their own talents and creativity and has a positive influence to the

happiness of people.

In addition to the socio-demographic and socio-economic profiles of the adult learners, we also

want to disentangle if participation in these informal learning activities is related to the

motivation of following a course in formal education.

Construction of the cultural and social variables was based on separate items listing several

examples of cultural and social activities. Culturally active adult learners visit at least four times

a year one of the following events: live concerts, theatre, opera, ballet, cinema and museum.

Socially active adult learners are a member of at least one of the following organisations: political

party, trade union, professional organisation, religious organisation, recreational, leisure or sports

group, charitable organisation.

On an overall level, half of all the adult learners within our sample are culturally active, but the

rates increase with an increasing level of the current course (Figure 4.19). Most popular cultural

activities seem to be going to cinema followed by visiting live concerts and attending sport

events. Biggest differences between educational levels appear by going to the theatre, opera or

ballet; visiting museums, but also going to live concerts, which all are more attended by and

accessible to those learning at highest educational level (see Table 4.13.A, Appendix).

98

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70


Culturally active Socially active

Figure 4.19 Labour market status by the level of the current course, %

More than one out of three adult learners is a member of at least one social organisation. Again,

learners enrolled at the highest course levels are more socially active. Adult learners report more

often being a member of recreational/leisure/sports organisations and or trade unions; among

those currently learning at ISCED 5 one tenth is also a member of professional associations

(associated with their higher employment rate). Rather seldom at all educational levels, adult

learners state being active in political parties, religious and charitable organisations.

4.4.6. Country Level Differences by Socio-Cultural Profile

Countries exhibit rather different patterns by participation in various cultural activities by ISCED

levels. Adult learners at ISCED level 2 have remarkably high participation in cultural activities in

Bulgaria, Belgium and Norway – 60-85% report being culturally active (see Table 4.14.A,

Appendix). Belgium and Norway stand out through all educational levels. In England, Lithuania,

Slovenia and Hungary, however, participation of those learning at ISCED level 2 is the lowest –

26-35% compared to the average of 47% for that group. At ISCED level 3 the average

participation rate is slightly higher (51%), but for Lithuania, Slovenia, Russia and Scotland

participation interval is 34-42%. Average participation in cultural activities is the same also at

ISCED level 4; countries having lower participation are again Lithuania and Slovenia (30-33%),

but also in England, Estonia and Russia participation is below the average (44%). At the highest

educational level though, 58% of adult learners on the overall take part in some kind of cultural

activity. Still, somewhat less than half of adults at ISCED level 5 participate in cultural activities

in case of Lithuania, Scotland, Austria and Slovenia. In addition to Norway (81%) we see also

that Bulgarian adult learners at ISCED 5 have high cultural activity rate (69%), while in Belgium

it is close to the average (61%).

Also in regard on adult learners social activity we find significant differences between ISCED

levels by countries. Again, activity rates by educational levels are remarkably high in case of

99

Belgium, but also in Ireland. There is no available data for Norway though. At ISCED level 2 the

average involvement in social activities is 30%, yet in Lithuania it is only 14%; also Hungarian,

Estonian, Slovenian and Austrian adult learners are slightly less socially active when compare to

the average (~25%). Among ISCED level 3 adult learners participation in social activities is

about the same as for ISCED level 2 – 31%. Here we see that in addition to Belgium and Ireland

also Slovenia has high level of activity (41%). In Lithuania, Bulgaria and Russia on the other

hand only about 15-21% of adult learners are involved in activities of social organisations.

Coming to ISCED level 4 students we observe slight increase in social activity – 34%. In

Belgium there are 72% of those claiming activity in social organisations, almost half of ISCED 4

learners are socially active in Ireland and Austria. Yet again in Lithuania mere 14% report social

involvement and in Bulgaria one fifth does so. At ISCED level 5 there are 45% of adult learners

who actively take part in some sort of social organisations. Here, in addition to Belgium and

Ireland, also Estonia has rather high activity rate (68%). England stands out as well with 58% of

adult learners currently studying at ISCED level 5 being active in one or more social

organisations. Similarly to previous results, in Bulgaria and Lithuania activity rates are lower

(~30%).

4.5. MICRO LEVEL INDICATORS – MOTIVATION FOR LEARNING

‘Although motivation has been studied largely as a psychological concept, as a process, it is

inseparable from culture’ (Wlodkowski & Ginsberg, 1995). ‘Understanding an adult’s

motivation requires a multidisciplinary approach that considers but is not limited to that

individual’s perspective, ethnicity, family of origin, spiritual beliefs, personal goals, age,

economic means, and lifestyle’ (Wlodkowski, 1999, in: English, 2005).

4.5.1. Attitude towards Adult Education

‘Broadly conceived, attitudes towards adult education are persons’ dispositions, preferences,

prejudices and beliefs, usually expressed as opinions, that influence adult education participation

decisions. Attitudes shape how individuals value and assess the importance of adult education for

themselves, others and the larger society’ (Adrian Blunt, in: English, 2005).

Measurements on attitude towards adult education are mainly developed within the Northern

American research tradition on adult education. Blunt & Yang (2002) revised the Adult Attitudes

towards Continuing Education Scale of Darkenwald & Hayes (1988). The original scale

contained 22 items, but the authors of the revised scale also proposed a limited scale with only

nine items. These concrete items, together with their mean and standard deviation are shown in

Table 4.15.A (Appendix). Results are divided by level of the current courses, but also include the

statistics based on the totals.

Items are measured on a Lickert’s scale ranging from totally disagree (1) till totally agree (5).

Scores on items 2 till 5 are reversed because this was needed to perform a principal component

analysis on this scale.

100

Overall results show that the attitudes towards learning are rather positive among adult learners,

which might be expected, because they already have made a decision to continue their education

(Figure 4.20). All means are rather close to ‘4’, the code for ‘agreeing’ with that statement. The

most positive reactions are given to the statement “adult/continuing education is mostly for

people with little else to do”, as vast majority does not agree with this; and ‘continuing my

education makes me feel better about myself’ – adult learners overwhelmingly agree with this.

Separate Chi-square tests on all items crossed by the level of the current course indicated that

differences between students enrolled at higher or lower course levels are all significant. For

instance, adult learners enrolled at the lowest course levels dislike studying somewhat more, are

more convinced that successful people do not need adult education, have more the opinion that

adult education is meant for people with little else to do and have less confidence in the fact that

money spent on adult education is well spent money. On the other hand, adult learners at higher

ISCED level tend to enjoy a bit less educational activities that allow to learn with others and

believe somewhat less, that adult/continuing education is an important way to help cope with

changes in their lives.

2,5

3

3,5

4

4,5

5


I enjoy learning with others I dislike studying +

I'm fed up with teachers + Succesful people do not need AE +

AE is for those with nothing else to do + Money spent on AE for employees

AE helps make better use of l ives AE helps to cope with changes

CE makes me feel better about myself

Figure 4.20 Attitudes towards adult education by the level of the current course

Note: Statements marked with + indicate that the figure shows positive answers to those negatively

formulated statements

101

4.5.2. Country Level Differences in Attitudes towards Adult Education

At first glance it is difficult to follow country patterns in attitudes to lifelong learning when

analysing all the statements by countries and ISCED levels together (Table 4.16.A, Appendix)11.

However, it is interesting to observe in which countries adult learners’ attitudes to lifelong

learning differ from the overall pattern of attitudes presented above in Figure 4.20. On average,

its adult learners at ISCED level 4 and 2 who enjoy educational activities that allow to learn with

others a bit more than those at ISCED 3 or 5. Yet, in case of Scotland and Hungary we find

ISCED 3 and 5 learners to be most positive in regard to this statement, although there are

significant differences between ISCED groups only in Hungary where upper secondary students

enjoy studying with others more than students at other levels of education. Significant differences

between ISCED groups appear also among Bulgarian, Estonian and Russian adult learners. In

Bulgaria and Estonia ISCED 4 learners tend to enjoy learning with others more, while in Russia

it is ISCED level 4 and 5 learners who are slightly more positive than learners at lower ISCED.

Mostly adults, who have decided to continue their educational career, do not agree with disliking

studying, but if, then ISCED level 2 learners are the ones who are less exited about learning.

Primary and lower secondary students stand out especially in case of Estonia and Russia, where

they are significantly less optimistic about learning than students at higher levels of education.

These results might be explained with the fact that some of adults continuing their studies at

lower levels probably dropped out of the educational system at a rather early stage and therefore

developed less positive attitude towards learning. Adult learners at ISCED levels 4 and 5 are

more likely to study in a field they are more interested in and will probably use the knowledge

acquired also in their (future) work life. Even teachers themselves might have more positive

attitude towards adult learners studying at higher ISCED levels, because those learners are not

perceived as (former) dropouts or failures in some regard. Still, there are countries where ISCED

2 students are not the ones disliking studying more than students in higher ISCED levels: Austria,

Belgium, Ireland (although there are no significant differences between the groups).

Disliking learning most probably reflects relationship between students and teachers/classes.

Thus, it is again adult learners at lower ISCED levels who tend to disagree less with being fed up

with teachers and classes. Positive case is once again Belgium where ISCED level 2 learners

agree the least with this statement. Austria is also exceptional, as learners at ISCED level 2

(together with those at ISCED 3 and 5) are significantly less likely to be fed up with teachers and

classes than learners at ISCED level 4.

Differences between ISCED groups are most evident in attitudes to next two statements:

‘successful people do not need adult/continuing education’ and ‘adult/continuing education is

mostly for people with little else to do’. In majority of cases ISCED 2 learners agree somewhat

more with these statements than learners acquiring higher level qualification. From these results

we might assume that adult learners at ISCED level 2 do not regard themselves as successful or

as an adult learner and therefore feel less connected to those statements. There are no significant

11 In the Table 4.11 (and all analogous tables) we present differences in means by ISCED levels by country with

arranging ISCED levels (marked with respective number) starting from the level at which certain statement was

chosen the most (highest lowest mean). If ISCED levels in that sequence are separated with /, then there appear

no significant differences between the levels; when ISCED levels are separated with –, then there are significant

differences between respective ISCED levels.

102

differences between ISCED groups in regard to the first statement in case of Belgium, the Czech

Republic, Estonia and Lithuania; and to the second statement only among adult learners in

Estonia, Lithuania and Slovenia.

Adult learners at ISCED levels 3-5 are also more optimistic that ‘money spent on adult/

continuing education for employees is money well spent’. This could indicate that adults at

ISCED 2 have less experience on the labour market, and if they do work, then low-skilled12

employees are still less likely to get trained. In the Czech Republic, Russia, Scotland and

Slovenia differences between attitudes of those at lowest educational level compared to higher

levels are statistically significant. Once again, Belgium stands out, as here it is ISCED level 2

adults who agree more than others with this statement. ISCED 5 group stands out especially in

case of Estonia where they are significantly more convinced in rational spending when it comes

to training/educating employees than those who study at lower educational levels.

Adult learners at ISCED 5 level are a bit less positive in regard to last three statements (items 7-

9). Thus, they believe less in practical outcome of education: ‘adult/continuing education helps

people make better use of their lives’ and ‘adult/continuing education is an important way to help

people cope with changes in their lives’. ISCED level 5 learners also give somewhat less support

to the statement ‘continuing my education makes me feel better about myself’. We could assume

that adult learners in tertiary education have already quite high self-esteem (probably due to their

labour market position or having own household and raising a family). In case of Estonia and

Lithuania it is still learners obtaining vocation or academic degree who support aforementioned

statements more, but differences among ISCED groups are not statistically significant. From

these last three statements we observe somewhat more ISCED level differences in regard to

attitudes to the statement claiming that adult education helps to cope with changes in ones life.

Hence, in Belgium, Ireland and the Czech Republic ISCED level 5 students are more convinced

in this than others; in Norway ISCED 2 more so than those at higher levels; and in Russia ISCED

3-5 more than ISCED 2.

LLL2010 project is especially interested in how low-skilled adult learners are coping in formal

adult education system – do their perceptions and experiences in adult education vary from those

at higher levels of education. Therefore it is interesting to follow, in which countries there are

significant differences in attitudes to lifelong learning between students at ISCED level 2 versus

others. It appears that Russian adult learners differ in their attitudes to lifelong learning the most,

they feel less positive almost about all statements (excl. enjoying educational activities that allow

learning with others) (Table 4.16.A, Appendix). In Slovenia ISCED 2 students are less positively

oriented towards about half of the statements. On average in other countries, adult learners

studying at ISCED level 2 differ significantly from students at higher levels by having somewhat

lower enthusiasm only towards one or two statements measuring attitudes to lifelong learning.ii

12 In general, we refer to those studying at ISCED level 1-2 as low-skilled, because majority of adult learners (80%)

currently studying at ISCED level 1-2 have no or low level of prior education, with the exception of Belgium,

Norway, Scotland and England where only up to 50% of adults currently at ISCED level 1-2 have no or low level of

prior education.

103

4.5.3. Relevance of Participation in Adult Education

Engaging in learning starts from a certain purpose which is often translated into the concept of

motivation. The Education Participation Scale of Boshier & Collins (1985) is the most well-

developed measurement instrument within the adult education motivational research tradition.

The scale has been tested by different researchers (see of example Garst & Ried, 1999). It has

also been found that participation is not limited to one single motivational dimension (there can

be several) and that motivations differ according to socio-demographic background

characteristics (Boshier, 1991).

Within our own research, we integrated three items of each motivational orientation found by

Garst & Ried (1999): competency-related curiosity, interpersonal relations, community service,

escape from routine, professional advancement and compliance with external influence. As we

worked with a reduced number of statements, it was not our aim to control the original factor

structure as found in previous research, but to construct a set of clear and usable dependent

variables which we can use within the multivariate analyses.

First, we show the descriptive statistics for each of the 18 items included in our SP3

questionnaire. The file is divided by the level of the current course. The scale ranges from totally

disagree (1) to totally agree (5).

Once again, differences between the educational levels of the current course and the separate

items composing relevance of learning are significant following the results of Chi-square tests.

Students enrolled at the lowest levels learn less because of a certain interest, less to earn more,

were more forced by others to enrol, are more interested in group activities, enrol more to get a

break from the daily routine, participate less to do their job better and also somewhat less to

receive a certificate. Learners at higher levels continue their educational path more because of the

interest in a subject and have more job-related motives. In general it seems that adult learners

give high relevance to extrinsic, but also to intrinsic motives for re-entering formal education

system, meaning that they are very much interested in increasing their human capital, but also

social capital (building social relationships) and are looking for personal fulfilment. While

mostly, adult learners are not motivated by social control aspects of learning (see Figures 4.21-

4.24 and Table 4.17.A, Appendix).

104

0,00

0,50

1,00

1,50

2,00

2,50

3,00

3,50

4,00

4,50


to learn more on a subject that interests me to learn knowledge/skills useful in my daily l ife

to gain awareness of myself and others to get a break from the routine of home and work

because I was bored

0,00

0,50

1,00

1,50

2,00

2,50

3,00

3,50

4,00

4,50


to meet new people to contribute more as a citizen

to contribute more to my community to participate in group activities

Figure 4.21 Personal fulfilment reasons for participation Figure 4.22 Social capital reasons for participation

0,00

0,50

1,00

1,50

2,00

2,50

3,00

3,50

4,00

4,50


to obtain certificate to earn more

to do my job better to get a job

to be less l ikely to lose my current job to start up my own business

0,00

0,50

1,00

1,50

2,00

2,50

3,00

3,50

4,00

4,50


because someone advised me to do it because my employer required me to enrol

because I was obliged to do it

Figure 4.23 Human capital reasons for participation Figure 4.24 Social control reasons for participation

105

4.5.4. Country Level Differences in Relevance of Participation in Adult Education

In all countries, two most important reasons for adult learners starting their current study

programme are: ‘to learn more on a subject that interests me’ (personal fulfilment), followed

closely by ‘to obtain a certificate’ (increasing ones human capital) (Table 4.18.A, Appendix).

Yet, there are some differences by educational levels. Students at ISCED level 4 and 5 seem to

appreciate more the subject they are learning, while ISCED level 2 students are slightly less into

obtaining a certificate. Adult learners at ISCED level 4 and 5 continue their education to obtain a

vocation or get specialisation in a certain field that they chose (with or without someone’s help)

and therefore are also more interested in it. ISCED level 2 certificates offer the least possibilities

at the labour market, hence compared to higher level students ISCED 2 learners are somewhat

less motivated to continue studies because of the certificate. But receiving lower secondary

education does open the doors to higher educational levels, making it thus still fairly important to

those adult learners. Yet, this does not apply universally to all countries studied. Results show

that in Belgium, Bulgaria and Norway adult learners obtaining primary education are actually

interested in the subject that they learn more or as much as their counterparts at higher

educational levels (differences between ISCED groups are not significant). Among half of the

countries there are significant differences between two or more ISCED groups in how important

they consider learning on a subject of their interest. In regard to obtaining certificate there are

also several countries where it is more important for lower level students: Austria, Estonia,

Hungary and Lithuania (no significant differences in case of Hungary and Lithuania). We find

practically in all countries significant differences between educational levels and the degree of

relevance that is given to obtaining a certificate.

We continue describing results by personal fulfilment reasons for continuing ones studies. Quite

often adult learners stated learning new knowledge/skills useful in their daily life as a reason for

starting current studies. Here, the overall trend is that learning for new skills useful in daily life

increases as educational level of learning decreases. Thus, students at ISCED 5 agreed with this

the least (especially in the Czech Republic, Estonia and Ireland), probably because they already

consider themselves rather competent in daily activities. In addition to having interest in a certain

subject and wanting to learn new skills useful in daily life, adult learners were also quite often

motivated by another personal fulfilment aspect of learning – ‘to gain awareness of myself and

others’. This was more important motivator again for learners at ISCED level 2, but there are

significant differences between ISCED levels only in few countries. Among Russian adult

learners, however, ISCED 2 students are significantly less likely than those at higher ISCED

levels to claim that they started current studies as to gain awareness of themselves and others.

Same tendency is apparent for Estonia, Lithuania, Slovenia and to some degree England and

Scotland, yet there are no significant differences between ISCED levels. Last two aspects of

personal fulfilment were chosen less often as a reason for continuing ones education. But also

here, learners at lower ISCED level stand out; they were more motivated by getting a brake from

the routine of home and work and/or because they felt bored. The latter reason though, affected

decision to start up studies in formal education much less when compared to other reasons

presented in Tables 4.18.A (Appendix). To go in more detail, we observe that in case of Estonia

and Lithuania it is the ISCED 4 students who say that learning will give them a break from the

routine of home and work more often than others. This could be due to gender differences: at

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ISCED level 4 in Estonian and Lithuanian sample there are substantially more women when

compared to other levels; so women might experience more home-work routine because of their

higher workload of domestic tasks. However, this gender-related tendency does not apply to other

countries.

It seems that adult learners at ISCED level 2 compared to those at higher levels are more inclined

to communal or social aspects of learning – social capital. Learners at primary level of education

state more often that participating in group activities was one of the reasons to start current

studies, even though this reason was not too widespread among adult learners. In CEE countries

(excl. Bulgaria) there were no significant differences between ISCED groups, but the trend of

lower level students to prefer group activities still persists. In line with these results are also

answers to the statement regarding meeting new people. Adult learners at ISCED 2 have chosen

this as a reason to continue education more frequently than adults at ISCED 5. So it seems as

though learners at higher ISCED levels become more individualistic or perhaps just place a

higher value to other reasons in continuing their educational path. Nevertheless, there are

countries were opposite is true. To adult learners studying at primary level of education in the

Czech Republic, Estonia, Lithuania and Russia meeting new people appears to be less appealing

than to the learners at higher levels.

ISCED level 2 and 4 students associate continuing learning also with contributing to their

community and being more active as a citizen – ‘to contribute more to my community’ and ‘to

contribute more as a citizen’. Yet, in Belgium these qualities are more important to adult learners

at tertiary level of education. In Russia, Lithuania and Estonia (no significant differences in two

latter countries) students at primary and lower secondary level seem to be less aware of

contributing to community. In case of Estonia, for ISCED 2 and 4 students also being a more

active citizen is somewhat less important reason in stimulating participation in adult education

than for upper secondary and tertiary level students, but differences between educational levels

are not significant.

Notable relevance was given to job-related reasons for starting current studies – increasing ones

human capital. Thus, many adults at higher ISCED level stated that ‘to earn more’ and ‘to do my

job better’ were one of the reasons for continuing studies. ‘To get a job’ and ‘to be less likely to

lose my current job’ were mentioned less frequently. Overall tendency is that first two reasons

are more important to higher level and second two for lower level students. These results can be

explained by the fact that adult learners at higher ISCED level are more likely to be employed,

thus they would expect or hope to gain from learning better competences at work and higher

salary or promotion. Adult learners at lower ISCED level, in return, are more likely to search for

a job or are more apprehensive about being able to keep their current job because of a low or no

qualification. Also here we find some “exceptions to the rule”. In the Czech Republic and

Hungary it is the lower ISCED level learners who are more or as eager to earn more than those at

higher levels. There are no significant differences between ISCED groups in Bulgaria, Estonia

and Lithuania, but ISCED 2 students are the last ones in the rank order, thus somewhat less

motivated by earnings. This could also mean that adult learners at primary level do not expect

decent earnings after attaining low-level qualification certificate. However, we could assume

from this that in CEE countries earnings are a crucial issue for learners at all educational levels.

In Austria, Hungary and Scotland ISCED level 2 learners are motivated in continuing studies by

doing their job better as often as learners acquiring higher education do. And not in all countries

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are low-skilled students the ones who are more motivated by getting a job – Belgium, England

and Scotland (no significant differences in case of the latter though). In Belgium ISCED 2

students also state the least that they started currents studies to avoid losing their current job. In

most of the countries there are no significant differences by educational levels in this regard. As

the overall mean here is below three, then being less likely in losing a job was not so relevant to

adult learners in starting their studies during economically stable or even booming times. To

better understand special cases of some countries we present here their employment/activity rates.

In Belgian, Hungarian and England’s samples we find the highest rates of employment when

comparing ISCED 2 adult learners (around 60%). In Scotland’s sample there are relatively less

people employed at all ISCED levels (about 20% at ISCED 2 and 3, 10% at ISCED 4 and 40% at

ISCED 5) and just few percent are searching for a job.

Another career related reason that was presented to adult learners in SP3 questionnaire is ‘to start

up my own business’. Mostly this was not a reason for starting current studies, and especially so

for ISCED 5 students. On average, adult learners at ISCED 5 are older, more experienced and so

perhaps more aware of the risks and difficulties related to own business. It has also been

suggested that sometimes starting up own business is considered as a way out of unemployment

or inactivity, which are less of a problem for those with tertiary education.

Next we observe employers influence on the decision to continue ones education – ‘because my

employer required me to enrol in the programme’. According to total mean (Table 4.17.A,

Appendix) we can conclude that employer’s requirement played a relatively minor role in starting

up current study programme. However, if this was the case, than more so for adult learners at

ISCED level 2. Interestingly enough, in Belgium the trend is opposite, ISCED 2 learners have

stated employers requirement as a reason to start studies significantly less than learners at higher

ISCED levels. In more than half of the countries there are no significant differences between

educational levels, but still ISCED 2 learners appear in the first end of the sequence (Table

4.18.A, Appendix), meaning they are slightly more inclined to answer that their employer did

require obtaining primary or lower secondary education.

In addition to employer’s requirement learners were also asked whether being obliged or

following someone’s advice was a reason to continue their studies, hereby measuring whether

learners felt social control to re-enter formal education system. Social control aspects were not

overriding reasons chosen by adult learners, but the lower ones current level of education the

more likely s/he was to be motivated (at least partly) by the reasons reflecting social control.

Belgium is once again an exceptional case here, as ISCED level 2 students felt obligation or were

affected by someone’s advice less than students at higher levels of education.iii

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4.5.5. Confidence in Successfully Completing Current Studies

‘Confidence has been described as an inherent personality trait (McKinney, 1960). However,

confidence is generally accepted as situation-specific, and it can be therefore manipulated by

internal and external factors (Keller, 1979; Moller, 1993)’ (in Huett et. al., 2008).

Following Keller, confidence in one’s own abilities and experiencing support from others is a

main condition to survive in a certain environment. One of the main concerns within the field of

adult education is the persistence of the students. Early school leavers dropping out without any

qualification are often labelled as missed opportunities to increase skills and knowledge useful in

daily life, labour market and within society as a whole.

Within our questionnaire, we constructed a five-item scale including three items on receiving

support from persons within the own life, one on confidence in one’s own abilities and one on

negative learning experiences in the past.

Similar to the attitude and relevance scale, items were measured from totally disagree (1) till

totally agree (5). Descriptive statistics, including means and standard deviation by level of the

current course and totals are presented in Table 4.19.A (Appendix). Again, Chi-square tests

indicate significant differences between the levels of the current course. Students enrolled at the

lowest levels receive less support from others, are a bit less confident in their own abilities and

are less motivated because of negative learning experiences in the past (Figure 4.25).

0

0,5

1

1,5

2

2,5

3

3,5

4

4,5

5


My family supports me while I am studying

My friends encourage me to continue the study programme

I am confident that I will be able to complete the study programme

I am not very motivated because of my negative learning experiences in the past (+)

My employer encourages me to continue the study programme

Figure 4.25 Confidence in completing the study programme by the level of the current course

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4.5.6. Country Level Differences in Confidence of Completing Current Studies

Results are encouraging as majority of adult learners in all countries analysed feel confident

about being able to complete the study programme (total mean 4.3), although confidence

increases slightly by the level of education. Statistically significant differences between ISCED

groups appear only in three countries (Table 4.20.A, Appendix): in Bulgaria ISCED level 2 and

in Lithuania ISCED level 2 and 3 are less confident in completing current studies, while in

Hungary ISCED level 5 stands out as significantly more confident than learners at lower

educational levels. In Belgium, however, learners at primary and lower secondary level seem to

be somewhat more confident in successfully completing current studies than others (no

significant differences by educational level though).

Next adult learners were asked about the level of support and encouragement they receive from

family, friends and employer. As expected, learners feel most supported by their family.

Regrettably though, adult learners at lower levels of education experience family support during

studying less. Perhaps this question was understood in terms of financial support and as at least

compulsory level of education is free of charge in all countries then this might be the reason why

learners at tertiary level feel more supported. In Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, England,

Hungary and Slovenia differences between higher and lower ISCED levels are significant. Russia

is exceptional, as here it is ISCED level 4 adult learners who report significantly more often

family support than others.

Adult learners at primary and lower secondary level also feel that their friends encourage them to

continue the study programme less. We could assume that at lower levels of education or at

younger age people are less aware of the importance of education and therefore do not encourage

their friends so much. Or perhaps learning is somewhat less popular at this stage of life. ISCED 2

students are significantly less encouraged by their friends to continue current studies in following

countries: Austria, Belgium (here as much as at ISCED level 3), England, Hungary, Lithuania,

Russia and Slovenia.

Employer encouragement to continue the study programme is felt the least. This is in line with

previous results regarding motivation to start current studies, as only in few cases employers

required continuing studies in formal adult education. Sometimes employers are even not aware

of the fact that their employees are studying in formal education, because they study in a field not

related to current job or industry. Employers are more involved in non-formal education (courses,

seminars, etc.). ISCED level 2 students feel significantly less employer encouragement in Austria

and Belgium. In Scotland and Slovenia they actually report higher level of employer support than

those at ISCED level 3 and 4. Whilst in Bulgaria ISCED 2-3 are more encouraged by their

employer that those at higher levels of education. We find no significant differences between

educational levels for other countries.

Adult learners were also asked whether they are not very motivated for this study programme

because of negative learning experience in the past. As ISCED level 2 learners were less positive

about lifelong learning or adult education in general then it is not surprising that they report more

often than others being influenced by the negative learning experience in the past. We could

again associate this with dropping out at a very early stage of education (because of problems

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with some teachers for instance) or it might be due to different learning/teaching techniques at

lower levels of education. There are significant differences between ISCED groups in more than

half of the countries where adult learners at ISCED level 2 are more often motivated less for

currents studies because of their negative learning experience: Bulgaria, the Czech Republic,

England, Estonia, Lithuania, Russia, Scotland and Slovenia (mostly CEE countries).iv

4.5.7. Satisfaction with Learning Process and Outcome

‘Satisfaction comes when learners are allowed to practise using newly acquired knowledge and

skills and to receive feedback in a manner that leads to positive attitudes towards the learning

task. This also enables learners to receive reinforcement to maintain desirable learning

behaviours’ (Keller, 1987).

As a last step within the ARCS cycle of Keller, a good level of satisfaction counts as an

indispensability to avoid dropouts and to stimulate retention within a learning institution. In

addition, satisfaction among the participants could also be viewed as indicator of the quality of

the study programme.

Within SP3 questionnaire, we measured satisfaction based on five items containing elements on

the general progress, the general learning climate, the practical organisation, the new learned

knowledge or skills and the future perspectives after finishing the course. Descriptive statistics

are illustrated by the Figure 4.26 below. At an overall level, we can state that the adult learners

are rather satisfied with all five aspects and that differences between levels of the current course

are less dominant here than they were in regard to relevance and confidence.

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1

1,5

2

2,5

3

3,5

4

4,5


general progress of the entire study programme

general learning climate in the educational institution

practical organisation of the educational institution

what you have so far learned thanks to the course

what you can go on to do after completion of this course

Figure 4.26 Satisfaction with the study programme by the level of the current course

4.5.8. Country Level Differences in Satisfaction with Learning Process and Outcomes

General trend is that even though adult learners are mostly satisfied with their studies, still those

at highest level of education tend to be little less satisfied than others with the progress and

outcome of the current studies. It could be that at higher levels of education learners are more

aware of their own needs and have therefore higher demands and expectations to educational

institutions. On average, adult learners are somewhat less satisfied with ‘the general practical

organisation of the educational institution’ and ‘the general progress of the entire study

programme’. In case of the latter we find diverging results only for Hungary, where tertiary level

students are together with ISCED level 2 students less satisfied with the progress of the entire

study programme (Table 4.22.A, Appendix). Otherwise, when differences between ISCED levels

are significant (Belgium, Bulgaria and Ireland), results are in line with the general trend – ISCED

level 2 are most satisfied or ISCED level 5 least satisfied. There are more significant differences

among educational groups when it comes to practical organisation of the educational institution.

Only in England, Estonia, Norway and Slovenia adult learners do not differ significantly in their

opinions about practical organisation of the educational institution. Otherwise, those at higher

levels of education are clearly less satisfied with this aspect of learning process. Somewhat

exceptional is the case of Lithuania, were ISCED level 4 learners are significantly more satisfied

with practical organisation of their school than others. Another peculiarity comes from

Norwegian survey. If in all other countries vast majority of adult learners were roughly satisfied

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with their study programme and educational institution, then in Norway almost 80% of learners

showed dissatisfaction with the general progress of the entire study programme. A clear majority

was also dissatisfied with the general practical organisation of the educational institution (63-

78%). It seems that Norwegian adult learners are very critical of their learning environment and

know what they need from educational institutions, since compared to educational systems in

other countries Norwegian system could hardly be described as worse or poorly performing.

From the measures of learning process, adult learners give higher assessment to ‘the general

learning climate of the entire study programme’. Yet also here, learners at tertiary level of

education are slightly more reserved, while mostly there are no differences between opinions of

ISCED level 2-4 learners. Learners at highest educational level differ significantly from others in

Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary and Ireland. In Belgium it is the ISCED level 2 learners

who are significantly more satisfied with learning climate than others. For Russia we observe

somewhat different results: ISCED level 5 and 2 learners are significantly less satisfied with the

learning climate than learners at ISCED 3 and 4.

There are fewer differences between ISCED levels in regard to satisfaction with learning

outcomes. Adult learners are most satisfied with what they can go on to do after completion of

the current studies. Whereby, ISCED 4 learners are more satisfied and ISCED 5 learners once

again slightly less. There are significant differences between educational levels in four countries:

in Belgium ISCED 2 are the most satisfied; in England and Scotland ISCED 4; and in Bulgaria

both ISCED 4 and 3 are the most satisfied with what they can do after completing current studies.

Finally, ISCED 4 learners are also more satisfied with what they have so far learned thanks to the

course, and ISCED 5 learners are slightly less satisfied with this too. Where differences by

educational level are significant, we find only in case of Belgium divergent results, here learners

at primary and lower secondary level are more satisfied with what they have learned so far than

those at higher levels. Returning to Norwegian case, despite of being dissatisfied with the process

aspects of learning, majority of adult learners (84-91%) are satisfied with that they have learned

so far. Norwegian results are thus inconsistent in regard to satisfaction with learning process and

outcomes, which partly might be due to a low quality of the survey. In addition, for reasons of

anonymity it was not possible to detect on individual level to find out exactly why respondents

are so inconsistent in their answers. v

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5. THE EFFECTS OF MICRO, MESO AND MACRO LEVEL CHARACTERISTICS ON PERCEPTIONS AND EXPERIENCES OF ADULT LEARNERS

Results of the descriptive analysis indicated that the adult learners group studied in LLL2010

project countries is rather heterogeneous (e.g. socio-demographic and socio-economic

indicators). Partly this is due to a very diverse way that adult formal education is organised and

understood nation-wide. Nevertheless, on an overall level patterns related to experiences of adult

learners are not too different, especially if taking into account prior noted differences. Table 5.1

(see also Table 5.1.A, Appendix) shows that more pronounced differences between countries,

according to educational levels, appear in regard to extrinsic motivation (or in other words

socially triggered relevance) and experienced barriers. Country differences are on average more

present at lower levels of current education (ISCED 1-213).

Table 5.1 Country differences in ARCS’s, classroom environment and barriers by educational level,

between group variance (intraclass correlations)

ISCED 2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5 Total

Extrinsic motivation .61 .23 .28 .26 .29

Barriers .48 .22 .12 .27 .23

Classroom

environment .13 .11 .11 .12 .09

Attitude .22 .09 .05 .09 .08

Intrinsic motivation .09 .06 .13 .06 .06

Satisfaction .08 .05 .04 .07 .05

Confidence .03 .03 .03 .04 .02

While according to classroom environment, attitude, intrinsic motivation, satisfaction and

confidence variation patterns are less evident: vast majority of adult learners express positive

attitude towards lifelong learning; are to a fairly equal degree influenced by intrinsic motives; are

generally satisfied with their learning; and confident in successfully finishing current studies.

13 Further in the text referred to as ISCED 2 and ISCED level 5-6 will be referred to as ISCED 5, as those were

prevalent groups in the sample.

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5.1. COUNTRY DIFFERENCES IN ADULT LEARNERS’ EXPERIENCES AND PERCEPTIONS OF FORMAL ADULT EDUCATION BY EDUCATIONAL LEVELS

5.1.1. Country Differences in Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motives

Next we study country differences by summarised ARCS and classroom environment variables

and total barriers by educational level of the current course. From Table 5.1 we could conclude

that countries vary the most in regard to adult learners’ extrinsic reasons for continuing their

studies. To go in further detail (Table 5.2) it appears that on the overall level (total ISCED)

extrinsic motives are more prevalent among Central and Eastern European countries (incl.

Russia). In Bulgaria there are more adult learners continuing their studies due to extrinsic

motives than in other countries. Bulgaria is followed by Lithuania and Hungary. In Russia and

the Czech Republic extrinsic motives are less apparent than in prior countries. From CEE

countries Slovenian and Estonian adult learners are the least motivated by extrinsic reasons to

study, while from Western European countries Belgian learners stand out as the least extrinsically

motivated. Scottish students on the other hand are more motivated by extrinsic reasons when

compared to their counterparts in other Western European countries. Bulgaria and Belgium are

outliers throughout different educational levels as well.

Country differences are more apparent at ISCED level 2 where CEE countries together with

Austria and Scotland compose a large group of rather extrinsically motivated adult learners. In

Ireland and England adult learners at low educational level are less extrinsically motivated, but

more so than in Belgium. As was indicated in the descriptive analysis chapter, adult learners in

Belgium constitute a specific group, especially in comparison to CEE countries. Hence, Belgian

learners at lower educational levels are more likely to have obtained higher initial education.

Therefore on average they are also more experienced and older adult learners, who probably have

clear vision of their aims and feel more the inner need to study or continue one’s educational

career. At ISCED 3 it is adult learners in Bulgaria, Hungary, Lithuania and the Czech Republic

who express more extrinsic reasons for learning than do learners in Slovenia, Estonia, Russia, but

also in Scotland, Ireland and England. Austrian adult learners at ISCED 3 seem to learn less due

to extrinsic reasons, whereas Belgian learners are again the least motivated by extrinsic reasons to

continue their studies. Also at ISCED level 4 we see that CEE and Western countries are not

homogenous groups in regard to extrinsic motivation. After Bulgaria, more extrinsically

motivated are Lithuanian, Hungarian and Russian learners. Estonian and Slovenian adult learners

are quite similar to learners in Ireland, Austria, England and Scotland in their reasons for

continuing studies. Country differences are less prevalent at the highest level of education. Here

it is only Bulgaria on one end (more extrinsically motivated) and Austria and Belgium (less

extrinsically motivated) on the other that are significantly different from other countries.

According to intrinsic reasons for continuing studies it appears that significant differences

between countries exist only at ISCED level 5 where Czech adult learners are less intrinsically

motivated (Table 5.2.A, Appendix). At ISCED levels 2 and 3, however, it seems that in Ireland

and Scotland adult learners feel more inner need to study, even though country differences are

not statistically significant. Out of CEE countries we could regard learners in Lithuania, Bulgaria

and Estonia to be somewhat more intrinsically motivated.

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Table 5.2 Country mean differences in EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION by educational level

COUNTRIES

Total (F=336,980; df=11) BG – LT / HU – RU / CZ – EE / SI – SC – IE / EN / AU – BE

ISCED 2 (F=188,182; df=10) BG – HU / RU / LT / SI / AU / SC / EE – IE / EN – BE

ISCED 3 (F=71,466; df=11) BG / HU / LT / CZ – SI / EE / RU / SC / IE / EN – AU – BE

ISCED 4 (F=98,729; df=10) BG – LT / HU / RU – EE / SI / IE / AU / EN / SC – BE

ISCED 5 (F=87,657: df=11) BG – LT / HU / RU / CZ / EE / SC / SI / EN / IE – AU / BE

Note: * Means presented from highest to lowest mean

** / = no significant difference between means; – = significant difference between means

*** Not enough variables in case of Norway

**** In the Czech Republic only ISCED level 3 and 5 adult learners were interviewed

5.1.2. Country Differences in Barriers and Classroom Environment

Adult learners of Central and Eastern European countries tend to experience more barriers while

studying in formal adult education, but also adult learners in Norway and Austria report more

problems than those in other Western European countries (Table 5.3). Interestingly, Bulgarian

adult learners experience significantly less problems than their counterparts from other CEE

countries. At ISCED level 2 Russian, Slovenian, Estonian and Austrian learners report problems

the most. They are followed by Norway and Lithuania and Hungary. Adult learners at low level

of education in the UK, Ireland, Bulgaria and Belgium report problems the least. At upper

secondary and postsecondary education there are no significant country level differences in

experiencing barriers, although at ISCED level 3 Western countries (excl. Norway) are at the

lower end of the sequence, that is, adult learners in those countries face somewhat less problems

during their studies. At ISCED level 5 only adult learners in the UK report significantly fewer

problems than learners in other countries.

Table 5.3 Country mean differences in BARRIERS by educational level

COUNTRIES

Total (F94,045; df=12) NO / RU / EE / SI / HU – LT / CZ / AU – BE – BG / IE – SC – EN

ISCED 2 (F=54,330; df=11) RU / SI / EE / AU – NO – LT / HU – SC / IE / BG / BE / EN

ISCED 3 (F=26,794; df=12) NO / SI / HU / EE / RU / LT / BG / CZ / AU / IE / BE / SC / EN

ISCED 4 (F=13,965; df=11) NO / EE / RU / SI / IE / AU / HU / BG / LT / SC / EN / BE

ISCED 5 (F=28,004; df=12) EE / LT / NO / RU / AU / CZ / HU / SI / BE / IE / BG – SC / EN



In regard to classroom environment we do not observe many substantial differences between

countries, although in general adult learners in Western countries tend to perceive classroom

settings more positively. At lower ISCED levels (2 and 3) there appear to be no significant

differences in perceptions of one’s classroom milieu. At ISCED level 4 only Slovenian adult

116

learners experience their classroom less positively. Country variations are more evident at ISCED

level 5 where adult learners in England are most positive about their classroom environment;

learners in Scotland, Estonia, Austria, Lithuania, Ireland and Russia stand amidst; while learners

in other countries perceive classroom less positively. In Norway some statements regarding

classroom environment were not asked and therefore results are not presented in Table 5.4. Yet

when studying statements that were included in the Norwegian questionnaire we observe very

high agreement with almost all statements (all means on a 5-point scale 4 and above).

Table 5.4 Country mean differences in CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT by educational level

COUNTRIES

Total (F=86,349; df=11) EN / IE / SC / AU / RU / BE / EE / BG / LT – HU – SI / CZ

ISCED 2 (F=30,412; df=10) AU / IE / BE / EN / SC / BG / HU / EE / RU / LT / SI

ISCED 3 (F=28,557; df=11) IE / AU / SC / RU / EN / HU / BG / BE / LT / EE / CZ / SI

ISCED 4 (F=27,698; df=10) EN / IE / SC / EE / RU / LT / BG / BE / HU / AU – SI

ISCED 5 (F=38,766; df=11) EN – SC / EE / AU / LT / IE / RU – BE / BG / SI / CZ / HU



*** Not enough variables in case of Norway

5.1.3. Country Differences in Attitudes

In regard to one’s attitude towards adult education or lifelong learning in general we do not

observe distinct differences between CEE and Western European countries (Table 5.5). However,

adult learners in Norway appear to have most positive attitude towards adult education at all

educational levels. In general, learners in Slovenia and Bulgaria, followed by Russia and the

Czech Republic have the least positive attitude towards adult education. At ISCED level 2

Norwegian and Austrian adult learners are most affirmative to adult education, while this

tendency is quite the opposite in case of Russian learners. All other countries remain in-between.

At ISCED level 3 adult learners in the Czech Republic are significantly less positive in regard to

adult education, whereas at ISCED level 4 and 5 only Norwegian learners stand out as the most

positive towards learning as an adult.

Table 5.5 Country mean differences in ATTITUDES by educational level

COUNTRIES

Total (F=133,712; df=12) NO – AU / IE / EE / HU / EN / SC / BE / LT – SI / BG – RU / CZ

ISCED 2 (F=65,387; df=11) NO / AU – IE / BE / HU / EE / LT / EN / SI / SC / BG – RU

ISCED 3 (F=40,313; df=12) NO – AU / IE / HU / SC / EN / EE / BE / RU / LT / SI / BG – CZ

ISCED 4 (F=23,942; df=11) NO – EE / IE / SC / EN / AU / HU / LT / BG / BE / SI / RU

ISCED 5 (F=47,810; df=12) NO – AU / EE / IE / EN / LT / SC / HU / RU / SI / BE / BG / CZ



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5.1.4. Country Differences in Satisfaction and Confidence

Adult learners in formal education do not differ much according to satisfaction with the progress

and outcome of their current studies (Table 5.3.A, Appendix). Significant differences appear

again only at ISCED level 5, where we see that Hungarian adult learners are less satisfied with

their studies when compared to other countries. Yet again we observe that at all ISCED levels

learners in Western countries are slightly more satisfied with their studies (no statistically

significant results). From post-socialist countries it is Russian adult learners who seem to be a bit

more satisfied with their studies throughout all educational levels.

Hungary is exceptional in regard to confidence as well, thus on an overall level and at ISCED

level 4 Hungarian adult learners are notably less confident in successfully completing current

studies (Table 5.4.A, Appendix). Norwegian (excl. ISCED 5) and at some educational levels also

Austrian learners are more confident than others, however these country differences are not

statistically significant.

5.2. MICRO, MESO AND MACRO LEVEL CHARACTERISTICS AFFECTING PERCEPTIONS AND EXPERIENCES OF ADULT LEARNERS

We observe the effect of macro, meso and micro characteristics to ARCS variables and barriers

via Pearson’s correlations. Correlations with categorical variables are calculated according to

Field (2000: 95). There is a separate analysis by all ISCED levels and ISCED level 2, as one of

the aims of LLL2010 is to study how adult learners at lower levels of education fare in formal

education in comparison to those studying at higher levels. This analysis is followed by

regression models revealing which individual and institutional aspects are most relevant in

explaining differences in adult learners’ perceptions and experiences.

Results indicate (Tables 5.5.A and 5.6.A, Appendix) that in case of all educational levels macro

level characteristics tend to have significant effect mainly on one’s extrinsic motivation. Thus,

GDP per capita; public expenditure on education; percentage of people with higher education;

percentage of upper secondary students enrolled in vocational education; but also trade union

density and collective bargaining coverage; expenditures on active and passive labour market

measures are in negative correlation with extrinsic motivation. On the other hand, ratio of

employees with low occupations into employees with low education and percentage of

population with at least upper secondary education are in positive correlation with the overall

extrinsic motivation variables. So we might assume that in wealthier countries which contribute

more to educational system, have higher percentage of population with higher education, with

active unionism and generous labour market policies extrinsic motivations tend to be less

prevalent. The same tendencies are observable in case of separate analysis for ISCED level 2

adult learners.

On the macro level we see that national legislation setting statutory minimum wages is in positive

correlation with one’s attitude towards adult education, this is so for all educational levels and for

ISCED 2 separately as well. At lower educational level also public expenditure on training of

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unemployed and GDP per capita tend to have a positive association with attitude towards adult

education.

Correlations of macro level variables with ARCS and barriers are in part difficult to interpret, as

at the country or institutional level macro variables compose certain internally congruent

‘packages’. Therefore separate correlation results (by each macro indicator) might not give us

relevant information. Hence in the final subchapter we conduct cluster analysis on the macro

indicators by countries.

At the meso level it appears that classroom environment variables have significant positive

correlation with one’s attitude, confidence and especially so with satisfaction at all educational

levels and separately at ISCED 2 as well. Here we do not consider meso level effects on intrinsic

and extrinsic motives, as those are shaped predominantly before entering formal adult education

system (see also discussion in Chapter 5.2.1). Attitude to adult education measures the views of

adult learners in present, thus we assume attitude is influenced by the immediate experience of

participation in formal education system. However, we can not exclude the possibility that one’s

attitude is rather stable over time. Motives or reasons for participation, on the other hand, were

measured retrospectively – adult learners were asked to recall why they decided to continue

educational path. Although present learning experience might alter the recollection, we still

assume that the direct effect on attitude and on confidence and satisfaction in particular to be

more relevant.

Although variables composing classroom environment made up a coherent factor variable, we are

further interested which classroom environment components have most important effect on one’s

attitude, confidence and satisfaction. As introduced in the descriptive chapter of the current report

(Chapter 4, p. 85), based on the scale of Darkenwald & Valentine (1986) and work of O’Fathaigh

(1997), we composed seven classroom environment measures: relationship between students;

teacher support; task orientation; personal goal attainment; organisation and clarity of the

course/programme; student influence; and active involvement of students14. For one’s attitude

towards adult education (see Table 5.6) it appears that most influential aspects of classroom

environment are students’ active involvement, teacher support and organisation/clarity of the

study course. Confidence in successfully completing current studies is mainly affected by

organisation of learning, teacher support and again active involvement of students. We find

highest correlation coefficients in regard to satisfaction with the learning process and outcome;

here main components of classroom environment are the same as in case of attitude and

confidence with addition of relationships between learners. Thus we can conclude that most

14 Classroom environment indicators are composed as follows: *Relationship between students – ‘the study programme provides opportunities for making new friends; ‘the students in the study

programme enjoy working together’

*Active involvement of students – ‘students often ask the teacher questions’; most students enjoy the study programme’

*Student influence – ‘the teacher insists that you do things his/her way’; ‘students feel free to question study programme

requirements’; ‘participants in the training discuss real-life examples based on their personal experience’

*Teacher support – ‘the teacher makes every effort to help students succeed’; ‘the teacher respects students as individuals’

*Organisation of learning – ‘the study programme is well organised’; the study programme has a clear sense of direction’

*Task orientation – ‘activities not related to the study programme are kept to a minimum’; ‘getting work done is very important in

the study programme’

*Organisation of learning – ‘the study programme is well organised’; the study programme has a clear sense of direction’

*Goal attainment – ‘students can select assignments that are of personal interest to them’; most students in the study programme

achieve their personal learning goals

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relevant aspect of classroom environment in shaping adult learners’ perceptions and experiences

of learning is active involvement of learners. Other significant indicators are organisation of

learning, teacher support and relationships among learners. Similar conclusions have been drawn

for instance in a study of learning experiences and perspectives of adults from working class

background (Tobias, 1998). There it was found that key factors of a supportive learning

environment involve: social connections with other learners; the relevance of the learning to

one’s immediate life; respectful staff/teachers/tutors; and in some cases one especially supportive

key person.

Table 5.6 Classroom environment indicators impacting adult learners’ attitude, confidence and

satisfaction, correlations

Classroom environment

indicators Attitude Confidence Satisfaction

Relationships between students .295 .242 .377

Active involvement of students .350 .251 .477

Student influence .214 .150 .263

Teacher support .320 .247 .495

Organisation of leaning .317 .252 .553

Task orientation .236 .191 .331

Goal attainment .161 .148 .340

Note: * All correlations statistically significant at the 0.01 level (2-sided)

**Green colour marks stronger associations

In regard to different barriers we could note some but rather weak associations with attitude,

confidence and satisfaction. Thus, as expected, on the overall level (for all educational groups)

studies scheduled at an inconvenient time, too little time for studying and lack of preparation for

the study programme decrease one’s satisfaction with current studies. While difficulties in

competing with younger students, has somewhat negative effect on confidence in successfully

completing currents studies. Separately for adult learners studying at lower educational levels

(ISCED 2) we do not find significant correlations between barriers and attitude, confidence or

satisfaction.

For micro level socio-economic variables we observe notably more significant correlations

precisely in case of ISCED 2 adult learners. Still, at the overall level (Table 5.5.A, Appendix) it

appears that adult learners belonging to older age groups and those with high completed

education are less motivated by extrinsic reasons to continue their studies. This is so for ISCED 2

learners as well. In addition, at lower levels of education men, those younger than 25 years of age

and people with low completed education are more motivated by extrinsic reasons to continue

studies. In general, older adult learners (65+) report less extrinsic reasons for learning and seem

to perceive fewer barriers while studying. Moreover, older adult learners at ISCED 2 have more

positive attitude towards adult education, express intrinsic motives for learning, are more

confident in successfully completing current studies and are more satisfied with the process and

outcome of learning. Adult learners in age group 41-65 are more satisfied with current studies

too. In Subproject 3 survey sample there are only about 1% of adult learners older than 65 years

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of age, thus we need to be careful in interpreting findings that regard this age group. However,

we could assume that middle-aged and older learners have given more thought into why they are

continuing formal learning studies and hence have chosen programmes more suitable form them.

This leads to having positive attitude towards lifelong learning, being more satisfied, intrinsically

motivated and confident in finishing studies. There might also be the issue of selectivity at place,

as only those older adult learners manage to continue learning who already overcame many

barriers on their way and now are able to dedicate to learning (their children are mature enough,

have found their place in labour market and society in a wider sense, are willing to change career,

etc).

When analysing barriers as a dependent variable (last column of Table 5.5.A and 5.6.A,

Appendix) we see that at all educational levels correlations with macro level variables are weak.

At ISCED level 2 there is a positive correlation between the percentage of population with at

least upper secondary education and barriers. At meso level there appears to be positive

correlation between distance teaching and barriers, thus we might assume that those studying via

distance teaching have chosen this mode of studying to mitigate some of their problems or they

did not see any other option. At ISCED level 2 also weekend classes and modular based studies

are in positive correlation with problems. Furthermore, adult learners with low completed

education studying at ISCED 2 encounter more problems, while those with high completed

education have fewer problems. Again we observe significant results in regard to older adult

learners. On the overall level and only at ISCED 2 they seem to face fewer barriers to continue

studies. Perhaps there is a question of selection here, as not many older learners break through to

participate in adult education, so only those with less problems manage to succeed. But as noted

earlier, we should regard these results with certain caution due to small sample size of older adult

learners.

5.2.1. Most Relevant Micro and Meso Level Characteristics Affecting Adult Learners’ Perceptions and Experiences

By the means of linear regression models, comprised by country clusters/groups (composition of

which will be explained below), we aim to reveal which micro and meso level characteristics are

most important in explaining differences in confidence in successfully completing studies and

satisfaction with learning process and outcome. We focus on confidence and satisfaction as the

last two key variables in the ARCS model of Keller (1987, 1999). A lack of confidence and

satisfaction could lead to school drop-out, poor well-being and reduced learning results.

Therefore, we consider it as meaningful to gain insight in the main determinants of confidence

and satisfaction across the different countries in the LLL2010 project. Exploring separate

regressions by country-clusters enables us to see whether confidence and satisfaction are formed

in a different way even if the level of certain dependent variables is the same.

The ARCS cycle of Keller is based on expectancy value theory (Vroom, 1964). Accordingly,

attitude and relevance refer to ‘value’ and we can assume that construction of values is largely

developed before the actual participation in adult education. In other words, attitude towards

learning and learning motives are psychological constructs which are shaped in the family

situation and continue developing and changing in compulsory education, wider social

community and work life (Smith and Spurling, 2001). As such, it is comparable to Bourdieu’s

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habitus. Moreover, it has been stated that the desire or decision to continue with formal learning

are often a combination of personal, social and economic factors (Bowl, 2003; Davey, 2003).

Expectancies, on the other hand, refer to an evaluation which will be made by the adult learner

during the learning participation process. A positive evaluation is comparable to a fulfilment of

the expectancies as internalised by the adult learner. Keller defines ‘satisfaction’ as the ultimate

evaluation of the educational process, resulting in drop-out or persistence. Also confidence is an

indicator involved in educational career discontinuation and partially shaped by the learning

process itself. This means that depending on the educational environment adult learners develop a

feeling of confidence in completing study programme. Hence, further analysis (regression

models) will concentrate on satisfaction and confidence. As our questionnaires were filled in by

actual adult learners who had not dropped out by the time of the interview, it is not surprising that

the overall satisfaction and even more so confidence in the sample is rather high.

Macro or country level institutional characteristics will not be included to regression models due

to considerable multicollinearity issues. Yet we do consider the effect of macro level

characteristics via country-clusters since they are composed on the basis of macro institutional

characteristics. Clustering countries according to macro characteristics enables us more

meaningful analysis, as we arrive at country groups with more or less similar and congruent

institutional ‘packages’ (Blossfeld, 2003).

According to cluster analysis we established four clusters which largely correspond to well-

known welfare state regimes (see also Figure 5.1):

1. Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Lithuania and Slovenia – Central and

Eastern European countries;

2. England, Scotland and Ireland – Anglo-Celtic countries;

3. Austria and Belgium – Continental countries;

4. Norway – Nordic country.

Although CEE countries fall under one cluster we would like to emphasise that we do not

consider all CEE countries to compose single coherent welfare regime as there are countries

which have developed their policies according to different welfare state regimes or have

occasionally combined measures from several types (for further discussions see Stark and Bruszt,

1998, Bohle and Greskovits, 2007, Nölke and Vliegenthart, 2009). Also according to Figure 5.1

we can observe that for instance the Czech Republic and Slovenia are somewhat farther from the

rest of CEE countries. Still against the backdrop of European countries included into the analysis

CEE are closer to each other than to any other cluster.

We were not able to include Russia into cluster analysis due to many missing macro

characteristic variables. However, in linear regression models Russia is introduced to the Central

and Eastern European cluster. One of the results of Subproject 4 Comparative Report ‘The

Qualifications-Supporting Company – The Significance of Formal Adult Education in Small and

Medium Enterprises’ (p. 57) is grouping LLL2010 partner countries on the basis of the degree of

diversification of the formal adult education system. In that typology Russia was also grouped

together with CEE countries, while the UK and Ireland were in one group with Belgium, and

Austria was grouped with Norway. After testing several regression analysis models we decided to

keep the so-called macro clusters (including Russia), yet due to missing of several dependent and

independent variables Norway is not included to the analysis.

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Figure 5.1 Hierarchical cluster analysis of countries by macro level characteristics

Note *Description of macro variables entered to the cluster analysis are presented in Table 5.7.A, Appendix

As independent variables to the regression model we introduce following sets of attributes: socio-

demographic and socio-economic background; characteristics of the learning institutions

(classroom environment, organisation of studies, didactical methods of teaching); barriers

associated with learning and the level of current course. Many studies (e.g. Desjardins, Milana,

Rubenson, 2006; Boeren, Nicaise, Baert, 2010) have indicated that adults belonging to less

advantaged socio-demographic and -economic groups have fewer opportunities to participate in

(adult) learning activities or they might be less successful in it. Within the current study we are

interested whether individuals with different background characteristics (at individual and

educational institution level) express different confidence and satisfaction when it comes to adult

learning.

Barriers associated with adult education are a central theme in some of the models that aim to

explain the decision-making process of participation (Cross, 1987; Darkenwald & Merriam,

1982; Rubenson & Desjardins, 2009). Moreover, it is known that barriers may also hinder the

learning process of those who already participate in adult education. Several problems that

learners encounter can prevent them from successfully finishing the course. Thus we analyse how

and which various problems affect ones confidence and satisfaction aspects of learning.

In addition to individual characteristics, Subproject 3 is interested in how learning process and

environment in the educational institutions is perceived. Previous research has shown that a

positive classroom environment leads to more effective and enjoyable learning process

(Darkenwald & Valentine, 1986; Keller, 1987, 1999). Classroom environment is an example of

the field theory of Lewin (1935) who states that behaviour is the result of our own characteristics

in interaction with the environment and the people around us giving support to achieve our goals.

Also Keller states that the classroom management, together with the learning design, is highly

important in achieving motivation. Furthermore, Schuetze & Slowey (2002) have argued that

organisational variables such as APL (accreditation of prior learning, diploma and certificate

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required), APEL (accreditation of prior experiential learning), teaching methods, module based

courses, etc. are important factors, for lifelong learning practice is gradually shifting towards

more flexible regimes.

In the following subchapters we will focus on relationships between variables if their statistical

significance expressed in p-value is less than or equal to 0.01 or 0.05. The sample size of 13

countries is large and therefore we would like to avoid overestimation of small

effects/associations between dependent and independent variables15.

Micro and meso level characteristics affecting confidence

Regression models by three country clusters composed for confidence in completing current

studies have rather low explanatory power. Accordingly, the regression of the Continental cluster

explains mere 4% of the variance, the Anglo-Celtic regression 13% and the CEE regression 16%

of the variance (Table 5.7)16. There are three characteristics having similar effect in all three

clusters on one’s confidence in successfully completing current studies. Classroom environment

has the strongest positive effect on confidence, so adults in well organised study programmes

who experience a positive autonomy-supporting learning environment and have good relations

with classmates and teachers are significantly more confident. Further, it appears that in all

country clusters age has a significant effect, namely those in the middle age group (25-40) are

more likely to express higher level of confidence than learners younger than 25 years of age. In

CEE cluster also adult learners over 40 years of age are more confident than their counterparts in

the youngest age group. We could assume that adults in older age groups overcome more barriers

when re-entering formal education system and thus after succeeding are also highly motivated

and confident in finishing their studies.

In the Anglo-Celtic and CEE countries, classes during weekends tend to increase one’s

confidence. While in Austria and Belgium module based courses and working in groups have the

positive effect on confidence. So more flexibly organised learning (weekend classes and module

courses) does have positive relation with confidence in completing one’s studies. In Anglo-Celtic

cluster we observe that paying him-/herself for the course has negative association with

confidence. Returning to CEE countries, many adult learners are learning and working or raising

a family at the same time, hence courses that last longer than a year seem to pose serious

challenges and decrease confidence in one’s ability to successfully complete studies.

15 All three clusters in the international pooled Subproject 3 dataset have been weighed to an equal size. 16 Full regression models are available in Table 5.8.A and 5.9.A, Appendix.

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Table 5.7 Micro and meso level variables influencing CONFIDENCE in successfully completing

current study programme (linear regression models)

CONFIDENCE

Austria – Belgium UK – Ireland Central-Eastern Europe

Socio-demographic and –economic characteristics

Males + Males –

25-40 year olds + 25-40 year olds + 25-40 year olds +

Over 40 years of age +

Educational institution characteristics

Classroom environment + Classroom environment + Classroom environment +

APL + Classes more than 3 times a week +

Entrance test/interview – Course duration > 1 year –

Module based courses + Paid for the course him-/herself –

Classes during weekends + Classes during weekends +

Working in groups + Whole-class teaching +

Barriers while participating in adult education system

Lack of preparation – Lack of preparation – Lack of preparation –

Age difference barrier –

Level of the current course

ISCED 3 current course +

Adjusted R-square .043 Adjusted R-square .134 Adjusted R-square .158

Note *Sig. ≤ 0,05 marked in bold; marked in italic are less significant relations

**Reference categories: Females; Younger than 25 years of age; Low level completed education;

Employed; ISCED 2 current course

***Variables duration of the course and module based courses not available in case of the UK, thus these

variables excluded from the Anglo-Celtic model; the Czech Republic and Hungary not included in the CEE

cluster due to missing variables (APL, time of the course, duration of the course)

From the barriers related to studies, in all country clusters learners who feel lack of preparation

for the current study programme are substantially less confident in completing the studies. In

CEE countries in addition to the lack of preparation also age difference barrier (difficulties in

competing with younger students) and taking courses that last longer than a year decrease

confidence in completing studies. As descriptive analysis showed, in CEE countries adult

learners are mostly rather young and therefore it is understandable that somewhat older learners

do not feel comfortable in this environment. On the societal level, widespread understanding

proposes that learning is foremost for young, although this view is slowly starting to change.

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Micro and meso level characteristics affecting satisfaction

In regard to satisfaction with learning process and outcomes regression models for all country

clusters have much higher explanatory power, now about 40% of variance is explained (Table

5.8). Again we find that classroom environment has strong positive effect (explains 30% of the

variance) – adult learners with positive perception of the classroom milieu are more satisfied with

their learning process and outcomes in all country groups. Another common feature to all clusters

is that adult learners over 40 years of age are more satisfied than those younger than 25 years of

age. In Continental and Anglo-Celtic clusters learners in age group 25-40 are more satisfied as

well. Another similarity in those two clusters is the effect of highest completed education: adult

learners with high level education are less satisfied than those with low level education. In case of

the UK and Ireland learners with medium level education are also less satisfied. We might

suppose that learners with more extensive educational career have higher expectations towards

the system and are probably more aware of their further educational needs.

Table 5.8 Micro and meso level variables influencing SATISFACTION with learning process and

outcomes (linear regression models)

SATISFACTION

Austria – Belgium UK – Ireland Central-Eastern Europe

Socio-demographic and –economic characteristics

25-40 year olds + 25-40 year olds +

Over 40 years of age + Over 40 years of age + Over 40 years of age +

Medium level completed educ –

High level completed educ – High level completed educ –

Educational institution characteristics

Classroom environment + Classroom environment + Classroom environment +

Entrance test/interview + Entrance test/interview –

Module based courses – Classes more than 3 times a week +

Classes during weekends + Classes during weekends +

Working in groups + Whole-class teaching + Whole-class teaching +

Distance teaching + Individual teaching +

Barriers while participating in adult education system

Lack of preparation – Lack of preparation –

Studies inconveniently

scheduled –

Studies inconveniently scheduled –

Family problems – Family problems –

Adjusted R-square .427 Adjusted R-square .421 Adjusted R-square .397

Note *Sig. ≤ 0,05 marked in bold; marked in italic are less significant relations

**Reference categories: Females; Younger than 25 years of age; Low level completed education;

Employed; ISCED 2 current course

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***Variables duration of the course and module based courses not available in case of the UK, thus these

variables excluded from the Anglo-Celtic model; the Czech Republic and Hungary not included in the CEE

cluster due to missing variables (APL, time of the course, duration of the course)

It is interesting to note that in case of Austria and Belgium, entrance test/interview is in positive

relation with satisfaction. Accordingly we might conclude that having to pass an entrance test is

not merely limiting access to learning, but effective testing helps to select learners to courses

which suit them best. In the UK and Ireland on the other hand, entrance test has negative effect

on satisfaction.

From various teaching methods it appears that whole-class teaching is positively related to

satisfaction in Anglo-Celtic and CEE country groups; also classes during weekends have

positive, but weaker association with satisfaction. Adult learners in Continental cluster feel more

satisfied if distance teaching is applied. Classes during weekends and distance teaching are both

considered as flexible ways of learning. Furthermore, adult learners in CEE are more satisfied

with their studies when individual teaching is offered, while in Continental cluster we observe the

same (yet weaker) effect in case of working in groups.

Both in Anglo-Saxon and CEE countries lack of preparation for current studies has decreasing

effect on one’s satisfaction. This characteristic refers to the level of skills and/or knowledge

required for being able to follow the course successfully. Lack of preparation for current studies

may also measure the degree of differentiation in teaching. Where the prior knowledge

requirements do not affect satisfaction, it may be that learners in weak starting positions get more

support. Furthermore, both in Continental and CEE countries studies scheduled at an

inconvenient time and family problems affect satisfaction negatively. In the latter cluster also age

difference barrier is once again decreasing satisfaction, although relation between variables here

is less pronounced than it was in case of confidence. Hence we find that in CEE there are more

different problems or barriers to learning having a negative impact on satisfaction. Our results on

barriers are consistent with previous research which has indicated that lack of time and pressure

related to life-work-family balance are mentioned the most across different countries (Rubenson

& Schuetze, 2000).

5.3. DIFFERENCES IN ADULT LEARNERS’ EXPERIENCES AND PERCEPTIONS OF FORMAL ADULT EDUCATION BY COUNTRY CLUSTERS

Next we would like to elaborate more on country level differences in adult learners’ experiences

and perception of formal adult education. Individual country comparisons did not reveal many

significant differences between countries in learners’ motivational aspects, classroom

environment and barriers to learning. Yet we discovered some trends: extrinsic motives and

barriers are more prevalent in case of CEE countries; classroom environment is perceived more

positively and satisfaction with learning is higher in Anglo-Celtic countries. So further we

examine differences in experiences and perceptions of adult learners by country clusters, which

are composed on the basis of macro level institutional indicators (see Chapter 5.2.1).

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The first coloured line in the Table 5.9 signifies single country differences, while the second line

differences by clustered countries. Results indicate that country groups differ significantly by all

characteristics of motivation, classroom environment and barriers. Hence adult learners’ attitude

toward lifelong learning appears to be most affirmative in Norway followed by Continental and

Anglo-Celtic countries which do not differ from each other. In CEE countries on the other hand,

attitude to lifelong learning is significantly less positive when compared to Western Europe.

Examining reasons for participating in adult education, we see that learners in CEE countries are

more likely to be motivated extrinsically (e.g. to obtain a certificate, to get a job, to earn more,

because someone advised or required to do so). Continental European adult learners are the least

extrinsically motivated, while Anglo-Celtic learners are intermediate. Adult learners in the UK

and Ireland are markedly more motivated by internal reasons (e.g. to learn more on a subject of

interest, to learn knowledge/skills useful in daily life, to meet new people, to contribute more as a

citizen). Somewhat less intrinsically motivated are adult learners in CEE countries, whereas the

least intrinsically motivated are learners in Austria and Belgium.

Table 5.9 Adult learners’ experiences and perceptions of formal adult education by countries and

country clusters (comparison of means)

COUNTRIES

Attitude NO – AU / IE / EE / HU / EN / SC / BE / LT – SI / BG – RU / CZ

NO – CC / AC – CEE

Extrinsic motivation BG – LT / HU – RU / CZ – EE / SI – SC – IE / EN / AU – BE

CEE – AC – CC

Intrinsic motivation IE / SC / LT / BG / EE / RU / EN / BE / HU / SI / AU / CZ

AC– CEE – CC

Confidence NO / AU / SI / LT / IE / BG / BE / EE / RU / EN / CZ / SC – HU

NO – CC – CEE / AC

Satisfaction IE / EN / SC / AU / RU / BE / LT / BG / EE / SI / HU / CZ

AC – CC – CEE

Classroom environment EN / IE / SC / AU / RU / BE / EE / BG / LT – SI / CZ

AC – CC – CEE

Barriers NO / RU / EE / SI / HU – LT / CZ / AU – BE – BG / IE – SC – EN

NO – CEE – CC – AC



*** Country clusters’ colour codes: yellow – CEE (Central and Eastern Europe), green – AC (Anglo-

Celtic), pink – CC (Continental Europe), blue – NO (Norway)

Although we observed very high confidence level in all countries, still Norwegian adult learners

are most confident in successfully finishing their current studies. In comparison of country

clusters we see that learners in Continental countries are somewhat less confident and confidence

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level declines further in case of CEE and Anglo-Celtic countries. However, Anglo-Celtic learners

are most satisfied with the course of their learning. The least satisfied are adult learners in CEE

countries and Continental European learners are in-between.

High level of satisfaction of adult learners in Ireland and the UK could be explained by the fact

that they also perceive classroom environment (relationships with teachers and other learners,

learner engagement in the learning process, pursuing own study interests, task focus, organisation

of learning) most positively. Similarly, results in regard to satisfaction are reflected in classroom

environment perceptions of adult learners in Continental and CEE countries – former are in-

between while the latter perceive classroom environment least positively.

Coming to barriers we observe somewhat strikingly that in comparison to other country groups,

Norwegian adult learners recognise more different problems while studying in adult education

system. We would have expected that in Nordic welfare system adult learners struggle with fewer

barriers than learners in other countries. But it is evident that despite problems, adult learners in

Norway are successful in overcoming them in order to participate in adult education (see

Rubenson & Desjardins, 2009). Especially when keeping in mind that participation in lifelong

learning is highest among Nordic countries. Norwegian adult learners are followed by their

counterparts in Central and Eastern European countries, who also face many problems during

their studies. Learners in Belgium and Austria appear to have fewer barriers while learners in

Anglo-Celtic countries face different barriers the least.

In summation, results in Table 5.9 clearly indicate interconnection of macro and meso level:

certain learning environment or school characteristics can be linked to certain macro or country-

institutional types. Thus in CEE countries it appears that less generous welfare system (low level

of expenditure on education, training of unemployed, active labour market measures, etc and low

level of trade unionism) co-exists alongside more narrowly defined adult education. Moreover,

adult formal education is carried out under general formal education which often does not cater to

adult learners’ needs in regard to learning environment/process; and not enough attention is given

to barriers and problems adult learners face for instance due to their different phase in life cycle

when compared to ‘traditional learners’.

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6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The aim of the project ‘Towards a Lifelong Learning Society in Europe: the Contribution of the

Education Systems’ (LLL2010) Subproject 3 ‘Adult Learners in Formal Adult Education:

Experiences and Perceptions’ is to study lifelong learning from three angles: (1) individuals –

adult learners, (2) educational institutions and (3) macroeconomic and institutional context of

countries. In other words, the study is concerned with the shaping of lifelong learning (here

specifically adult formal education) at micro, meso and macro levels. Our main assumption was

that those three levels are closely interrelated. Thus the focus of Subproject 3 is on how adult

learners’ experiences and perceptions while studying as adults are affected by their individual

background differences, by the educational institutions they are attending and by the country-

specific institutional environment in which learners and schools/universities are embedded.

Another substantive contribution of the current study is that it enables to focus on adult learners

in formal education, as most survey samples considering learning activities entail only a fraction

of formal adult learners, because on average there are just not that many of them in the

population. Moreover we were interested in gathering sufficient information on adult learners

studying at lower (primary and lower secondary) levels of education, so to enable us to

concentrate also on low-skilled adult learners. Although due to differences in formal adult

education systems, participation at lower levels of education does not necessarily equal to lower

skills; certainly not in case of Belgium (Flanders), Norway and the UK.

Participation in formal adult education varies significantly across European countries. Observing

LLL2010 countries we see that participation is highest in Western European countries, in

particular in Nordic countries and the UK, but also in Belgium, while participation is rather

moderate in Austria and Eastern part of the Europe (with the exception of Slovenia) (Eurostat

Adult Education Survey, 2007; for more details see Subproject 2 Comparative Report ‘Formal

adult education in Context – The View of European Statistics’). Surveys also indicate increasing

trend in adult education participation in many European countries.

Different participation patterns across Europe mirror diverse definitions, meanings, structure and

organisation of adult formal education in European countries (see also Chapter 4.2 of the current

report and Subproject 4 Comparative Report ‘The Qualification-Supporting Company – The

Significance of Formal Adult Education in Small and Medium Organisations’ and ‘Adults in

Formal Education…’ Eurydice, 2011). Formal adult education systems in CEE countries, but also

in Austria, for example do not include key skills or basic skills qualifications (for instance art or

language programmes); hence we might say that in aforementioned countries understanding and

definition of formal adult education (at lower educational levels in particular) is narrower than in

most other Western European countries, especially the UK and the Flemish Community of

Belgium. So the content and length of programmes, but also variety in institutions providing

formal adult education, is very different (see the level of diversification of formal adult education

system in Subproject 4 Comparative Report). Such variegated picture of formal adult education

systems makes the comparisons complicated, but can reflect real differences in the education

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systems. In addition, in CEE countries adult education is often carried out alongside ‘traditional’

or initial education, so specialisation towards adult learners (meeting their specific learning needs

and problems encountered during studies) is presumably lower than in Western European

countries. This partly explains why the attitude towards adult education in CEE countries is

somewhat less enthusiastic, adult learners are also less satisfied with studies and do not perceive

classroom environment that positively.

Another difference uncovered by this project is the marginal share of basic (primary and lower

secondary) adult education in most countries involved in the survey. Despite efforts to meet the

agreed sample quota for each level of (adult) education, only four national research teams were

able to reach 250 respondents at the lowest educational levels (ISCED 1-2). In many European

countries (both in CEE and in some of the Western European countries), formal second-chance

education for low-literate adults appears to be extremely scarce. Partly this reflects differences in

definition and thus organisation of formal adult education. In pos-socialist countries, for instance,

basic level adult education often occurs alongside initial education system. In addition, again

especially in CEE countries, at lower educational levels adult education is less prevalent due to

the low rate of adults with less than primary or lower secondary education, as ISCED level 2 is

compulsory education.

To study learners’ experiences and perceptions in adult education system, we proceeded from

Keller’s (1987, 1999) motivational aspects – attitude, relevance, confidence, satisfaction – which

are central dependent variables of the analysis. We treated barriers related to learning and

perception of classroom environment both as dependent and independent variables, since

descriptive analysis indicated significant educational level and country differences in those

matters.

Descriptive analysis of macro, meso and micro level indicators revealed that countries,

educational institutions and adult learners under analysis compose a rather heterogeneous

grouping. However, we did observe some systematic differences in motivation of adult learners'

at all three levels.

6.1. MICRO LEVEL – Learning Experiences and Perceptions of Adults with Different Background

Sample Composition

To start with more general results, overview of Subproject 3 ‘Adult Learners in Formal Adult

Education: Experiences and Perceptions’ survey sample (not representative of the whole

population of adult learners as defined by LLL2010) shows distinct differences in socio-

demographic and socio-economic composition of adult learners in Central-Eastern and Western

European countries. Adult learners in Western countries belong to somewhat older age groups

and during their currents studies at lower educational level have rather often attained high level

prior education. Different composition of adult learners largely indicates definition of formal

adult education system: in Western Europe formal adult education encompasses wider range of

courses than in CEE countries, which in turn means wider access and results in more

heterogonous group of participants. Thus the nature, meaning and objective of adult education,

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particularly at lower educational levels (ISCED 1-2), is different, as those who just currently

obtain primary or lower secondary education are disadvantaged, for instance in terms of labour

market position when compared to those with higher prior education.

While interpreting results it should also be kept in mind that in Subproject 3 sample there are

more women than men in adult education. This is especially the case in Anglo-Celtic countries,

but also in some of CEE countries (Estonia, Lithuania) and Belgium (Flanders). Yet for most

countries it is difficult to say about actual gender distribution in the population of adult learners,

when we proceed from the Subproject 3 definition – learners should have at least 2-year gap

between their current and previous studies. Eurostat Adult Education Survey 2007 (AES) defines

adult learner via age limit: 25-64 year olds participating in educational or training activity. Age

distribution in AES dataset also reveals that in general about 60% of adult learners in formal

education are women and similar to Subproject 3 sample, women are even more overrepresented

in Estonia, Lithuania and the UK.

Gender and age differences

Interestingly enough analysis did not reveal significant gender differences in adult learners’

experiences and perceptions. Nevertheless, in case of extrinsic motivation for learning it appears

that men continue their studies more due to extrinsic reasons than women (e.g. learning to obtain

certificate, to earn more, to do one’s job better, to get a job, because it was required or someone

had advised to). Women are also with somewhat more positive attitude towards adult education

and to a lesser extent express higher confidence in completing study programme and satisfaction

with learning process and outcomes.

Regarding age differences we found that compared to youngest adult learners (until 25 year olds)

those belonging to older age groups (24-40 and over 40 year olds) are more confident in

successfully completing current course and show higher satisfaction with the process and

outcomes of learning. Thus we can say that more experienced adult learners in some respect feel

better in adult education system. Perhaps this could be explained by more carefully thought out

decision to continue educational path, hence the aim of learning is more internalised.

Differences according to the highest completed education and the level of current studies

The level of one’s highest completed education also significantly affected experiences and

perceptions of adult education. Those with high level completed education (ISCED 5-6, prior to

current studies) are less satisfied with the process and outcomes of their current course. On the

other hand high educated adults continue studies less due to extrinsic reasons and this is

especially true in case of those currently learning at lower levels. At lower educational levels also

those with medium level completed education (upper secondary and post-secondary) are less

motivated by extrinsic reasons, while adult learners with low completed education are markedly

more extrinsically motivated. Being more intrinsically motivated, learners with longer

educational path are more aware of their needs and have more explicit expectations towards

educational system. This in turn makes them more critical of studies and hence somewhat less

satisfied with what is offered by schools/universities. Labour market status however did not

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affect one’s motivation for learning. Surprisingly, labour market position had no effect on

perceived barriers regarding learning activities as well.

According to current educational level results indicate significant differences in regard to all

motivational aspects – attitude, relevance, confidence and satisfaction. Yet those differences are

not too substantive. As estimated by hypotheses (Chapter 2.2, pp. 25-27), adult learners currently

studying at lower educational levels show slightly less affirmative attitude towards adult

education or lifelong learning ideas when compared to those at upper secondary and higher levels

(attitude is most positive at post-secondary level).

Differences in reasons for participation in adult education

In regard to participation reasons picture becomes more blurred. Learners at highest educational

level are very much keen to learn more on a subject that interest them, yet other aspects

categorised under ‘personal fulfilment’ reasons are valued more at low educational level (ISCED

1-2). Also ‘social capital’ reasons are more important for learners at primary and lower secondary

education. Most popular reasons here were meeting new people and contributing more as a

citizen. Consequently, least intrinsically motivated are learners at upper secondary education

(ISCED 3) followed by adults in higher education, whereas those at lowest and post secondary

level continue studies more due to intrinsic reasons. Still, our proposed hypothesis concerning

extrinsic motivation is confirmed – learners at primary and lower secondary level give higher

regard to extrinsic reasons when compared to other educational levels. For all adults most

important reason listed under ‘human capital’ is studying for obtaining a certificate. ‘Social

control’ motivated adults the least, but those reasons were chosen more by adults at low

educational level (for instance learning was continued because someone had advised to do so).

We surmise that reasons reflecting social control or continuing studies because one felt bored

might have been perceived as socially unacceptable or were not fully recognised and thus

learners perhaps felt uncomfortable to choose those reasons even in the anonymous

questionnaire.

Differences in confidence in completing studies and satisfaction with learning

Results confirm hypothesis also in regard to confidence – although overall confidence was very

high, adult learners at low educational level feel significantly less confident about successfully

completing current course. This is at least partly to do with the fact that learners at lower

educational levels admit their learning motivation to be hindered by previous negative learning

experiences.

Satisfaction with the learning process and outcomes indicated exactly reverse results to our

assumptions. Thus it is learners at higher educational levels who feel less satisfied with both

aspects of learning, whereas learners at primary and lower secondary level are most satisfied. We

again explain these results with higher demands and expectations to educational system by those

who are obtaining vocation or degree in a certain field. Majority of adults learning at higher

levels were active on the labour market, which also helps to gain better awareness of what the

educational system should offer.

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Differences in access to and organisation of adult education

Regarding educational institutions our hypothesis stated that learners at lower educational levels

are more likely than those at higher levels to be enrolled in schools offering flexible access,

flexible modes of study and various support mechanisms (financial assistance, child care,

counselling, etc). We found that, according to learners’ statements, previous qualification and

entrance test or interview was required to a lesser extent from adult learners at lower educational

level (primary and lower secondary). Consequently, accreditation of prior (experiential) learning

also applied to them less. Yet organisation of courses was often less flexible at lower levels of

education when compared to those acquiring higher education. Adult learners at lower level

mostly claim that courses are not organised in modules, thus traditional linear system prevails.

They also have classes much more often and for longer hours than those at higher educational

levels with the exception of learners in post-secondary education. Learners at low level also

participate somewhat less in distance education. In addition only few learners at ISCED 2

received financial support. Primary and lower secondary education is mostly offered without

participation fee, yet learners still have to bear certain costs: reduce in pay or not being able to

work, livelihood costs, transport to school, etc. Hence, learners at low educational level name

financial problems second after having too little time for studying. Our results also do not

confirm that adult learners at low educational level have more services available for them at

school. According to adult learners’ responses, most available services to about half of ISCED 2

learners were library, Internet access, study advice service and cafeteria, while this was so for

majority of post-secondary and higher level learners.

Differences in learning process, learning environment

Furthermore we were interested to see whether learners at lower educational levels are studying

in educational institutions practicing different learning processes than those where adult learners

at higher levels learn. Results indicate that learning process elements – relationships between

learners; learner engagement, pursuing own learning interests; support from teachers, task

orientation and organisation of learning (which we composed into one classroom environment

variable) – are one of the most important determinants of adult learners’ motivation. On the

overall level adult learners’ perception of the classroom is rather positive. Yet it appears that

learners at lower level of education experience more help from the teacher, feel more respected as

individuals, experience well organised programmes and enjoy study programme somewhat more

than their counterparts at higher levels of education.

6.2. MESO LEVEL – Educational Institution Characteristics Influencing Learning Experiences and Perceptions

At the meso level we were interested in whether more flexible and supportive educational

institutions have positive effect on adult learners’ attitude, confidence and satisfaction. We

studied the impact of educational institution characteristics (e.g. organisation of studies,

curriculum, financial assistance and support and services) and learning environment/process only

to attitude, confidence and satisfaction, as the direct impact on motivation (both extrinsic and

intrinsic) should be moderate if existent altogether. Motivation or reason to continue one’s

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educational path is likely to be shaped by several interconnected influences occurring prior to re-

entering educational system – family, peers, educational institution, work, wider community, etc.

Influence of perceptions of the learning environment

Interestingly, when not controlling for country differences, we did not find significant impact of

educational institution structural characteristics (entrance requirements, APEL/APL, organisation

of classes, didactical methods, etc) on attitude, confidence and satisfaction. Yet results clearly

indicate that learning environment, more precisely perception of the learning processes is most

important characteristic influencing attitude, confidence and satisfaction. Thus we observe that

classroom environment holds positive effect on attitude towards adult education or lifelong

learning in general; in addition this relation is slightly stronger in case of learners studying at

lower educational levels. The same applies to being confident in successfully completing current

studies. Classroom environment indicators influencing attitude and confidence the most are

active involvement of students, teacher support and organisation of learning. Perception of

classroom environment has strongest impact on one’s satisfaction with learning process and

outcomes. Hence learners perceiving classroom environment positively are substantially more

satisfied with their studies. Here however we find no differences between learners at lower and

higher educational levels. We also found that satisfaction is influenced by all classroom

environment indicators, only the impact of student influence aspect was low.

Influence of barriers hindering participation

In case of barriers or challenges which adult learners experience during their studies we observe

that on the overall level (all educational levels) learners engaged in distance teaching are

confronted with more different problems. We could assume that learners with several difficulties

actually choose distance teaching as to enable solving some of those issues. At lower educational

level also those learning via weekend classes and following modular based courses state having

more problems than others. Those two modes of study are too seen as flexible ways of organising

learning and thus we suppose that they help mitigate one’s problems in balancing studying with

other activities, for instance work, family, active citizenship. Interestingly, we did not detect

significant associations between different barriers to learning and attitude, confidence and

satisfaction. Yet following subchapter indicates that such associations are apparent when

observing country level differences.

6.3. MACRO LEVEL – Country Variations in Adult Learning Experiences and Perceptions

As mentioned beforehand, participation rates in adult formal education in European countries are

very diverse. Patterns of participation and previous studies discussed in the theoretical chapter

give us grounds to assume the impact of country macroeconomic and institutional context. So in

addition to influencing participation rates in adult formal education, we also believe that macro

indicators affect the way adult learners feel in educational system, which in turn is likely to be

expressed in participation rates. Thus our aim was to analyse whether indicators of broader

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economic and social context, labour market, welfare and educational system affect one’s

perceptions and experiences as an adult learner. Are certain macroeconomic and institutional

factors, or rather coherent ‘packages’ of those factors, inducing more positive attitude towards

learning, more intrinsic rather than extrinsic motives for learning, making learners more

confident about their ability to finish studies, increasing satisfaction with the learning process and

outcomes and/or reduce the amount of problems adult learners face while learning?

Typology of countries

When studying single effects of macro level variables we mainly observe associations with

extrinsic reasons to continue one’s educational career. These results were difficult to interpret,

because macro level variables are more meaningful to analyse as internally congruent ‘packages’.

Hence we constructed typology of countries on the bases of macro indicators (e.g. GDP per

capita; public expenditure on education, training of unemployed, active labour market measures;

percentage of employees with higher education; level of stratification of education system; trade

union density; EPL index; etc). We arrived at four country groups:

1. Central and Eastern European countries (Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary,

Lithuania, Russia and Slovenia)

2. Anglo-Celtic countries (Ireland and the UK)

3. Continental countries (Austria and Belgium)

4. Nordic country (Norway).

These country groups largely correspond with welfare state regimes. Although we do not

consider CEE countries to compose distinctly one coherent welfare regime type, they are

nevertheless more closely linked to each other when compared to other European countries

involved. After the collapse of communism and the fall of the Soviet Union, CEE countries

underwent major changes in all areas of politics, economy and society. Establishing economic

wealth in CEE has been difficult; accordingly life standard of majority of people has been rather

low in comparison to Western Europe. Lifelong learning is only recently gaining priority and

institutions are still in formation. Regardless of the similar past, CEE countries are developing

their macro institutional context/policies following different types of welfare regimes,

occasionally even combining measures from different types.

As described above, formal adult education systems in Europe are very different. In Anglo-Celtic

countries and Belgium due to high diversification of adult education system and in Norway due

to wide overall access to adult education, learners compose very heterogeneous group. For

instance, among those currently obtaining low level education many have medium or high level

prior education. Whereas in CEE countries and Austria majority of learners participating at low

level courses have attained primary level education. Accordingly we need to be careful in

considering country variations by keeping in mind the high variety in adult education systems

and non-representative sample of Subproject 3 survey.

Differences in formal learning perceptions and experiences by country types

All in all we observe more prevalent country variations in regard to extrinsic motives for

participation in adult formal education, experience of barriers/problems while studying, and to

136

some extent by attitudes towards adult education. On average, there are more differences between

countries when comparing learners studying at lower courses (ISCED 1-2). Thus, on the overall

level adult learner in Central and Eastern European countries indicate more frequently studying

due to extrinsic motives, being therefore more influenced by job related reasons or more

sensitive to external pressure to continue studies. Yet at ISCED level 2 also Austria and Scotland

together with CEE countries compose extrinsically motivated group, whereas in Ireland, England

and Belgium (Flanders) learners are motivated by extrinsic reasons the least. There are practically

no country differences in intrinsic reasons for learning, but still adult learners in Ireland and

Scotland have indicated those reasons somewhat more often than learners in other countries.

In relation to attitude towards adult education we do not observe clear differences between CEE

and Western European countries. However, adult learners in Norway express most positive

attitude to learning, while the attitude is least positive in some of CEE countries – Slovenia,

Bulgaria, Russia and the Czech Republic. At lower educational level both Norwegian and

Austrian learners appear having most affirmative attitude, with Russia remaining at the other

extreme.

The CEE and Western European country divide is again apparent when we compare the amount

of problems adult learners face during their studies. Adult learners in Ireland, the UK and

Flanders experience fewest barriers to learning. In CEE countries, though also in Norway and

Austria adult learners report struggling with more challenges than their counterparts elsewhere.

Interestingly, learners in Bulgaria recognise significantly fewer problems than those in other CEE

countries. In regard to Bulgaria it should be emphasised that at primary and lower secondary

level interviews were conducted with learners in prisons, because generally adult education

courses are offered only at upper secondary and higher levels. This again reflects low

diversification of adult education in post-socialist countries – there are fewer courses regarded as

a part of formal adult education system.

We found summarised indicator of classroom environment to exert most substantive impact on

attitude, confidence and satisfaction, yet at the same time country differences in this regard are

moderate in comparison to those of motives and barriers. Still, in general adult learners in

Western countries perceive classroom environment somewhat more positively (especially in

Norway, followed by Ireland and the UK17), whilst at primary and secondary educational levels

differences between countries are nonexistent. On a general level we noticed that learners in CEE

countries agree less with the statements that most students enjoy the study programme; activities

not related to study programme objectives are kept to a minimum; and the study programme is

well organised. While learners in CEE, but also in Austria and Flanders do not entirely agree

feeling free to question study programme requirements.

Results of regression analyses show that in all country groups classroom environment is most

significant factor influencing one’s confidence in successfully completing studies and especially

satisfaction with learning process and outcomes. Other sets of independent variables add little to

the explanatory power. Thus individual background characteristics and barriers/problems

17 Partly more positive classroom environment perception by adult learners in Ireland and the UK could be due to

high percentage of females in those samples. Our analysis has indicated that in general females are prone to give

slightly more positive statements than males.

137

perceived while learning both explain only about 5% of the variance regarding satisfaction.

Indicators measuring educational institutions and courses offered (enrolment policies, didactical

methods, organisation of classes, etc) explain another 5% of satisfaction in case of the CEE and

Continental European countries, but have practically no effect in Anglo-Celtic cluster.

All in all country clusters are not that different in the way confidence and satisfaction of adult

learners is shaped. Still we observe that barriers or challenges learners experience (lack of

preparation for current studies, studies scheduled inconveniently, family problems and difficulties

in competing with younger students) effect more profoundly learners in Central and Eastern

European countries.

6.4. RECOMMENDATIONS

In the light of results presented here we can state that adult learners express rather homogeneous

positive attitude towards adult education or lifelong learning. Results are especially encouraging

in regard to confidence as vast majority of learners are very confident in completing the study

programme. Still, experience of learning, especially satisfaction with learning process and

outcomes, can be improved by focusing on improvement of classroom environment aspects.

Adult learners indicated more positive attitude towards adult education and higher level of

satisfaction when being actively involved in the learning process, having sufficient support and

respect from the teacher and when study programme was well organised and had a clear sense of

direction. All in all adult learners experienced somewhat less that they can select assignments

which are of personal interest to them. Other aspects of learning process that received lower

levels of recognition were: teacher insists on doing things his or her way; activities not related to

the study programme are kept to a minimum; and students feel free to question study programme

requirements.

Therefore we propose learners’ voices to be heard more in the teaching process, so that

they would have more autonomy and could enjoy learning more extensively. In turn this

will probably increase participation rates in adult education by increasing motivation to

continue education, since adult education will not be perceived as ‘going back to

school’.

Pedagogical (or andragogical) skills of teachers in adult education has a crucial role in

supporting learners and fostering their active involvement, hence it is important to

examine the competence profiles of teachers and exchange experiences in the field of

teacher training for adult education.

The issue of removal of barriers needs further attentions as well: a more flexible

organisation of courses (with flexible time schedules, a modular organisation of courses,

educational leave schemes, preparatory courses to remedy gaps in prior knowledge, etc)

may also contribute to stronger motivation and better performance.

In CEE countries adult education is incorporated into initial education system. This means that

teaching methods and overall learning process is rather traditional and not considering the needs

138

of adult learner. In most of Western European countries, where adult formal education system is

separate from initial education, learning environment is perceived more positively and learners

experience less difficulties while learning.

Adult formal education should constitute separate system taking into account particular

situation and needs of adult learner or ‘non-traditional’ learner, enabling learning for

those who are actively engaged in other life spheres as well (work, family, civil and

political activity, etc). Higher diversification of adult education system – increasing

variety of institutions providing adult education as well as increasing variety in the

length and content of programmes – would enable better/wider access to participation.

However, in cross-sectional study we are not able to estimate the effect of different organisations

of adult education in time. Thus we might assume that formal adult education system as separate

from initial education might also generate some counter outcomes. For instance via

stigmatisation of adult education, learners could reap lower benefits of learning on labour market

when compared to those in initial education. On the other hand, if adult education is strongly

linked to initial formal education system, then in the long run this might rise the quality of both:

the proportion of non-traditional learners will most likely rise, which will lead to the change of

system in regard to meet the needs of learners and at the same time offering highly qualified

instruction both to traditional and non-traditional learners. Considering experiences of adult

learners creates preconditions for adaptation of educational systems to the needs of knowledge

society.

Limitations of the Study

In summation we would like to stress, that although the attempt has been made to measure one’s

motivation to continue educational career, we are aware of the complex and subtle nature of

motivation as a concept. Many theories on motivation tend to take it for granted that individuals

have an inner need, motivation to learn (see overview by Ahl, 2006). Accordingly, if barriers

related to continuing educational path are identified and resolved and exact benefits of learning

are clear, then motivation will manifest and thus people will continue learning (lifelong, life-

wide). Yet some motivation scholars have argued that since motivation is a hypothetical

construct, it is problematic that one can identify, describe and measure motivation (Siebert,

1985). Researchers and policy makers should also be sensitised towards construction of an adult

learner and ‘unmotivated’ adult learner, as this evokes stigmatisation of those who are simply not

interested in adult formal education or prefer to commit themselves to other domains of life,

and/or engaging in non-formal and informal learning. Thus we face the task of ensuring open

opportunities to continue formal studies without pressuring people into learning, without

constructing lifelong learning as single legitimate way of existence in knowledge society.

139

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Notes regarding dependent variables in Chapter 5 analysis

i Set of 15 classroom environment items measures the classroom perceptions of the adult learners and is internally

consistent (alpha = .828).

ii Having described the descriptive statistics of all 9 items within the attitude scale, we ran principal component

analyses (PCA) for each level of the current course, but also for the totals. Taking into account the theoretical

fundaments of choosing the amount of components, like an eigenvalue higher than 1, minimum variance of 10% for

each component, clear interpretation of the components and loads higher than .40, we decided for each of the 5

PCA’s, to extract one attitudinal component. All items within the scale go together in a positive way. Differences

between the levels of the current course are rather small. These results give us the opportunity to work further with

one continuous attitude variable. The scale is internally consistent (alpha = .773).

iii In regard to motivational variables, principal components analyses on both levels of the current course and the

totals show a best fitting solution based on two clear components, Varimax rotated. At an overall level, the first

component incorporates a wide set of statements which can be labelled as ‘intrinsic curiosity and will for building

social relationships’. The social capital aspects and personal fulfilment are captured by this component. The second

component includes items on being forced to participate and on being afraid to loose one’s job or position within the

labour market and to avoid further reverses, incorporating thus human capital and social control statements. This

second component could be labelled as ‘work related aspects and additional external rewards’. As indicated within

the theoretical part of this report, these two concepts are known within the literature as “autonomous motivation” and

‘controlled motivation’. Both concepts are also internally consistent (autonomous motivation alpha = .793 /

controlled motivation alpha = .743). Within further parts of this research, we will use two motivational dimensions as

continuous dependent variables.

Taking a look at the PCA’s by level of the current course, we notice that the order of the 2 components differs for the

primary and lower secondary education level. The second general component is appearing here as the first

component, meaning that for this lowest level, the controlled motivation dimension is explaining more variance than

the autonomous motivation dimension.

iv For confidence in successfully completing the current course, principal component analyses on this small scale

shows that items 1 (‘My family supports me while I am studying’) till 3 (‘My friends encourage me to continue the

study programme’) can be grouped within one dimension. Only at the level of higher education, item 4 is included as

well. Within this scale, we can assume that items 4 (‘I am not very motivated for this study programme because of

my negative learning experiences in the past’) and 5 (‘My employer encourages me to continue the study

programme’) are not included in the confidence dimension as not all adult learners will belong to the group about

which is spoken. It is likely that not all adult learners have a negative learning past and not all students within our file

will be employed. In fact, these 2 items on employment and learning history will be taken into account as

independent variables within the analyses. The scale is also not internal consistent at all (alpha = .477). Taking these

problems into account, it is not possible to work further with this component.

v Principal component analyses for each of the levels of the current course and the totals clearly show that

satisfaction is measured within one single dimension. Component loads are high as well as the variance. Also the

internal reliability is high (alpha = .857). Within the multivariate analyses, we will work further with one continuous

dependent variable reflecting satisfaction.

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