ADU Slides 2014 Motivation

Présentation PowerPointMotivation?
thus motivation means providing the “fuel” for purposeful behaviour
motivation is inherently related with needs→ the primary cause of motivation
a need is a psycho-physiological state of deficit-like imbalance which causes behavior towards eliminating that imbalance → the cause of this purposeful behavior
motivation flows trough interests & goals→ secondary causes or mediators
an interest is a self-sustaining motive
a goal is the aim of purposeful behavior
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009
The Human Relations School of Thought
The human relations school of thought came into existence during early 20th century mainly in the post 1st world-war period and was triggered mainly by the negative consequences of the application of scientific management
the focus was on the human psycho-social nature
the conclusions of the Hawthorne longitudinal studies or experiments at the Western-Electric plant in Illinois, Us from the mid-1920’s till the early 1930’s shaped largely its ideological founding
The Human Relations School of Thought…Hawthorne Studies
the Hawthorne Studies (or experiments) were conducted initially from 1924 to 1927 with preliminary experiments on the effect of light on productivity (“illumination studies”)
those experiments showed no clear connection between productivity and the amount of illumination--whatever they did with the light conditions productivity was rising!--and researchers began to wonder what kind of changes would influence output
from 1927 to 1932 Harvard Business School professor Elton Mayo examined the effects that fatigue and monotony had on job productivity and how to control them through altering rest breaks, work hours, temperature and humidity (“assembly relay” studies)
Mayo took six women (2 were piqued and were asked to freely choose another 4) from the assembly line of telephone relays, separated them from the rest of the factory and put them under the eye of a supervisor who was more a friendly observer than disciplinarian; he sat with the girls in the workshop noting all that went on; keeping the girls informed about the experiment, giving advice or information and listening to their complaints
the experiment began by introducing various changes, each of which was continued for a test period of four to twelve weeks
Mayo made frequent changes in their working conditions, always discussing and explaining the changes in advance.
firstly the hours in the working week, the hours in the workday the number of rest breaks and the time of a lunch offered free of charge were altered progressively to be more favorable and finally the women returned to their original, harder working conditions
Productivity was rising throughout the process while surprisingly it reached its peak when the women returned to their original, harder working conditions
Secondly the piece rate production was linked to a sophisticated individual wage incentive plan
No individual maximization of output was recorded rather the women established a performance norm which determined a “proper day’s work” which in turn determined the total week output
however individual daily reports were erroneously stating the output level determined by the performance norm independently from the actual level produced
What was really happening?
the very presence of the observer and especially his engagement in paying attention and facilitating the group’s functioning (it became a “special” group) had a positive effect in group productivity/performance
typically this is referred as the “Hawthorne effect”
a second meaning of the “Hawthorne effect” is that of “primary scientific fallacy” which refers to the failure to determine with certainty whether the observed effect in the dependent variable is caused by our manipulation of the independent variable
the physical isolation of the group and the high amount of attention that it was receiving increased cohesion dramatically and the group became a team
MOTIVATION
MOTIVATION
Identify the process through which personal attributes and situational characteristics influence motivation through perception & cognition
Maslow’s Hierachy of Needs
Alderfer’s ERG
McClelland’s Needs
Vroom’s Expectancy
Needs’ Theories
"A need is a construct (a convenient fiction or hypothetical concept) which stands for a force . . . in the brain region, a force which organizes perception, apperception, intellection, conation and action in such a way as to transform in a certain direction an existing, unsatisfying situation. A need is sometimes provoked directly by internal processes of a certain kind . . . but, more frequently (when in a state of readiness) by the occurrence of one of a few commonly effective press [environmental forces]. . . . Thus, it manifests itself by leading the organism to search for or to avoid encountering or, when encountered, to attend and respond to certain kinds of press. . . . Each need is characteristically accompanied by a particular feeling or emotion and tends to use certain modes . . . to further its trend. It may be weak or intense, momentary or enduring. But usually it persists and gives rise to a certain course of overt behavior (or fantasy), which . . . changes the initiating circumstance in such a way as to bring about an end situation which stills (appeases or satisfies) the organism (Murray, 1938, pp. 123-124)“
personality traits are cognitive-behavioral operationalizations of needs (Steel & König, 2006)
Content Theories
Hierarchy of Needs: Developmental Humanism→ Humanistic Psychology
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970): child of Russian Jews born & raised in New-York, USA—BA in Law, MA & PhD in Psychology University of Wisconsin—Professor of Psychology Brooklyn College & Brandeis University (Head of Psychology Dpt 1951-1969)
Theory “Z” or the “3rd Force: founded upon Murray’s (1938) definition of personality in terms of needs—originally developed as a theory of personality not motivation
Marx - physiological needs, Freud - physiological and belongingness needs, Adler - esteem need, Rogers & Goldstein - self-actualization need
physiological & security (safety) → lower order needs which are satisfied externally by pay, social & job security etc.
belongingness (social or love), esteem & self-actualization →higher order needs which are satisfied internally-inside the person
the satisfaction of the needs is hierarchical starting firstly with the lower and moving towards the higher ones
although no-need is fully gratified a substantially satisfied need no longer motivates
an individuals position in the hierarchy ought to be determined in order to decide upon motives
highly intuitive logic and analytical value but low if any empirical validity
Content Theories
Theory X & Y: Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)
“The Human Side of Enterprise” (1960)
The Human Stereotype of Theory X
the average individual dislikes work and will avoid it if he/she can
because of their dislike for work, most individuals must be controlled and threatened in order to work hard enough
the average person prefers to be directed, to avoid responsibility, is relatively unambitious, and wants security above everything
the basic management system application of theory X was Taylor’s Scientific Management (“time & motion studies”) during the late 19th and early 20th century, “Fordism” later on, aw well as authoritarian/autocratic management systems founded upon the principles of work standardization & specialization while controlling through providing security & monetary rewards and administering punishment
its roots lie into Sigmund’s Freud “hedonistic” view of the human nature highlighting the “lower order needs” into Abraham’s Maslow Hierarchy
no empirical validity
Douglas McGregor (originally a Mech. Engineer later MA, PhD in Psychology: Harvard) was a Professor of Management in MIT
The human Stereotype of Theory Y
the expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest
control and punishment are not the only ways to make people work, an individual will direct him/her-self if he/she is committed to the aims of the organization
if a job is satisfying, then the result will be commitment to the organization
the average individual learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek responsibility
imagination, creativity, and ingenuity can be used to solve work problems by a large number of employees
under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average man are only partially utilized
applications of theory Y are participative management systems
its roots lie into Karl Roger’s humanistic psychology expressed also later on by Abraham’s Maslow Needs’ Theory (higher order needs)
no empirical validity
Content Theories
ERG Theory
Clayton Alderfer (1940- ) American psychologist (BSc, PhD in Yale), Professor of Organizational psychology in Cornell, Yale & Rutgers till 2006
need for existence corresponds to Maslow’s physiological & security needs, relatedness to belongingness and growth to esteem & self-actualization needs
there is no hierarchy in satisfying needs—an individual may be satisfying all three needs simultaneously
as a higher need begins to be more and more satisfied it grows in importance
frustration or failure to satisfy a higher order need leads to regression in satisfying more of a lower order need
although ERG theory is more parsimonious and relaxed some of Maslow’s theory limitations its empirical validity is also low if any
Hygiene factors must
dissatisfaction
Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human. (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission.
Hygiene Factors (KITA’s)
Extrinsic Factors
Company policy &
Two-Factor Theory
Frederick Herzberg (1923-2000) was a German-American psychologist (BA City College of New –York, PhD Un. of Pittsburg), born in the US and held Professor of Psychology & Management positions in Case Western Reserve & Utah Universities respectively
“the opposite of dissatisfaction is not satisfaction”
satisfaction & motivation source from intrinsic factors
absence of dissatisfaction sources from extrinsic factors
highly criticized for multiple flaws of the research methodology that Herzberg employed
highly intuitive but low if any empirical validity
Content Theories
David McClelland Motivation Needs (1958)
David McClelland (1917 – March 1998) was an American psychologist (PhD Yale) who served as a Psychology Professor in Harvard for 30 years (Head of the Social Relations Dpt)
Has its roots to Henry’s Murray work of personality in terms of needs and its Thematic Apperception Test
Need for Achievement
the n-ach person is 'achievement motivated‘: seeks achievement, attainment of realistic but challenging goals, and advancement in the job. There is a strong need for feedback as to achievement and progress, and a need for a sense of accomplishment-the desire to accomplish a goal or task more effectively than in the past: personal responsibility, feedback & moderate risks
Need for Power
the n-pow person is 'authority motivated‘: a need to be influential, effective and to make an impact. There is a strong need to lead and for their ideas to prevail. There is also motivation and need towards increasing personal status and prestige
Content Theories
Need for Affiliation
the n-affil person is 'affiliation motivated‘: has a need for friendly relationships and is motivated towards interaction with other people. The affiliation driver produces motivation and need to be liked and held in popular regard. These people are team players
good empirical validity
high n-ach individuals seem to be good entrepreneurs or intrapreneurs while do not seem to be necessarily good managers
n-ach is possible to be taught (McClelland’s position)
individual with high n-pow & n-affil seem to be good managers
Maslow Alderfer Herzberg McClelland
Existence Hygienes Affiliation Need
Relatedness Motivators Affiliation Need
Growth Motivators Achievement Need
Outcomes
Inputs
People compare according to their own perception their outcomes to their inputs
Process Theories
John Adams Equity Theory (1963)
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CONSEQUENCES OF EQUITY
Perceived Equity
Equity Theory
Self-inside: own experience of another job within the current organization
Self-outside: own-experience of another job or situation outside
Others-inside: others within the organization
Others –outside: others outside
Perceived Inequity leads to
Choose another referent
Exit the situation
extra caution should be paid at perceptions of fairness in the workplace at all times
Organizational Justice is the overall perception of fairness in the organization
Distributive Justice the perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed
Interactional Justice extent to which people perceive that are fairly treated when procedures are implemented
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What are the managerial implications of such theories?
First, the managerial implications of equity are to avoid under- and over-payment, give people a voice in decisions affecting them, and explain outcomes thoroughly using a socially sensitive manner. A key point here that it's all about perception so if you are transparent about the process there will be more perception of fairness.
Second, the managerial justice implications are to give people a say in how decisions are made. For example, allow input into the performance management process through such means as self-appraisals. Provide an opportunity for errors to be corrected by allowing for an appeals process. Also, don't play favorites or give that impression; and, finally, make decisions in an unbiased manner.
Process Theories
Goal-Setting Theory
Goal-Setting Theory
Locke derived the idea from Aristotle's concept of final causality →purpose can cause action
the most valid theory of motivation up to date
it is to a certain level culturally bound
is dependent to a certain extend to individual personality: works mostly with individuals high in the CSE trait(s)
works better with tasks simple rather than complex, well learned than novel and independent rather than interdependent
Process Theories
Victor Vroom Valency or Expectancy Theory (1964)—Porter & Lawler (1968)
Victor Vroom (1932- ) Canadian psychologist
(BA, MA McGill & PhD Un. Of Michigan)–
Professor of Management & Psychology in Yale
has its roots into the cognitive concepts of Kurt Lewin
Porter & Lawler updated version
[ E→P]: perceived expectancy of effort-performance
(P→O): perceived instrumentality of performance-outcome or reward
(V+ or -): perceived positive or negative valence or value of the outcome or reward in terms of personal goals
clearly an interactional model
instrumentality depends on perception of primarily organizational equity & trust
valence depends on both personality and the individual perception of situational factors
Hackman & Oldham (1976) Job Design Motivation
Also called the Job Characteristics Model or Job Re-design
Task identity refers to the degree that the task(s) of the job require completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work
good empirical validity for the general theoretical framework
How jobs can be redesigned?
Job rotation
Flextime

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